Name: surface-enhanced resonance raman scattering nanoprobe ratiometry for detecting microscopic ovarian cancer via folate receptor targeting
Uploaded: 2019-03-25T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Surface-enhanced Resonance Raman Scattering Nanoprobe Ratiometry for Detecting Microscopic Ovarian Cancer via Folate Receptor Targeting at JoVE.com

The following funding sources (to M.F.K.) are acknowledged: NIH R01 EB017748, R01 CA222836 and K08 CA16396; Damon Runyon-Rachleff Innovation Award DRR-29-14, Pershing Square Sohn Prize by the Pershing Square Sohn Cancer Research Alliance, and MSKCC Center for Molecular Imaging &#38; Nanotechnology (CMINT) and Technology Development Grants. Acknowledgments are also extended to the grant-funding support provided by the MSKCC NIH Core Grant (P30-CA008748).

All animal studies were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center (#06-07-011).
1.&#160;Gold Nanostar Core Synthesis
NOTE: Gold nanostars are used as cores for both flavors of SERRS nanoprobes used in this experiment.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 800 mL of 60 mM ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) solution in deionized (DI) water and 8 mL of 20 mM tetrachloroauric acid (HAuCl<sub...

<ol>
	<li>Oseledchyk, A., Andreou, C., Wall, M. A., Kircher, M. 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The protocol described here provides instruction for the synthesis of two &#34;flavors&#34; of SERRS nanoprobes, and their employment in mice for Raman imaging of ovarian tumor overexpressing the Folate Receptor, using a ratiometric algorithm. The main advantage of Raman imaging over other optical imaging techniques (such as fluorescence) is the high specificity of the nanoprobe signal that cannot be confounded with any signals of biological origin. In this embodiment of Raman imaging, the nanoparticles are not administe...

