私たちは、原生動物の細胞感染のためのテンプレートを提供するための博士クレイグロイ博士とダリオザンボーニに感謝します。原稿の重要なレビューのために博士はルルカンブロンヌ、我々は、博士Jagdeep Obhrai博士ジョージパーディ、博士フレッドヘフロン機器や試薬のトッドウィズナーに感謝します。フローサイトメトリーは、OHSUのフローサイトメトリーの共有リソースの施設で行われました。この作品は、オレゴン州とNIHの助成金、R21 AI088275（EDC）の医学研究財団からの助成金によって部分的にサポートされていました。

1。プライミング段階の感染症のためのレジオネラ培養物の調製<ol><li>すべてのLを変換イソプロピルβ-D-1-チオガラクトピラノシド（IPTG）をコードするプラスミドpAM239を用いたアッセイで使用pneumophilaの株は 、緑色蛍光タンパク質（GFP）28を誘導。鉄及びシステインへ菌株が補わストリークして、N-（2 -アセトアミド）-2 -アミノエタンスルホン酸（ACES）6.25μg/ mlのクロラムフェニコール（Cm）（プラスミドメンテナンス用）、72インキュベートを含む緩衝木炭酵母エキス寒天（CYEA） 37のhr℃、 </li><li> 6.25μg/ mlのCMと1mM IPTGで酵母エキスブロス（AYE）バッファリングされ、37℃でオービタルシェーカー上に固定相（O / N）を養う℃に補わACEに菌株の接種を転送</li><li>蛍光顕微鏡を用いたin vitro培養でGFPの発現を確認してください。カバーの下のスライドガラス上に培養液の10μlをGFPの励起/発光キューブ（AMG EVOS FL）と60X対物レンズを用いてスリップと画像。 </li><li>滅菌H 2 Oを使用して1:10に体外培養における各100μlのアリコートを希釈1mMのIPTG及び6.25μg/ mlのcmおよび水で100μlAYEメディアを使用して空白にします。分光光度計を用いて希釈液のOD600測定（Bio-Rad社製スマートスペックプラス）を取る。 体外培養ごとにMOI = 20で十分に感染するボリュームが必要な計算V = [（アメーバシード）×MOIの] / [外径600×（希釈係数）×（定数）] = [（1×10 6 ）×（20）] / [OD 600×（10）×（1×10 6）] = 2/OD 600。細菌の濃度をOD 600 = 1.0 = 1×10 9 CFU / mlであると判定される。 </li></ol> 2。 カステラーニアメーバを用いたプライミング段階の感染<ol><li>維持し、RTで175cm 2のフラスコで、ATCC 712 PYG培地でアメーバを栽培しています。 </li><li>アメーバ文化でメディアを交換してくださいTuresの菌液の培養を開始する前に24時間。同日液細菌培養が開始され、血球計数器を用いて光学顕微鏡で細胞を回収し、カウント。 </li><li> 1×10 6細胞/ mlの最終濃度に新鮮な培地とアメーバを希釈します。 RT O / Nでリピートピペッター、インキュベートを用いたアメーバの1mlアリコートによるシード12ウェル細胞培養プレート</li><li>インキュベーション後、10ミリリットル血清ピペットおよび手動ピペット助剤を用いて1ミリリットル滅菌PBSで3回、12ウェル細胞培養プレートのウェルを洗う。 </li><li> PBSを吸引後、1mMのIPTG、各ウェルに6.25μg/ mlのcmの感染媒体（ATCC 712 PYGメディアマイナスグルコース、ペプトン、酵母エキス）の1ミリリットルを追加します。室温で1時間プレートをインキュベートする。 </li><li> MOI = 20でウェルを感染させる。 5分（エッペンドルフ5810R）、400 xgでプレートを遠心し、5分間37℃の水浴中で浮かんでいる。 37℃、18時間、5％CO 2インキュベーターにプレートを転送します。 </li><li>細菌の細胞溶解と収穫をホストするために前に蛍光顕微鏡でライブセルイメージングを使用して感染を確認してください。 </li></ol> 3。ターゲット細胞期感染のTHP-1細胞を播種<ol><li> （従来の液体細菌培養をセットアップするためのこのプロセスを開始する24時間）。 10％熱不活化ウシ胎児血清（FBS）を含むRPMI 1640培地でコンフルエントに近い75cm 2の培養フラスコ中THP-1細胞を栽培しています。 </li><li>血球計数器を用いて懸濁細胞をカウントし、1×10 6細胞/ mlの濃度に10％FBSおよび100 ng / mlのホルボール-12 -ミリステート13 -アセテート（PMA）を含むRPMI 1640培地でTHP-1細胞を希釈、12ウェル細胞培養プレート上に1mlアリコートのプレート。 37℃で48時間プレートをインキュベート℃、5％CO 2で 。 </li></ol> 4。プライミング段階の感染後のターゲット細胞期感染症の細菌の処理<ol><li>プライミングアメーバから培地を吸引。 </li><li>溶解するmoebaeは、室温で10分間氷冷滅菌超濾過（UF）、H 2 Oとインキュベート500μlのを使用しています。 </li><li>プールタイプを痛め、蛍光プレートリーダー（Molecular Devices SpectramaxジェミニEM）を使用して、プールされた溶解液の各々のためのE 512 nmでの吸光度測定を取るに従ってライセート。 </li><li> - + 0.0019 calcOD 600 = 0.0008（ライセート背景E 512）：プールされた溶解液のOD 600測定値を計算します。式は、以前、OD 600 と Lの希釈のE 512 nmの測定の両方の直接比較をグラフ化することにより決定された体外培養定常期（ 図1 *）からレジオネラ野生型GFPを発現。感染したアメーバと同じ実験条件に従う感染していないアメーバの溶解物を、ブランクとして使用し、式に組み込まれた補正値（ 例えばライセート背景）が設けられている。ボリュームに必要なトンの井戸を感染O MOI = 20が各溶解プールのために計算される：V = [（THP-1シード）×MOIの] / [calcOD 600×（定数）] = [（1×10 6）×（20）] / [calcOD 600×（1×10 6）] = 20 / calcOD 600。 </li><li> PBSで3倍のTHP-1細胞を洗浄し、各ウェルに1 mlの新鮮なRPMI 1640培地（10％FBS）を追加します。 37℃で1時間インキュベートしたTHP-1細胞℃、5％CO 2で 。 </li><li>計算されたMOIのプールされた溶解液を使用してでのTHP-1細胞を感染させる。井戸のセットは、フローサイトメトリー解析において、ネガティブコントロールとして、感染していないままにすることができます。プライミング段階の処理が30分未満で完了する必要があります。溶解物を感染前の細菌の遺伝子発現の変化を制限するために氷の上で保存されています。 </li><li>プレートを遠心分離し、温度を上げるために、フロート、プライミング段階のように静置します。 </li><li>一時間後の感染症は、細胞外の細菌を除去し、PBSで3回洗浄し、吸引井戸でメディアを取り出してください。 </li><li>周波数1ミリリットルを追加shを含むRPMI井戸〜1640（10％FBS）およびインキュベーターにプレートを返す。すぐにメディアを交換した後の時間は時刻ゼロ（T 0）となっています。 37℃で14から16時間、THP-1細胞をインキュベート℃、5％CO 2で 。 </li></ol> 5。実験解析 5.1ライブセルイメージング画像10Xまたは20X倍率（ 図1A〜D）での蛍光顕微鏡（AMG EVOS FL）を使用して感染した井戸を。画像は、プライミング段階とターゲット細胞期感染の両方で感染のレベルを決定するためにどちらかの定性的または定量的に比較することができます。 5.2フローサイトメトリー<ol><li>別の感染症の発光ピークは、フローサイトメトリー（BD FACSソウルキャリバー）によって比較することができます。感染したTHP-1細胞をトリプシン処理し、静かにピペットでPBS中で混合することにより、井戸から洗い流してください。 </li><li> 2用の1800×gで15mlファルコンチューブ、ペレットにプールひずみの種類別のセルをテーブルトップ遠心機で分。 </li><li> 1mlのPBSでペレットを一時停止し、1.5 mlのマイクロチューブに移す。 </li><li> 1800×gで（エッペンドルフ5424）と1 mlのPBSで再懸濁ペレットで懸濁液を遠心分離します。得られた懸濁液は混濁している場合（OD 600≥1.0）彼らは、フローサイトメーターのラインの目詰まりを防止するために、追加のPBS（1:3）で希釈しなければならない。 </li><li>フローサイトメーターの平衡化とサンプル注入の間に洗浄ステップのための滅菌ろ過PBSを使用します。事前の標的細胞の感染サンプルの注入に感染していない標的細胞の前方/側方散乱をプロットします。 </li><li> 488nmレーザー励起およびFL1チャネルを使用して、それぞれの条件の20,000合計イベントを収集します。 </li><li>ゲートポストキャプチャ細胞集団は、非感染細胞とヒストグラムのプロット蛍光強度（FlowJo）（ 図1E）を除外することができます。 </li></ol> 5.3 CFUメッキ<ol><li>効率oを調べるフローサイトメトリーのために採取された細胞のCFUめっきによるfの感染。超濾過され、H 2 10 -1のO、10 -2、10 -3でサンプルの希釈系列を調製します。 </li><li> 6.25μg/ mlのCMと各希釈CYEAプレートの1月3日の上のプレートを20μl。 </li><li> 72時間37℃でプレートをインキュベートする。 </li><li>つまようじとセルカウンターを用いてコロニーをカウントします。 </li></ol>

