This work was supported by Grants AI064184 and AI76322 from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and by Grant 61789-MA-MUR from the Army Research Office to M.S.T. Research was also supported by Welch Foundation Grant F1155 and NIH grant R01GM103655 to J.S. B.

All solutions should be prepared with ultrapure water and HPLC grade methanol and chloroform. Prepared solutions that contain organic solvents such as methanol, chloroform, or pyridine and concentrated acids or bases should be prepared and used under a chemical fume hood. All solutions can be stored at RT. Solvents should be measured in a graduated glass cylinder and stored in glass solvent bottles with PTFE lined caps. For long-term storage chloroform-containing solvents should be stored in tinted amber glass bottles to...

In this protocol we have detailed the isolation of lipid A species from whole cells of bacteria, and described TLC or MS based analytical methods to chemically characterize this isolated material. Tandem mass spectrometry is a powerful strategy for de novo structural characterization of biological compounds, and is invaluable for the chemical characterization of the panoply of lipid A molecules observed in nature. CID and UVPD are two complementary activation methods that create different types of product ions t...

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the major outer surface molecule of nearly all gram-negative organisms and consists of three molecular domains: a distal O-antigen polysaccharide, a core oligosaccharide, and the membrane-associated lipid A domain deposited on the outer leaflet of the outer membrane bilayer1,2. The lipid A domain consists of 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic (Kdo) residues and a lipid A molecular species, where lipid A can be defined as the chloroform soluble portion of LPS upon mild-acid hydrolysis1,2. The standard lipid A molecule can be chemically defined as a diglucosamine backbone that is hexa-acylated and bis-phosphorylated; consistent with the major lipid A species observed in the model organism Escherichia coli (E. coli)1,2. Nine constitutively expressed genes, conserved throughout gram-negative bacteria, are responsible for the production of the lipid A domain (Figure 1)1,2. Most bacteria have an additional set of genes, which vary in degree of phylogenetic conservation, that participate in further chemical modification of lipid A3. Dephosphorylation, removal of acyl chains, and the addition of chemical moieties such as amino sugars (e.g. aminoarabinose) and/or phosphoethanolamine are the most commonly observed activities (Figure 1). Many of the enzymes responsible for lipid A modification are directly activated by environmental signals, such as divalent cations, or their expression is regulated by two component response-regulator systems3.
Recognition of lipid A species by the host innate immune system is mediated by the Toll-like receptor 4/myeloid differentiation factor 2 (TLR4/MD2) co-receptor4. Hydrophobic forces between MD2 and the lipid A acyl chains, as well as between TLR4 and the 1 and 4 'phosphate groups of lipid A promote the strong association of lipid A with TLR4/MD24,5. Modifications that alter acylation state or the negative charge of lipid A impact TLR4/MD2 based lipid A recognition and downstream stimulation of the innate immune response activators NF-&kappa;B and mediators of inflammation such as TNF&alpha; and IL1-&beta;6,7. Modifications that mask the negative charge of lipid A also prevent bactericidal cationic antimicrobial peptides from binding to gram-negative cell surfaces3,8. Many lipid A modifications are hypothesized to increase bacterial fitness under specific environmental conditions, such as inside the human host or in an ecological niche. For this reason many modification enzymes are attractive targets in the rational development of antimicrobial compounds. The chemical diversity of lipid A structures, with respect to organism and/or environment, and the biological implications of these diverse structures make the structural characterization of lipid A an important endeavor in the study of gram-negative bacteria.