Raman imaging with &#39;surface enhanced Raman scattering&#39; (SERS) nanoparticles has shown great promise in delineating lesions in a variety of settings and for many different tumor types1,2,3,4. The main advantage of SERS nanoparticles is their fingerprint-like spectral signature, affording them unquestionable detection that is not confounded by biological background signals5. Additionally, the intensity of the emitted signal is further amplified with the use of reporter molecules (dyes) with absorbance maxima in line with the excitation laser, giving rise to &#39;surface enhanced resonance Raman scattering&#39; (SERRS) nanoparticles with even greater sensitivity6,7,8,9,10,11,12.
One barrier that needs to be addressed for the adoption of SE(R)RS nanoparticles13 and many other nanoparticle constructs14,15 for clinical use is their mode of administration, as intravenous injection causes systemic exposure of the agent, and necessitates extensive testing to exclude potential adverse effects. In this article, we present a different paradigm based on the application of nanoparticles locally in vivo, directly into the peritoneal cavity during surgery, followed by a washing step to remove any unbound nanoparticles1. This approach is in line with novel therapeutic approaches that are currently under investigation that also make use of local instillation of agents into the peritoneal cavity, called hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC). Thus, the principle itself should be relatively easy to integrate into a clinical workflow. We have studied the biodistribution of the nanoparticles after intraperitoneal application, and have not observed any detectable absorption into the systemic circulation1. Additionally, the local application approach circumvents the sequestration of nanoparticles by the reticuloendothelial system, so the numbers of nanoparticles required are markedly reduced. However, when applied topically, antibody-functionalized nanoparticles tend to adhere onto the visceral surfaces even in the absence of their target. In order to minimize false positive signals due to non-specific nanoparticle adhesion, we pursue a ratiometric approach, where a molecularly targeted nanoprobe provides the specific signal, and a non-targeted control nanoprobe, with different Raman spectrum, accounts for non-specific background16,17. We have demonstrated this methodology of topically applied surface enhanced resonance Raman ratiometric spectroscopy recently in a mouse model of diffuse ovarian cancer1.
The overall goal of this method is to develop two SERRS nanoprobes, one targeted and one non-specific, to be applied locally in mouse models, in order to image the prevalence/overexpression of a cancer related biomarker using ratiometric detection of the two probes via Raman imaging. In this work, the folate receptor (FR) was chosen as the target, as this is a marker upregulated in many ovarian cancers18,19. Raman microimaging with SERS-based nanoparticles has also been demonstrated for cancer cell identification20. Two distinct &#34;flavors&#34; of Raman nanoparticles are synthesized, each deriving its fingerprint from a different organic dye. The nanoparticles consist of a star-shaped gold core surrounded by a silica shell and demonstrate surface plasmon resonance at approximately 710 nm. The Raman reporter (organic dye) is deposited concurrently with the formation of silica shell. Finally, for the FR-targeted nanoprobes (&#945;FR-NPs) the silica shell is conjugated with antibodies, whereas the non-targeted nanoprobes (nt-NPs) are passivated with a monolayer of polyethylene glycol (PEG).
This technique was successfully used to map microscopic tumors in a mouse xenograft model of diffuse metastatic ovarian cancer (SKOV-3), demonstrating its applicability for in vivo use. It can also be extended for use in excised tissues, for tumor phenotyping, or margin determination after debulking as shown in a cognate study21.
SERRS nanoprobes provide a robust platform for the creation of multiple targeted tags for biomarkers, synthesized with straightforward chemical reactions as outlined schematically in Figure 1. Here, we present the protocol for the synthesis of the two types of SERRS nanoprobes (sections 1-3), the development of a suitable ovarian cancer mouse model (section 4), the administration of nanoprobes and imaging (section 5), and finally the data analysis and visualization (section 6).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:764px;" width="764">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:285px;">Name of Reagent</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td style="width:132px;"></td>
			<td style="width:185px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Ascorbic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A5960</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">3-MPTMS</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>175617</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Ammonium hydroxide (28%)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>338818</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Anti-Folate Receptor antibody [LK26]&#160;</td>
			<td>AbCam</td>
			<td>ab3361</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Dimethyl sulfoxide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td align="right">276855</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Dimethyl sulfoxide (anhydrous)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>276855</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>792780</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">IR140</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>260932</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">IR780 perchlorate*</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>576409</td>
			<td>Discontinued*</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>650447</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">N.N.Dimethylformamide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>227056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">PEG crosslinker</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>757853</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">PEG-maleimide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>900339</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Tetrachloroauric Acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>244597</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Tetraethyl Orthosilicate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>86578</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">*IR792</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>425982</td>
			<td>*Alternative</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Name of Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Dialysis cassette (3,500 MWCO)</td>
			<td>ThermoFIsher</td>
			<td align="right">87724</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Centrifugal filters</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC510096</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">inVia confocal Raman microscope</td>
			<td>Renishaw</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">MATLAB (v2014b)</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PLS Toolbox (v8.0)</td>
			<td>Eigenvector research</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

surface-enhanced resonance raman scattering nanoprobe ratiometry for detecting microscopic ovarian cancer via folate receptor targeting