<ol>
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R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Legionella+reveal+dendritic+cell+functions+that+facilitate+selection+of+antigens+for+MHC+class+II+presentation.">Legionella reveal dendritic cell functions that facilitate selection of antigens for MHC class II presentation.</a> Immunity. 18, 813-823 (2003).</li><li>Molmeret, M., Horn, M., Wagner, M., Santic, M., Abu Kwaik, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amoebae+as+training+grounds+for+intracellular+bacterial+pathogens.">Amoebae as training grounds for intracellular bacterial pathogens.</a> Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71, 10-1128 (2005).</li><li>Huws, S. A., Smith, A. W., Enright, M. C., Wood, P. J., Brown, M. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amoebae+promote+persistence+of+epidemic+strains+of+MRSA.">Amoebae promote persistence of epidemic strains of MRSA.</a> Environ. Microbiol. 8, 1130-1133 (2006).</li></ol>

著者らは、彼らが競合する経済的利益を持っていないことを宣言します。

細菌の遺伝子発現はしっかりライフサイクルの進行や周囲の微小環境内の信号への応答の組み合わせを介して制御されます。そのようなLと空胞変性病原体ファゴソームで仕切ら時ニューモは宿主細胞由来の手がかりの多くに対応しています。宿主細胞内の栄養素の枯渇の集団結果、細菌は、その後の宿主細胞は25〜成功普及するために必要な因子を発現させることによ?...