Isolation of lipid A molecules from whole bacteria involves the extraction of LPS from the bacterial cell surface, a hydrolytic step to liberate lipid A, followed by a final purification procedure9-11. The most frequently cited LPS extraction procedure is the hot-phenol water extraction procedure, first introduced by Westphal and Jann10. After extraction whole LPS is subjected to mild-acid hydrolysis, which chemically separates Kdo from the 6'-hydroxyl of the distal glucosamine sugar of lipid A (Figure 1). Numerous pitfalls exist for the hot-phenol water procedure including the use of a high hazard reagent, the need to degrade co-extracted nucleic acids and proteins, and several days are required to complete the protocol10.
Our lab has further developed the extraction and isolation of lipid A as first developed by Caroff and Raetz12,13. Compared to hot-phenol water procedures, the method presented here is more rapid and efficient and accommodates a wide range of culture volumes from 5 ml to multiple liters. Moreover, unlike hot-phenol water extractions, our method does not select for rough- or smooth-types of LPS, providing optimal recovery of lipid A species. In our protocol, chemical lysis of whole bacterial cells is performed using a mixture of chloroform, methanol and water, where LPS can be pelleted by centrifugation. A combination of mild-acid hydrolysis and solvent extractions (Bligh-Dyer) are used to liberate lipid A from covalently attached polysaccharide. The method of Bligh and Dyer was first applied to the extraction of lipid species from a variety of animal and plant tissues14, modified here to separate hydrolyzed polysaccharide from lipid A. In this final separation step, chloroform soluble lipids selectively partition into the lower organic phase. To further purify lipid A, reverse-phase or anionic exchange column chromatography can be used12.
After isolation of lipid A species from whole cells, a number of analytical methods can be used to characterize the chemical structure of the isolated material such as NMR, TLC, and MS-based analysis. NMR allows for non-destructive structural elucidation, and provides structural detail related to glycosidic linkages, unequivocal assignment of acyl chain positions, and assignment of attachment sites for lipid A modifications like aminoarabinose or phosphoethanolamine15-17. NMR analysis of lipid A is not discussed within our protocol, but has been described adequately elsewhere15,16. For rapid analysis TLC based methods are frequently used, but fail to provide direct information regarding fine chemical structure. MS based protocols are the most frequently employed method to characterize lipid A structures18,19. Matrix associated laser desorption ionization (MALDI)-MS is often used to initially survey intact lipid A species. Singly charged ions are generated from analyte prepared according to our extraction procedures. As more fine structural analysis is required, MS/MS based methods prove more informative than MALDI-MS. Coupled to electrospray ionization (ESI) singly or multiply charged lipid A precursor ions are further fragmented by collision induced dissociation (CID) or ultraviolet photodissociation (UVPD), to generate structurally informative product ions18,20,21. Neutral loss products from lipid A precursor ions are also frequently generated during ESI-MS providing an additional layer of structural information.
Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) has proven to be an indispensable and versatile method for the elucidation of lipid A structures. During MS/MS, ions are activated to yield a diagnostic fragmentation pattern that can be used to elucidate the structure of the precursor ion. The most widely available MS/MS method is CID. This method produces fragment ions via collisions of the selected precursor ion with an inert target gas, resulting in energy deposition that leads to dissociation. CID has proven a critical tool in the assignment of lipid A structure for a wide range of bacterial species22-33.
Although CID is the most universally implemented MS/MS method, it generates a limited array of product ions. 193 nm UVPD is an alternative and complementary MS/MS method. This method uses a laser to irradiate ions, and the absorption of photons results in energization of the ions and subsequent dissociation. This higher energy MS/MS technique produces a more diverse array of product ions than CID and thus provides more informative fragmentation patterns. In particular, UVPD affords information about subtle changes in lipid A species based on cleavages at glycosidic, amine, acyl and C-C linked bonds18,21,34.