Ovarian cancer represents the deadliest gynecologic malignancy. Most patients present at an advanced stage (FIGO stage III or IV), when local metastatic spread has already occurred. However, ovarian cancer has a unique pattern of metastatic spread, in that tumor implants are initially contained within the peritoneal cavity. This feature could enable, in principle, the complete resection of tumor implants with curative intent. Many of these metastatic lesions are microscopic, making them hard to identify and treat. Neutralizing such micrometastases is believed to be a major goal towards eliminating tumor recurrence and achieving long-term survival. Raman imaging with surface enhanced resonance Raman scattering nanoprobes can be used to delineate microscopic tumors with high sensitivity, due to their bright and bioorthogonal spectral signatures. Here, we describe the synthesis of two &#39;flavors&#39; of such nanoprobes: an antibody-functionalized one that targets the folate receptor &#8212; overexpressed in many ovarian cancers &#8212; and a non-targeted control nanoprobe, with&#160;distinct spectra. The nanoprobes are co-administered intraperitoneally to mouse models of metastatic human ovarian adenocarcinoma. All animal studies were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The peritoneal cavity of the animals is surgically exposed, washed, and scanned with a Raman microphotospectrometer. Subsequently, the Raman signatures of the two nanoprobes are decoupled using a Classical Least Squares fitting algorithm, and their respective scores divided to provide a ratiometric signal of folate-targeted over untargeted probes. In this way, microscopic metastases are visualized with high specificity. The main benefit of this approach is that the local application into the peritoneal cavity &#8212; which can be done conveniently during the surgical procedure &#8212; can tag tumors without subjecting the patient to systemic nanoparticle exposure. False positive signals stemming from non-specific binding of the nanoprobes onto visceral surfaces can be eliminated by following a ratiometric approach where targeted and non-targeted nanoprobes with distinct Raman signatures are applied as a mixture. The procedure is currently still limited by the lack of a commercial wide-field Raman imaging camera system, which once available will allow for the application of this technique in the operating theater.

For quality control purposes, the nanoparticles can be characterized using a variety of methods during the synthesis process, including TEM, DLS, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and UV/Vis absorbance spectroscopy, as shown in Figure 2.
In this way, the size of the gold nanostar core (described in section 1), the formation of the silica shell (section 2) and subsequent surface functionalization (sect...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Surface-enhanced Resonance Raman Scattering Nanoprobe Ratiometry for Detecting Microscopic Ovarian Cancer via Folate Receptor Targeting at JoVE.com

Surface-enhanced Resonance Raman Scattering Nanoprobe Ratiometry for Detecting Microscopic Ovarian Cancer via Folate Receptor Targeting

Ovarian cancer forms metastases throughout the peritoneal cavity. Here, we present a protocol to make and use folate-receptor targeted surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering nanoprobes that reveal these lesions with high specificity via ratiometric imaging. The nanoprobes are administered intraperitoneally to living mice, and the derived images correlate well with histology.

Ovarian cancer represents the deadliest gynecologic malignancy. Most patients present at an advanced stage (FIGO stage III or IV), when local metastatic ...