多数の細菌性病原体は、細胞内コンパートメントの生存と複製のための宿主細胞を悪用するための一般的な戦略を適応している。多くの例では、病原性のメカニズムは原生動物と後生動物の細胞との間の類似している。ただし、これら二つの微小環境は非常に異なっていると1-4毒性因子の発現差異をもたらすことができます。レジオネラ症細菌レジオネラは遍在5世界中の淡水環境に関連付けられています。重要なのは、L.原生動物の細胞を出細菌のその全体的な遺伝子発現プロファイルを示唆して、病原性の優位性を得るヒト単球の感染前に原生動物細胞で栽培pneumophilaのは、生物6-8栽培におけるin vitroのそれよりも異なっている。自然界では、淡水のアメーバは、侵入細菌の迅速増幅のための栄養豊富な範囲を提供します。 Lの人間買収pneumophILAは、ほとんどの場合、細菌が含まれている汚染された水滴の吸入に起因すると考えられる。それは、これらの液滴港原虫細胞関連細菌がいる可能性があり、原生動物の細胞は9,10従来の水処理慣行に対してより耐性がある場所。 11月13日原虫の宿主細胞における細菌の細胞内のライフサイクルとほぼ同じ方法で、肺胞マクロファージが進むの感染。 生き残るためには、真核細胞内で複製するために、L.レジオネラは、宿主細胞の細胞質に14から16まで約300の&quot;エフェクター&quot;タンパク質を提供するドット/ ICMと呼ばれる特殊なタイプのIVbの分泌系を使用しています。これらのエフェクタータンパク質を総称細菌17,18のレプリケーション寛容なコンパートメントを生成するために、細胞プロセスを打倒するために機能する。細胞内MULTための欠損株でドット/ ICMトランスポーター結果を構成する26の遺伝子のいずれかの欠失iplication 19から23。歴史的には、個々のエフェクターをコードする遺伝子の欠失はほとんど細胞内増殖のための弱毒株をもたらしません。この現象は、冗長機能やエフェクターのパラロガスコピーを含むいくつかの仮説に起因している。 いくつかの病原因子は、宿主細胞関連細胞内増殖24の文脈で表現されます。私たちは、特定のエフェクターのみ ​​原虫感染の文脈で表現されていた場合、エフェクターの寄与の両方をin vitroで培養した野生型株と比較することができなかったことを合理化した。それは文化25に固定相に入ると複製から透過位相にはL. pneumophila遷移します。フェーズのスイッチング·表現型は、細胞内の成長中に発生した、運動性26の鞭毛のアセンブリを介して例示されている栄養の枯渇を表しています。なぜならL.レジオネラはもっとINVAですsiveと病原性原虫の細胞から採取したときに、私たちは、それが宿主のマクロファージに遭遇したときに、より忠実に細菌の病原性の状態を表現してアッセイを開発しようとした。 この目的のために、我々は両方（標的細胞）最初（プライミングセル）と第2段の感染症のための任意の適切なホストを収容することができる汎用性の高い原虫プライミングアッセイを開発した。感染プロセスが安定して緑色蛍光タンパク質（GFP）を発現する細菌の使用を介して扱いやすいです。原虫カステラーニアメーバの感染モデルが広くフィールド27で用いられた方法論に従っています。プライミング工程、Lのpneumophilaの株はラベルの付いた&quot;透過&quot;バクテリア（ 図1A）を生成するために、液体媒体中の固定相にin vitroで培養される。細菌は、次のAの単層を感染させるために使用されている細胞内のライフサイクルの後期を達成するために、18時間カステラーニ 。大きな空胞は含まれている細菌は蛍光顕微鏡（ 図1A）を使用して、この時点で可視化することができる。原生動物の細胞は、その後溶解し、溶解物から回収された細菌を蛍光プレートリーダーを用いて512 nmでの発光のために測定されています。蛍光は、標的細胞の感染（ 図1、*相関曲線）の多重オブ感染度（MOI）を計算するために光学濃度と相関している。浸潤（T 0）と18時間後の浸潤（T 18）の後に、標的細胞は細胞内細菌を表す、蛍光を定量化する。蛍光を顕微鏡およびフローサイトメトリーによって監視することができ、生菌数をコロニーメッキを介して測定することができます。プライミングアッセイは常に野生型Lで感染症を伴っているニューモとドット/ ICM IV型分泌系（ΔDOTA）（ 図1A）における欠損株。これは重要なことは、野生型との間の直接比較のための内部統制を提供ND感染過程で使用される任意の同質遺伝子変異株。プライミング段階で無毒ΔDOTA株を含めることは、in vitroで培養する同質遺伝子変異株に関連付けられた弱毒成長の表現型を観察するためのしきい値を設定します。