<table border="1">
		<tbody>
		 <tr>
			<td>Name of Reagent/Material</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C607</td>
			<td>HPLC Grade</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A452</td>
			<td>HPLC Grade</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Teflon FEP Centrifuge Bottles</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-562-21</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Silica Gel 60 TLC Plates</td>
			<td>EMD Biosciences</td>
			<td>5626-6</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Grade No. 3MM Chromatography Paper</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td>3030700</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Orbitrap Elite</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Mass Spectrometer</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>ExciStar XS Excimer Lasrer</td>
			<td>Coherent Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>PicoTip Nanospray ESI emitters</td>
			<td>New Obectives</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>&ge; 30 &mu;m to reduce clogging</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Model 505 Pulse/Delay Generator</td>
			<td>Berkeley Nucleonics Corporation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Hot Plate Thermoylne 2200</td>
			<td>Barnstead/Thermolyne</td>
			<td>HPA2235MQ</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>16x125 mm GPI 15-415 Threaded Disposable Borosilicate Culture Tubes</td>
			<td>Corning Pyrex</td>
			<td>99449-16X</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Reusable Threaded PTFE screw caps GPI 45-415</td>
			<td>Corning </td>
			<td>9999-152</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Personal Molecular Imager System (phosphorimager)</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>170-9400</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Autoradiography Cassette</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FBCS810</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Phosphorscreen SO230</td>
			<td>Kodak</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Peptide Mass Standards Kit</td>
			<td>Sequazyme</td>
			<td>P2-3143-00</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Sonifier S250-A</td>
			<td>Branson</td>
			<td>101063196</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>1.5 ml 12x32 mm Tapered Base Screw Thread Vial</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>C4000-V1</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		</tbody>
 </table>

isolation and chemical characterization of lipid a from gram-negative bacteria

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the major cell surface molecule of gram-negative bacteria, deposited on the outer leaflet of the outer membrane bilayer. LPS can be subdivided into three domains: the distal O-polysaccharide, a core oligosaccharide, and the lipid A domain consisting of a lipid A molecular species and 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid residues (Kdo). The lipid A domain is the only component essential for bacterial cell survival. Following its synthesis, lipid A is chemically modified in response to environmental stresses such as pH or temperature, to promote resistance to antibiotic compounds, and to evade recognition by mediators of the host innate immune response. The following protocol details the small- and large-scale isolation of lipid A from gram-negative bacteria. Isolated material is then chemically characterized by thin layer chromatography (TLC) or mass-spectrometry (MS). In addition to matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) MS, we also describe tandem MS protocols for analyzing lipid A molecular species using electrospray ionization (ESI) coupled to collision induced dissociation (CID) and newly employed ultraviolet photodissociation (UVPD) methods. Our MS protocols allow for unequivocal determination of chemical structure, paramount to characterization of lipid A molecules that contain unique or novel chemical modifications. We also describe the radioisotopic labeling, and subsequent isolation, of lipid A from bacterial cells for analysis by TLC. Relative to MS-based protocols, TLC provides a more economical and rapid characterization method, but cannot be used to unambiguously assign lipid A chemical structures without the use of standards of known chemical structure. Over the last two decades isolation and characterization of lipid A has led to numerous exciting discoveries that have improved our understanding of the physiology of gram-negative bacteria, mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, the human innate immune response, and have provided many new targets in the development of antibacterial compounds.

Canonical lipid A of E. coli and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium is a hexa-acylated disaccharide of glucosamine with phosphate groups at the 1- and 4 '-positions. During growth in rich media (e.g. Luria Broth) a portion of the lipid A contains a pyrophosphate group at the 1-position yielding a tris-phosphorylated species36 (Figure 1). Kdo (3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid), is attached at the 6'-hydroxyl and serves as a bridge to link lipid ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolation and Chemical Characterization of Lipid A from Gram-negative Bacteria at JoVE.com

Isolation and Chemical Characterization of Lipid A from Gram-negative Bacteria

Isolation and characterization of the lipid A domain of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from gram-negative bacteria provides insight into cell surface based mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, bacterial survival and fitness, and how chemically diverse lipid A molecular species differentially modulate host innate immune responses.

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the major cell surface molecule of gram-negative bacteria, deposited on the outer leaflet of the outer membrane bilayer. LPS ...