This method employs topical application of nanoparticles to image microscopic tumors, especially in malignancies that do not yet have access to the vasculature, such as the metastasis of ovarian cancer. This technique is ratiometric, imaging targeted and non-targeted nanoparticles in a single scan to diminish false signals and reveal the true extent of the tumor. These nanoparticles can be administered by intraperitoneal or intravenous injection for high precision imaging of ovarian cancer and many other tumor types.For gold nanostar core synthesis place a conical flask containing 800 milliliters of freshly prepared ascorbic acid solution on a magnetic stir plate at four degrees Celsius and induce a steady vortex. Quickly add eight milliliters of freshly prepared tetrachloroauric acid solution to the vortex. Within seconds nanostars will form and the solution will assume a dark blue color.Pour the nanostar suspension into 50-milliliter conical tubes for centrifugation and aspirate all but the last 200 microliters of supernatant from each tube at the end of the spin. Use a micropipette to resuspend the nanoparticles in each tube before pooling all of the nanoparticles in a single dialysis cassette. Then dialyze the nanoparticles for at least three days against two liters of deionized water changing the water daily.For silica shell formation, first add 10 milliliters of isopropanol, 500 microliters of TEOS, 200 microliters of deionized water, and 60 microliters of dye to a 50-milliliter conical tube. And add three milliliters of ethanol, and 200 microliters of ammonium hydroxide to a 15-milliliter tube. Next, sonicate the dialyzed nanostars to disperse any clusters and add 1.2 milliliters of nanostars to the tube.Place the 50-milliliter tube on a vortex mixer and induce a steady vortex. Rapidly add the nanostar solution to the 50-milliliter tube with about five more seconds of mixing before quickly transferring the tube to a shaker for 15 minutes at 300 RPM at room temperature. The two tubes must be combined quickly and under constant nixing to ensure that the silication reaction happens on the nanostars and to minimize free silica production.At the end of the incubation fill the tube with ethanol to quench the reaction and collect the nanostars by centrifugation. Aspirate all but about the last 500 microliters of supernatant taking care not to disturb the pellet and resuspend the nanoparticles in one milliliter of fresh ethanol. Then transfer the solution to a 1.5-milliliter centrifuge tube for four one-milliliter of ethanol washes by centrifugation, resuspending the pellet by ultrasonication for approximately one second between each wash.To introduce thiols to the particle surfaces, after the last wash resuspend the pellet in one milliliter of an 85%ethanol, 10%3-mercaptopropyl-trimethoxysilane, and 5%deionized water solution for a one-to two-hour incubation at room temperature. At the end of the incubation, wash the thiol functionalized nanoparticles by centrifugation as indicated, resuspending the pellet by ultrasonication between washes. For the antibody functionalized anti-folate receptor nanoprobes react 200 micrograms of anti-folate binding protein antibody with tenfold molar excess of PEG cross-linker in 500 microliters of HEPES buffer.After 30 minutes concentrate the antibody by centrifugation in a centrifugal filter, recovering the antibody by inverting the filter into a new tube for an additional centrifugation. Then mix the thiol functionalized nanoparticles with the concentrated antibody and incubate the mixture for at least 30 minutes at room temperature. To form non-targeted nanoprobes add five milligrams methoxy-terminated PEG 5000 maleimide dissolved in DMSO to the thiol-functionalized nanoparticles in 500 microliters of HEPES buffer for an at least 30-minute incubation at room temperature.For nanoprobe injection spin down both nanoprobe flavors and resuspend the pellets in fresh MES buffer at a 600 picomolar concentration. Mix the nanoparticles and load one milliliter of the resulting solution into one one-milliliter syringe equipped with a 26-gauge needle per mouse and intraperitoneally inject the entire volume into the abdomen of each mouse. Then gently massage the abdomen to distribute the nanoparticles throughout the peritoneal cavity.After at least 25 minutes secure the limbs of a euthanized injected animal onto a surgical platform and use serrated forceps and dissection scissors to remove the skin to expose the peritoneum. Incise the peritoneum. Attach the peritoneal flaps to the platform and wash the inside of the peritoneal cavity with at least 60 milliliters of PBS.Then transfer the platform to a Raman spectrophotometer with an upright optical configuration and a motorized stage and image the abdomen under the appropriate imaging parameters. This is crucial that focal plane for the Raman scan is on the surface of most of the viscera. If the organs are out of plane, the acquired signal will not be useful.For quality control purposes the nanoparticles can be characterized using a variety of methods during the synthesis process, including transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and ultraviolet visible absorbent spectroscopy. Raman measurements reveal the presence of the unique spectra of each flavor of nanoparticle throughout the synthesis. Typical reaction yields and concentrations depend strongly on the pipetting technique during the wash steps.The Raman spectra can be processed to remove the fluorescence and normalized to unit area to compensate for the signal strength before applying the classical least squares. Although the classical least-squared scores on each nanoprobe reference spectrum do not individually provide the specific locations of the tumors, the point-wise ratios reveal the presence of the disseminated microscopic spread. While attempting this procedure it's important to remember to validate the nanoparticles at every step of the synthesis as the quality of the nanoparticles strongly affects the end results.This technique demonstrates the potential for researchers to use SERRS nanoprobes for the detection of tumor-related markers in animal models and excised patient tissues with a high degree of microscopic precision.

surface-enhanced-resonance-raman-scattering-nanoprobe-ratiometry-for

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

Intra-iliac Artery Injection for Efficient and Selective Modeling of Microscopic Bone Metastasis