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Reagent</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>chloramphenicol</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP904-100</td>
 <td>antibiotic</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>IPTG</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP1755-10</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ACES</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>A9758-1KG</td>
 <td>media component</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>ATCC medium: 712 PYG</td>
 <td>ATCC</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>growth media for protozoans</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1X PBS</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>SH30256FS</td>
 <td>phosphate buffered saline</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>activated charcoal</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>C272-212</td>
 <td>media component</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>yeast extract</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP1422-500</td>
 <td>media component</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>peptone</td>
 <td>BD Diagnostics</td>
 <td>211677</td>
 <td>media component</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>agar</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>BP1423-2</td>
 <td>media component</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>L-cysteine, 99%+</td>
 <td>Acros organics</td>
 <td>173601000</td>
 <td>media supplement</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Ferric nitrate nonahydrate</td>
 <td>Fisher Scientific</td>
 <td>I110-100</td>
 <td>media supplement</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Equipment</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>EVOS fl</td>
 <td>AMG</td>
 <td>EVOS fl</td>
 <td>fluorescence microscope</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Smart Spec Plus</td>
 <td>Bio-Rad</td>
 <td>170-2525</td>
 <td>spectrophotometer</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>5810 R centrifuge</td>
 <td>Eppendorf</td>
 <td>22627023</td>
 <td>bench top centrifuge</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Repeater plus</td>
 <td>Eppendorf</td>
 <td>22230201</td>
 <td>repeating pipette</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SpectraMax Gemini EM</td>
 <td>Molecular Devices</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>microplate reader</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Softmax Pro 5.3</td>
 <td>Molecular Devices</td>
 <td>0200-310</td>
 <td>microplate reader software</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>5424 microfuge</td>
 <td>Eppendorf</td>
 <td>22620401</td>
 <td>table top microcentrifuge</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Fast-release pipette pump II</td>
 <td>Scienceware</td>
 <td>379111010</td>
 <td>pipette aid</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>FACS Calibur</td>
 <td>BD Bioscience</td>
 <td></td>
 <td>flow cytometer</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>FlowJo 7.6.1</td>
 <td>FlowJo</td>
 <td>license</td>
 <td>flow cytometery software</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>15 ml tube</td>
 <td>BD Falcon</td>
 <td>352096</td>
 <td>polypropylene conical tube</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1.6 ml microfuge tube</td>
 <td>Neptune</td>
 <td>3745.X</td>
 <td>microcentrifuge tubes</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

tractable mammalian cell infections with protozoan-primed bacteria

多くの細胞内細菌の病原体は、環境中で増殖のための自然宿主として淡水原生動物を使用するレジオネラ·ニューモフィラ 、レジオネラ肺炎の病原体は、第1の従来哺乳類のマクロファージの感染原虫の細胞から採取し体外培養細菌の過病原性の利点を得る。このことは重要な病原因子が適切にin vitroで発現されないことを示唆している。我々は、プライミングLの扱いやすいシステムを開発した哺乳動物細胞に感染し、その自然宿主原虫カステラーニアメーバを通じてpneumophilaの前。任意の病原因子の寄与は原虫プライミング後に野生型細菌に変異株の細胞内増殖を比較することによって調べることができます。 GFPを発現する野生型と変異型のL. pneumophilaの株はプライミング工程で単層原虫を感染させるために使用され、細胞内増殖の後期段階に到達するために許可されている。蛍光細菌は、これらの感染細胞から採取し、哺乳類のマクロファージへのその後の感染の細菌の匹敵する数値を生成する分光光度法によって正規化されています。定量では、生きた細菌を蛍光顕微鏡、フローサイトメトリー、およびコロニーめっきによりを用いて感染後に監視されています。この手法は、強調表示され、天然の取得経路で遭遇するであろう環境を模倣することにより、宿主細胞依存性遺伝子発現の寄与に依存しています。このアプローチは、病原性の優位性を得るための手段として、中間宿主を使用するすべての細菌に対応するように変更することができます。

全体の感染過程の典型的な結果を図1に概説されています。野生型L.に感染A.castellaniiの単層を描いた細胞の蛍光顕微鏡写真を生きるプライミング·ステージ中にニューモを 図1Aに示されています。プライミング工程の成功の尺度はこのMOIでのGFP標識した細菌が取り込ま大型の液胞を含有する宿主細胞の約90％の人口につながるであろう。 18時間感染?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Tractable Mammalian Cell Infections with Protozoan-primed Bacteria at JoVE.com

Tractable Mammalian Cell Infections with Protozoan-primed Bacteria

この手法は、収穫する方法を提供するものであり、哺乳動物細胞の感染に先立って自然原虫の宿主細胞にあらかじめ栽培されている細菌性病原体の細胞内増殖を正常化し、定量化する。このメソッドは、プライミング段階のための宿主細胞、ならびに標的細胞の種類の多種多様に対応するように変更することができます。

原虫でプライミング細菌で扱いやすい哺乳動物細胞感染

Many intracellular bacterial pathogens use freshwater protozoans as a natural reservoir for proliferation in the environment. Legionella pneumophila, the ...

tractable-mammalian-cell-infections-with-protozoan-primed-bacteria

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

10.4K ビュー.  Oregon Health & Science University. この手法は、収穫する方法を提供するものであり、哺乳動物細胞の感染に先立って自然原虫の宿主細胞にあらかじめ栽培されている細菌性病原体の細胞内増殖を正常化し、定量化する。このメソッドは、プライミング段階のための宿主細胞、ならびに標的細胞の種類の多種多様に対応するように変更することができます。

ビデオ: Tractable Mammalian Cell Infections with Protozoan-primed Bacteria

Using Luciferase to Image Bacterial Infections in Mice

Imaging is a valuable technique that can be used to monitor biological processes. In particular, the presence of cancer cells, stem cells, specific immune cell types, viral pathogens, parasites and bacteria can be followed in real-time within living animals 1-2. Application of bioluminescence imaging to the study of pathogens has advantages as compared to conventional strategies for analysis of infections in animal models3-4. Infections can be visualized within individual animals over time, without requiring euthanasia to determine the location and quantity of the pathogen. Optical imaging allows comprehensive examination of all tissues and organs, rather than sampling of sites previously known to be infected. In addition, the accuracy of inoculation into specific tissues can be directly determined prior to carrying forward animals that were unsuccessfully inoculated throughout the entire experiment. Variability between animals can be controlled for, since imaging allows each animal to be followed individually. Imaging has the potential to greatly reduce animal numbers needed because of the ability to obtain data from numerous time points without having to sample tissues to determine pathogen load3-4.
This protocol describes methods to visualize infections in live animals using bioluminescence imaging for recombinant strains of bacteria expressing luciferase. The click beetle (CBRLuc) and firefly luciferases (FFluc) utilize luciferin as a substrate5-6. The light produced by both CBRluc and FFluc has a broad wavelength from 500 nm to 700 nm, making these luciferases excellent reporters for the optical imaging in living animal models7-9. This is primarily because wavelengths of light greater than 600 nm are required to avoid absorption by hemoglobin and, thus, travel through mammalian tissue efficiently. Luciferase is genetically introduced into the bacteria to produce light signal10. Mice are pulmonary inoculated with bioluminescent bacteria intratracheally to allow monitoring of infections in real time. After luciferin injection, images are acquired using the IVIS Imaging System. During imaging, mice are anesthetized with isoflurane using an XGI-8 Gas Anethesia System. Images can be analyzed to localize and quantify the signal source, which represents the bacterial infection site(s) and number, respectively. After imaging, CFU determination is carried out on homogenized tissue to confirm the presence of bacteria. Several doses of bacteria are used to correlate bacterial numbers with luminescence. Imaging can be applied to study of pathogenesis and evaluation of the efficacy of antibacterial compounds and vaccines.

Methods for bioluminescence imaging of bacterial infections in living animals are decribed. Pathogens are modified to express luciferase allowing optical whole body imaging of infections in live animals. Animal models can be infected with luciferase expressing pathogens and the resulting course of disease visualized in real-time by bioluminescence imaging.

マウスでイメージ細菌感染にルシフェラーゼを用いた

Imaging is a valuable technique that can be used to monitor biological processes.  In particular, the presence of cancer cells, stem cells, specific ...

免疫・感染学

Generation of Multivirus-specific T Cells to Prevent/treat Viral Infections after Allogeneic Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant

Viral infections cause morbidity and mortality in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. We and others have successfully generated and infused T-cells specific for Epstein Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Adenovirus (Adv) using monocytes and EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid cell (EBV-LCL) gene-modified with an adenovirus vector as antigen presenting cells (APCs). As few as 2x105/kg trivirus-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) proliferated by several logs after infusion and appeared to prevent and treat even severe viral disease resistant to other available therapies. The broader implementation of this encouraging approach is limited by high production costs, complexity of manufacture and the prolonged time (4-6 weeks for EBV-LCL generation, and 4-8 weeks for CTL manufacture &#x2013; total 10-14 weeks) for preparation. To overcome these limitations we have developed a new, GMP-compliant CTL production protocol. First, in place of adenovectors to stimulate T-cells we use dendritic cells (DCs) nucleofected with DNA plasmids encoding LMP2, EBNA1 and BZLF1 (EBV), Hexon and Penton (Adv), and pp65 and IE1 (CMV) as antigen-presenting cells. These APCs reactivate T cells specific for all the stimulating antigens. Second, culture of activated T-cells in the presence of IL-4 (1,000U/ml) and IL-7 (10ng/ml) increases and sustains the repertoire and frequency of specific T cells in our lines. Third, we have used a new, gas permeable culture device (G-Rex) that promotes the expansion and survival of large cell numbers after a single stimulation, thus removing the requirement for EBV-LCLs and reducing technician intervention. By implementing these changes we can now produce multispecific CTL targeting EBV, CMV, and Adv at a cost per 106 cells that is reduced by &gt;90%, and in just 10 days rather than 10 weeks using an approach that may be extended to additional protective viral antigens. Our FDA-approved approach should be of value for prophylactic and treatment applications for high risk allogeneic HSCT recipients.