Intra-iliac artery (IIA) injection is an efficient approach to introduce metastatic lesions of various cancer cells in animals. Compared to the widely used intra-cardiac and intra-tibial injections, IIA injection brings several advantages. First, it can deliver a large quantity of cancer cells specifically to hind limb bones, thereby providing spatiotemporally synchronized early-stage colonization events and allowing robust quantification and swift detection of disseminated tumor cells. Second, it injects cancer cells into the circulation without damaging the local tissues, thereby avoiding inflammatory and wound-healing processes that confound the bone colonization process. Third, IIA injection causes very little metastatic growth in non-bone organs, thereby preventing animals from succumbing to other vital metastases, and allowing continuous monitoring of indolent bone lesions. These advantages are especially useful for the inspection of progression from single cancer cells to multi-cell micrometastases, which has largely been elusive in the past. When combined with cutting-edge approaches of biological imaging and bone histology, IIA injection can be applied to various research purposes related to bone metastases.

This manuscript provides the detailed procedure of intra-iliac artery (IIA) injection, a technique to deliver cancer cells specifically to hind limb tissues including bones to establish experimental bone metastases. Although initially established with breast tumor models, this protocol can be easily extended to other cancer types.

Intra-iliac artery (IIA) injection is an efficient approach to introduce metastatic lesions of various cancer cells in animals. Compared to the widely ...

Murine Experimental Model of Original Tumor Development and Peritoneal Metastasis via Orthotopic Inoculation with Ovarian Carcinoma Cells

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC) is associated with a poor prognosis because it shows peritoneal dissemination. To improve the prognosis, it is important to control peritoneal dissemination. However, it is still unclear how tumor cells detach from primary lesions and attach to the mesothelium. The establishment of an appropriate animal model is needed to gain an understanding of the mechanism of peritoneal dissemination in vivo. In the current study, we introduce the process from the local injection of EOC cells into the murine ovarian surface to the development of metastasis, including the peritoneum and distant organs. Female nude mice (BALB/c nu/nu) at 8 weeks of age were used. Under a microscopic field of view, EOC cells (1 x 105 cells/&#181;l of medium-extracellular matrix (ECM)-based hydrogel/unilateral ovary/mouse) were injected into murine ovaries through a retroperitoneal approach from the dorsal flank. This proposed method is a less invasive procedure for the mouse and minimizes damage to the ovary. Here, we describe the methodological steps in the development of the original and metastatic tumor formation of EOC.

Murine Experimental Model of Original Tumor Development and Peritoneal Metastasis via Orthotopic Inoculation with Ovarian Carcinoma Cells

To clarify the multistep process of peritoneal dissemination of ovarian carcinoma, the current study presents a murine experimental model of original tumor development and peritoneal metastasis via orthotopic inoculation with these tumor cells.

Epithelial ovarian carcinoma (EOC) is associated with a poor prognosis because it shows peritoneal dissemination. To improve the prognosis, it is ...

An Integrated Platform for Genome-wide Mapping of Chromatin States Using High-throughput ChIP-sequencing in Tumor Tissues

Histone modifications constitute a major component of the epigenome and play important regulatory roles in determining the transcriptional status of associated loci. In addition, the presence of specific modifications has been used to determine the position and identity non-coding functional elements such as enhancers. In recent years, chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by next generation sequencing (ChIP-seq) has become a powerful tool in determining the genome-wide profiles of individual histone modifications. However, it has become increasingly clear that the combinatorial patterns of chromatin modifications, referred to as Chromatin States, determine the identity and nature of the associated genomic locus. Therefore, workflows consisting of robust high-throughput (HT) methodologies for profiling a number of histone modification marks, as well as computational analyses pipelines capable of handling myriads of ChIP-Seq profiling datasets, are needed for comprehensive determination of epigenomic states in large number of samples. The HT-ChIP-Seq workflow presented here consists of two modules: 1) an experimental protocol for profiling several histone modifications from small amounts of tumor samples and cell lines in a 96-well format; and 2) a computational data analysis pipeline that combines existing tools to compute both individual mark occupancy and combinatorial chromatin state patterns. Together, these two modules facilitate easy processing of hundreds of ChIP-Seq samples in a fast and efficient manner. The workflow presented here is used to derive chromatin state patterns from 6 histone mark profiles in melanoma tumors and cell lines. Overall, we present a comprehensive ChIP-seq workflow that can be applied to dozens of human tumor samples and cancer cell lines to determine epigenomic aberrations in various malignancies.

Here, we describe an optimized high-throughput ChIP-sequencing protocol and computational analyses pipeline for the determination of genome-wide chromatin state patterns from frozen tumor tissues and cell lines.

Histone modifications constitute a major component of the epigenome and play important regulatory roles in determining the transcriptional status of ...

A GPC3-targeting Bispecific Antibody, GPC3-S-Fab, with Potent Cytotoxicity

This protocol describes the construction and functional studies of a bispecific antibody (bsAb), GPC3-S-Fab. bsAbs can recognize two different epitopes through their two different arms. bsAbs have been actively studied for their ability to directly recruit immune cells to kill tumor cells. Currently, the majority of bsAbs are produced in the form of recombinant proteins, either as Fc-containing bsAbs or as smaller bsAb derivatives without the Fc region. In this study, GPC3-S-Fab, an antibody fragment (Fab) based bispecific antibody, was designed by linking the Fab of anti-GPC3 antibody GC33 with an anti-CD16 single domain antibody. The GPC3-S-Fab can be expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by two affinity chromatographies. The purified GPC3-S-Fab can specifically bind to and kill GPC3 positive liver cancer cells by recruiting natural killer cells, suggesting a potential application of GPC3-S-Fab in liver cancer therapy.

Here, we present a protocol to produce a bispecific antibody GPC3-S-Fab in Escherichia coli. The purified GPC3-S-Fab has potent cytotoxicity against GPC3 positive liver cancer cells.

This protocol describes the construction and functional studies of a bispecific antibody (bsAb), GPC3-S-Fab. bsAbs can recognize two different epitopes ...

Detecting the Ligand-binding Domain Dimerization Activity of Estrogen Receptor Alpha Using the Mammalian Two-Hybrid Assay

Estrogen receptor alpha (ER&#945;) is an estrogenic ligand-dependent transcription regulator. The sequence of ER&#945; protein is highly conserved among species. It has been thought that the function of human and mouse ER&#945;s is identical. We demonstrate the differential 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen (4OHT) effect on mouse and human ER&#945; ligand-binding domain (LBD) dimerization activity using the mammalian two-hybrid (M2H) assay. The M2H assay can demonstrate the efficiency of LBD homodimerization activity in mammalian cells, utilizing the transfection of two protein expression plasmids (GAL4 DNA-binding domain [DBD] fusion LBD and VP16 transactivation domain [VP16AD] fusion LBD) and a GAL4-responsive element (GAL4RE) fused luciferase reporter plasmid. When the GAL4DBD fusion LBD and the VP16AD fusion LBD make a dimer in the cells, this protein complex binds to the GAL4RE and, then, activates a luciferase gene expression through the VP16AD dependent transcription activity. The 4OHT-mediated luciferase activation is higher in the HepG2 cells that were transfected with the mouse ER&#945; LBD fusion protein expression plasmids than in the human ER&#945; LBD fusion protein expression plasmid transfected cells. This result suggests that the efficacy of the 4OHT-dependent mouse ER&#945; LBD homodimerization activity is higher than human ER&#945; LBD. In general, the utilization of the M2H assay is not ideal for the evaluation of nuclear receptor LBD dimerization activity, because agonistic ligands enhance the basal level of the LBD activity and that impedes the detection of LBD dimerization activity. We found that 4OHT does not enhance ER&#945; LBD basal activity. That is a key factor for being able to determine and detect the 4OHT-dependent LBD dimerization activity for successfully using the M2H assay. ER&#945; LBD-based M2H assays may be applied to study the partial agonist activity of selective estrogen receptor modulators (e.g., 4OHT) in various mammalian cell types.