A rapid, simple and cost-effective protocol for the generation of donor-derived multivirus-specific CTLs (rCTL) for infusion to allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients at risk of developing CMV, Adv or EBV infections. This manufacturing process is GMP-compliant and should ensure the broader implementation of T-cell immunotherapy beyond specialized centers.

同種造血幹細胞移植後のウイルス感染を予防/治療するMultivirus -特異的T細胞の生成

Viral infections cause morbidity and mortality in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. We and others have successfully ...

4D Multimodality Imaging of Citrobacter rodentium Infections in Mice

This protocol outlines the steps required to longitudinally monitor a bioluminescent bacterial infection using composite 3D diffuse light imaging tomography with integrated &mu;CT (DLIT-&mu;CT) and the subsequent use of this data to generate a four dimensional (4D) movie of the infection cycle. To develop the 4D infection movies and to validate the DLIT-&mu;CT imaging for bacterial infection studies using an IVIS Spectrum CT, we used infection with bioluminescent C. rodentium, which causes self-limiting colitis in mice. In this protocol, we outline the infection of mice with bioluminescent C. rodentium and non-invasive monitoring of colonization by daily DLIT-&mu;CT imaging and bacterial enumeration from feces for 8 days.
The use of the IVIS Spectrum CT facilitates seamless co-registration of optical and &mu;CT scans using a single imaging platform. The low dose &mu;CT modality enables the imaging of mice at multiple time points during infection, providing detailed anatomical localization of bioluminescent bacterial foci in 3D without causing artifacts from the cumulative radiation. Importantly, the 4D movies of infected mice provide a powerful analytical tool to monitor bacterial colonization dynamics in vivo.

4D Multimodality Imaging of Citrobacter rodentium Infections in Mice

Multi-modality imaging is a valuable approach for studying bacterial colonization in small animal models. This protocol outlines infection of mice with bioluminescent Citrobacter rodentium and the longitudinal monitoring of bacterial colonization using composite 3D diffuse light imaging tomography with &mu;CT imaging to create a 4D movie of C. rodentium infection.

の4Dのマルチモダリティイメージング<em&gt;シトロバクターrodentium</emマウスにおける&gt;感染症

This protocol outlines the steps required to  longitudinally monitor a bioluminescent bacterial infection using composite 3D diffuse light imaging ...

Fluorescence Microscopy Methods for Determining the Viability of Bacteria in Association with Mammalian Cells

Central to the field of bacterial pathogenesis is the ability to define if and how microbes survive after exposure to eukaryotic cells. Current protocols to address these questions include colony count assays, gentamicin protection assays, and electron microscopy. Colony count and gentamicin protection assays only assess the viability of the entire bacterial population and are unable to determine individual bacterial viability. Electron microscopy can be used to determine the viability of individual bacteria and provide information regarding their localization in host cells. However, bacteria often display a range of electron densities, making assessment of viability difficult. This article outlines protocols for the use of fluorescent dyes that reveal the viability of individual bacteria inside and associated with host cells. These assays were developed originally to assess survival of Neisseria gonorrhoeae in primary human neutrophils, but should be applicable to any bacterium-host cell interaction. These protocols combine membrane-permeable fluorescent dyes (SYTO9 and 4&#39;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole [DAPI]), which stain all bacteria, with membrane-impermeable fluorescent dyes (propidium iodide and SYTOX Green), which are only accessible to nonviable bacteria. Prior to eukaryotic cell permeabilization, an antibody or fluorescent reagent is added to identify extracellular bacteria. Thus these assays discriminate the viability of bacteria adherent to and inside eukaryotic cells. A protocol is also provided for using the viability dyes in combination with fluorescent antibodies to eukaryotic cell markers, in order to determine the subcellular localization of individual bacteria. The bacterial viability dyes discussed in this article are a sensitive complement and/or alternative to traditional microbiology techniques to evaluate the viability of individual bacteria and provide information regarding where bacteria survive in host cells.

Central to the field of bacterial pathogenesis is the ability to define if and how microbes survive after exposure to eukaryotic cells. This article outlines protocols for the use of fluorescent dyes that reveal the viability of individual bacteria inside and associated with host cells.

哺乳動物細胞に関連して細菌の生存を決定するための蛍光顕微鏡法

Central to the field of bacterial pathogenesis is the ability to define if and how microbes survive after exposure to eukaryotic cells. Current protocols ...

An Experimental Model to Study Tuberculosis-Malaria Coinfection upon Natural Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium berghei

Coinfections naturally occur due to the geographic overlap of distinct types of pathogenic organisms. Concurrent infections most likely modulate the respective immune response to each single pathogen and may thereby affect pathogenesis and disease outcome. Coinfected patients may also respond differentially to anti-infective interventions. Coinfection between tuberculosis as caused by mycobacteria and the malaria parasite Plasmodium, both of which are coendemic in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, has not been studied in detail. In order to approach the challenging but scientifically and clinically highly relevant question how malaria-tuberculosis coinfection modulate host immunity and the course of each disease, we established an experimental mouse model that allows us to dissect the elicited immune responses to both pathogens in the coinfected host. Of note, in order to most precisely mimic naturally acquired human infections, we perform experimental infections of mice with both pathogens by their natural routes of infection, i.e. aerosol and mosquito bite, respectively.