We present a method for analyzing the 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen-dependent estrogen receptor alpha ligand-binding domain dimerization activity using the mammalian two-hybrid assay.

Estrogen receptor alpha (ER&#945;) is an estrogenic ligand-dependent transcription regulator. The sequence of ER&#945; protein is highly conserved among ...

Manufacturing Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR) T Cells for Adoptive Immunotherapy

Adoptive immunotherapy holds promise for the treatment of cancer and infectious disease. We describe a simple approach to transduce primary human T cells with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) and expand their progeny ex vivo. We include assays to measure CAR expression as well as differentiation, proliferative capacity and cytolytic activity. We describe assays to measure effector cytokine production and inflammatory cytokine secretion in CAR T cells. Our approach provides a reliable and comprehensive method to culture CAR T cells for preclinical models of adoptive immunotherapy.

Manufacturing Chimeric Antigen Receptor CAR T Cells for Adoptive Immunotherapy

We describe an approach to reliably generate chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells and test their differentiation and function in vitro and in vivo.

Adoptive immunotherapy holds promise for the treatment of cancer and infectious disease. We describe a simple approach to transduce primary human T cells ...

Preparation of Mitochondria from Ovarian Cancer Tissues and Control Ovarian Tissues for Quantitative Proteomics Analysis

Ovarian cancer is a common gynecologic cancer with high mortality but unclear molecular mechanism. Most ovarian cancers are diagnosed in the advanced stage, which seriously hampers therapy. Mitochondrial changes are a hallmark of human ovarian cancers, and mitochondria are the centers of energy metabolism, cell signaling, and oxidative stress. In-depth insights into the changes of the mitochondrial proteome in ovarian cancers compared to control ovarian tissue will benefit in-depth understanding of the molecular mechanisms of ovarian cancer, and the discovery of effective and reliable biomarkers and therapeutic targets. An effective mitochondrial preparation method coupled with an isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) quantitative proteomics are presented here to analyze human ovarian cancer and control mitochondrial proteomes, including differential-speed centrifugation, density gradient centrifugation, quality assessment of mitochondrial samples, protein digestion with trypsin, iTRAQ labeling, strong cation exchange fractionation (SCX), liquid chromatography (LC), tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), database analysis, and quantitative analysis of mitochondrial proteins. Many proteins have been successfully identified to maximize the coverage of the human ovarian cancer mitochondrial proteome and to achieve the differentially expressed mitochondrial protein profile in human ovarian cancers.

This article presents a protocol of differential-speed centrifugation in combination with density gradient centrifugation to separate mitochondria from human ovarian cancer tissues and control ovarian tissues for quantitative proteomics analysis, resulting in a high-quality mitochondrial sample and high-throughput and high-reproducibility quantitative proteomics analysis of a human ovarian cancer mitochondrial proteome.

Ovarian cancer is a common gynecologic cancer with high mortality but unclear molecular mechanism. Most ovarian cancers are diagnosed in the advanced ...

Visualizing DNA Damage Repair Proteins in Patient-Derived Ovarian Cancer Organoids via Immunofluorescence Assays

Immunofluorescence is one of the most widely used techniques to visualize target antigens with high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for the accurate identification and localization of proteins, glycans, and small molecules. While this technique is well-established in two-dimensional (2D) cell culture, less is known about its use in three-dimensional (3D) cell models. Ovarian cancer organoids are 3D tumor models that recapitulate tumor cell clonal heterogeneity, the tumor microenvironment, and cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. Thus, they are superior to cell lines for the evaluation of drug sensitivity and functional biomarkers. Therefore, the ability to utilize immunofluorescence on primary ovarian cancer organoids is extremely beneficial in understanding the biology of this cancer. The current study describes the technique of immunofluorescence to detect DNA damage repair proteins in high-grade serous patient-derived ovarian cancer organoids (PDOs). After exposing the PDOs to ionizing radiation, immunofluorescence is performed on intact organoids to evaluate nuclear proteins as foci. Images are collected using z-stack imaging on confocal microscopy and analyzed using automated foci counting software. The described methods allow for the analysis of temporal and special recruitment of DNA damage repair proteins and colocalization of these proteins with cell-cycle markers.

Visualizing DNA Damage Repair Proteins in Patient-Derived Ovarian Cancer Organoids via Immunofluorescence Assays

The present protocol describes methods for evaluating DNA damage repair proteins in patient-derived ovarian cancer organoids. Included here are comprehensive plating and staining methods, as well as detailed, objective quantification procedures.

Immunofluorescence is one of the most widely used techniques to visualize target antigens with high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for the accurate ...

Ovarian Cancer Patient-Derived Organoid Models for Pre-Clinical Drug Testing

Ovarian cancer is a fatal gynecologic cancer and the fifth leading cause of cancer death among women in the United States. Developing new drug treatments is crucial to advancing healthcare and improving patient outcomes. Organoids are in-vitro three-dimensional multicellular miniature organs. Patient-derived organoid (PDO) models of ovarian cancer may be optimal for drug screening because they more accurately recapitulate tissues of interest than two-dimensional cell culture models and are inexpensive compared to patient-derived xenografts. In addition, ovarian cancer PDOs mimic the variable tumor microenvironment and genetic background typically observed in ovarian cancer. Here, a method is described that can be used to test conventional and novel drugs on PDOs derived from ovarian cancer tissue and ascites. A luminescence-based adenosine triphosphate (ATP) assay is used to measure viability, growth rate, and drug sensitivity. Drug screens in PDOs can be completed in 7-10 days, depending on the rate of organoid formation and drug treatments.

We present a protocol that can be used to conduct therapeutic drug testing with patient-derived ovarian cancer organoids.

Ovarian cancer is a fatal gynecologic cancer and the fifth leading cause of cancer death among women in the United States. Developing new drug treatments ...

Establishing a 3D Ex Vivo Model for Ovarian Cancer-Omentum Interaction

An Ex Vivo Model of Ovarian Cancer Peritoneal Metastasis Using Human Omentum

Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynecologic malignancy. The omentum plays a key role in providing a supportive microenvironment to metastatic ovarian cancer cells as well as immune modulatory signals that allow tumor tolerance. However, we have limited models that closely mimic the interaction between ovarian cancer cells and adipose-rich tissues. To further understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which the omentum provides a pro-tumoral microenvironment, we developed a unique 3D ex vivo model of cancer cell-omentum interaction. Using human omentum, we are able to grow ovarian cancer cells within this adipose-rich microenvironment and monitor the factors responsible for tumor growth and immune regulation. In addition to providing a platform for the study of this adipose-rich tumor microenvironment, the model provides an excellent platform for the development and evaluation of novel therapeutic approaches to target metastatic cancer cells in this niche. The proposed model is easy to generate, inexpensive, and applicable to translational investigations.

Author Spotlight: Advanced Ex Vivo Model for Investigating Cancer-Adipose Microenvironment Interaction 

This protocol describes the establishment of a three-dimensional (3D) ex vivo model of cancer cell-omentum interaction. The model provides a platform for elucidating pro-tumor mechanisms within the adipose niche and for testing novel therapies.

Ovarian cancer is the deadliest gynecologic malignancy. The omentum plays a key role in providing a supportive microenvironment to metastatic ovarian ...