An Experimental Model to Study Tuberculosis-Malaria Coinfection upon Natural Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Plasmodium berghei

Tuberculosis and malaria are two of the most prevalent infections in humans and major causes of morbidity and mortality in impoverished populations in the tropics. We established an experimental model system to study outcome of malaria-tuberculosis coinfection in mice after challenge with both pathogens via their natural route of infection.

自然送信時に結核マラリア重複感染を研究する実験モデル結核菌とマラリアベルゲイ</i

Coinfections naturally occur due to the geographic overlap of distinct types of pathogenic organisms. Concurrent infections most likely modulate the ...

Generation and Multi-phenotypic High-content Screening of Coxiella burnetii Transposon Mutants

Invasion and colonization of host cells by bacterial pathogens depend on the activity of a large number of prokaryotic proteins, defined as virulence factors, which can subvert and manipulate key host functions. The study of host/pathogen interactions is therefore extremely important to understand bacterial infections and develop alternative strategies to counter infectious diseases. This approach however, requires the development of new high-throughput assays for the unbiased, automated identification and characterization of bacterial virulence determinants. Here, we describe a method for the generation of a GFP-tagged mutant library by transposon mutagenesis and the development of high-content screening approaches for the simultaneous identification of multiple transposon-associated phenotypes. Our working model is the intracellular bacterial pathogen Coxiellaburnetii, the etiological agent of the zoonosis Q fever, which is associated with severe outbreaks with a consequent health and economic burden. The obligate intracellular nature of this pathogen has, until recently, severely hampered the identification of bacterial factors involved in host pathogen interactions, making of Coxiella the ideal model for the implementation of high-throughput/high-content approaches.

Generation and Multi-phenotypic High-content Screening of Coxiella burnetii Transposon Mutants

Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium responsible for the zoonotic disease Q fever. Here we describe methods for the generation of Coxiella fluorescent transposon mutants as well as the automated identification and analysis of the resulting internalization, replication and cytotoxic phenotypes.

発生とのマルチ表現型ハイコンテンツスクリーニング<em&gt; Q熱リケッチア</em&gt;トランスポゾン変異体

Invasion and colonization of host cells by bacterial pathogens depend on the activity of a large number of prokaryotic proteins, defined as virulence ...

Using Zebrafish Models of Human Influenza A Virus Infections to Screen Antiviral Drugs and Characterize Host Immune Cell Responses

Each year, seasonal influenza outbreaks profoundly affect societies worldwide. In spite of global efforts, influenza remains an intractable healthcare burden. The principle strategy to curtail infections is yearly vaccination. In individuals who have contracted influenza, antiviral drugs can mitigate symptoms. There is a clear and unmet need to develop alternative strategies to combat influenza. Several animal models have been created to model host-influenza interactions. Here, protocols for generating zebrafish models for systemic and localized human influenza A virus (IAV) infection are described. Using a systemic IAV infection model, small molecules with potential antiviral activity can be screened. As a proof-of-principle, a protocol that demonstrates the efficacy of the antiviral drug Zanamivir in IAV-infected zebrafish is described. It shows how disease phenotypes can be quantified to score the relative efficacy of potential antivirals in IAV-infected zebrafish. In recent years, there has been increased appreciation for the critical role neutrophils play in the human host response to influenza infection. The zebrafish has proven to be an indispensable model for the study of neutrophil biology, with direct impacts on human medicine. A protocol to generate a localized IAV infection in the Tg(mpx:mCherry) zebrafish line to study neutrophil biology in the context of a localized viral infection is described. Neutrophil recruitment to localized infection sites provides an additional quantifiable phenotype for assessing experimental manipulations that may have therapeutic applications. Both zebrafish protocols described faithfully recapitulate aspects of human IAV infection. The zebrafish model possesses numerous inherent advantages, including high fecundity, optical clarity, amenability to drug screening, and availability of transgenic lines, including those in which immune cells such as neutrophils are labeled with fluorescent proteins. The protocols detailed here exploit these advantages and have the potential to reveal critical insights into host-IAV interactions that may ultimately translate into the clinic.

Systemic and localized zebrafish infection models for human influenza A virus are demonstrated. Using a systemic infection model, zebrafish can be used to screen antiviral drugs. Using a localized infection model, zebrafish can be used to characterize host immune cell responses.

抗ウイルス薬をスクリーニングし、宿主の免疫細胞応答を特徴づけるために、ヒトインフルエンザAウイルス感染のゼブラフィッシュモデルを使用して、

Each year, seasonal influenza outbreaks profoundly affect societies worldwide. In spite of global efforts, influenza remains an intractable healthcare ...

Analysis of Lymphocyte Extravasation Using an In Vitro Model of the Human Blood-brain Barrier

Lymphocyte extravasation into the central nervous system (CNS) is critical for immune surveillance. Disease-related alterations of lymphocyte extravasation might result in pathophysiological changes in the CNS. Thus, investigation of lymphocyte migration into the CNS is important to understand inflammatory CNS diseases and to develop new therapy approaches. Here we present an in vitro model of the human blood-brain barrier to study lymphocyte extravasation. Human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC) are confluently grown on a porous polyethylene terephthalate transwell insert to mimic the endothelium of the blood-brain barrier. Barrier function is validated by zonula occludens immunohistochemistry, transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements as well as analysis of evans blue permeation. This model allows investigation of the diapedesis of rare lymphocyte subsets such as CD56brightCD16dim/- NK cells. Furthermore, the effects of other cells, cytokines and chemokines, disease-related alterations, and distinct treatment regimens on the migratory capacity of lymphocytes can be studied. Finally, the impact of inflammatory stimuli as well as different treatment regimens on the endothelial barrier can be analyzed.

Analysis of Lymphocyte Extravasation Using an In Vitro Model of the Human Blood-brain Barrier

Here, we describe a human blood-brain barrier model enabling to investigate lymphocyte transmigration into the central nervous system in vitro.

使用してリンパ球血管外漏出の分析<em&gt;インビトロ</em&gt;ヒト血液脳関門のモデル

Lymphocyte extravasation into the central nervous system (CNS) is critical for immune surveillance. Disease-related alterations of lymphocyte ...

The WinCF Model - An Inexpensive and Tractable Microcosm of a Mucus Plugged Bronchiole to Study the Microbiology of Lung Infections

Many chronic airway diseases result in mucus plugging of the airways. Lungs of an individual with cystic fibrosis are an exemplary case where their mucus-plugged bronchioles create a favorable habitat for microbial colonization. Various pathogens thrive in this environment interacting with each other and driving many of the symptoms associated with CF disease. Like any microbial community, the chemical conditions of their habitat have a significant impact on the community structure and dynamics. For example, different microorganisms thrive in differing levels of oxygen or other solute concentrations. This is also true in the CF lung, where oxygen concentrations are believed to drive community physiology and structure. The methods described here are designed to mimic the lung environment and grow pathogens in a manner more similar to that from which they cause disease. Manipulation of the chemical surroundings of these microbes is then used to study how the chemistry of lung infections governs its microbial ecology. The method, called the WinCF system, is based on artificial sputum medium and narrow capillary tubes meant to provide an oxygen gradient similar to that which exists in mucus-plugged bronchioles. Manipulating chemical conditions, such as the media pH of the sputum or antibiotics pressure, allows for visualization of the microbiological differences in those samples using colored indicators, watching for gas or biofilm production, or extracting and sequencing the nucleic acid contents of each sample.

The mucus plugged airways of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients are an ideal environment for microbial pathogens to thrive. The manuscript describes a novel method for studying the CF lung microbiome in an environment that mimics where they cause disease and how alterations of chemical conditions can drive microbial dynamics.

WinCFモデル - 肺感染症の微生物学を研究するための粘液で閉鎖された細気管支の安価で収縮可能なマイクロコスモス

Many chronic airway diseases result in mucus plugging of the airways. Lungs of an individual with cystic fibrosis are an exemplary case where their ...

Confocal Imaging of Double-Stranded RNA and Pattern Recognition Receptors in Negative-Sense RNA Virus Infection

Double-stranded (ds) RNA is produced as a replicative intermediate during RNA virus infection. Recognition of dsRNA by host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as the retinoic acid (RIG-I) like receptors (RLRs) RIG-I and melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5 (MDA-5) leads to the induction of the innate immune response. The formation and intracellular distribution of dsRNA in positive-sense RNA virus infection has been well characterized by microscopy. Many negative-sense RNA viruses, including some arenaviruses, trigger the innate immune response during infection. However, negative-sense RNA viruses were thought to produce low levels of dsRNA, which hinders the imaging study of PRR recognition of viral dsRNA. Additionally, infection experiments with highly pathogenic arenaviruses must be performed in high containment biosafety level facilities (BSL-4). The interaction between viral RNA and PRRs for highly pathogenic RNA virus is largely unknown due to the additional technical challenges that researchers need to face in the BSL-4 facilities. Recently, a monoclonal antibody (Mab) (clone 9D5) originally used for pan-enterovirus detection has been found to specifically detect dsRNA with a higher sensitivity than the traditional J2 or K1 anti-dsRNA antibodies. Herein, by utilizing the 9D5 antibody, we describe a confocal microscopy protocol that has been used successfully to visualize dsRNA, viral protein and PRR simultaneously in individual cells infected by arenavirus. The protocol is also suitable for imaging studies of dsRNA and PRR distribution in pathogenic arenavirus infected cells in BSL4 facilities.

Double-stranded RNA produced during RNA virus replication can be recognized by pattern recognition receptors to induce an innate immune response. For negative-sense RNA viruses, the interaction between the low-level dsRNA and PRRs remains unclear. We have developed a confocal microscopy method to visualize arenavirus dsRNA and PRR in individual cells.

二本鎖 RNA と否定的な感覚の RNA のウイルス感染におけるパターン認識受容体の共焦点レーザー顕微鏡

Double-stranded (ds) RNA is produced as a replicative intermediate during RNA virus infection. Recognition of dsRNA by host pattern recognition receptors ...