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31.3K ビュー.  The University of Texas at Austin. グラム陰性菌からのリポ多糖（LPS）のリピドAドメインの単離および特徴は、細胞表面の抗生物質耐性のベースのメ​​カニズム、細菌の生存やフィットネス、そしてどのように化学的に多様な脂質分子種が差ホスト自然免疫応答を調節への洞察を提供します。 

ビデオ: Isolation and Chemical Characterization of Lipid A from Gram-negative Bacteria

Isolation and characterization of the lipid A domain of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from gram-negative bacteria provides insight into cell surface based mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, bacterial survival and fitness, and how chemically diverse lipid A molecular species differentially modulate host innate immune...

purification and visualization of lipopolysaccharide from gram-negative bacteria by hot aqueous-phenol extraction

Purification and Visualization of Lipopolysaccharide from Gram-negative Bacteria by Hot Aqueous-phenol Extraction

We describe a modified hot aqueous-phenol extraction method for purifying lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Gram-negative bacteria.  Once extracted, the LPS can be subsequently analyzed by SDS-PAGE and visualized by direct staining or Western...

rapid identification of gram negative bacteria from blood culture broth using maldi-tof mass spectrometry

Rapid Identification of Gram Negative Bacteria from Blood Culture Broth Using MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry

The application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS) directly to blood culture broth expedites the identification of bacteria. The presented method is a rapid and reliable method for identification of Gram negative bacteria directly from blood culture...

microfluidic acoustophoresis for flowthrough separation of gram-negative bacteria using aptamer affinity beads

Microfluidic Acoustophoresis for Flowthrough Separation of Gram-Negative Bacteria using Aptamer Affinity Beads

This paper describesthe fabrication and operation of microfluidic acoustophoretic chips using the microfluidic acoustophoresis technique and aptamer-modified microbeads that can be used for fast, efficient isolation of Gram-negative bacteria from a...

generating transposon insertion libraries in gram-negative bacteria for high-throughput sequencing

Generating Transposon Insertion Libraries in Gram-Negative Bacteria for High-Throughput Sequencing

We describe a method to generate saturating transposon mutant libraries in Gram-negative bacteria and subsequent preparation of DNA amplicon libraries for high-throughput sequencing. As an example, we focus on the ESKAPE pathogen, Acinetobacter baumannii, but this protocol is amenable to a wide range of Gram-negative...

essential metal uptake in gram-negative bacteria: x-ray fluorescence, radioisotopes, and cell fractionation

Essential Metal Uptake in Gram-negative Bacteria: X-ray Fluorescence, Radioisotopes, and Cell Fractionation

A protocol for the extraction of a periplasmic transition metal chaperone in the context of its native binding partners, and biophysical characterization of its substrate contents by X-ray fluorescence and radiometal uptake is...

a neonatal imaging model of gram-negative bacterial sepsis

A Neonatal Imaging Model of Gram-Negative Bacterial Sepsis

Infection of neonatal mice with bioluminescent E. coli O1:K1:H7 results in a septic infection with significant pulmonary inflammation and lung pathology. Here, we describe procedures to model and further study neonatal sepsis using longitudinal intravital imaging in parallel with enumeration of systemic bacterial burdens, inflammatory profiling, and lung...

separation of the cell envelope for gram-negative bacteria into inner and outer membrane fractions with technical adjustments for acinetobacter baumannii

Separation of the Cell Envelope for Gram-negative Bacteria into Inner and Outer Membrane Fractions with Technical Adjustments for Acinetobacter baumannii

Gram-negative bacteria produce two spatially segregated membranes. The outer membrane is partitioned from the inner membrane by a periplasm and a peptidoglycan layer. The ability to isolate the dual bilayers of these microbes has been critical for understanding their physiology and...

Separation of the Cell Envelope for Gram-negative Bacteria into Inner and Outer Membrane Fractions with Technical Adjustments for Acinetobacter baumannii

chemical isolation, quantification, and separation of skin lipids from reptiles

Chemical Isolation, Quantification, and Separation of Skin Lipids from Reptiles

In reptiles, skin lipids from conspecifics are crucial for sexual signaling, with potential use in invasive species management. Here, we describe protocols for extracting skin lipids from shed skin or whole animals, determining and analyzing the total lipid mass, and separating the lipids using fractionation via column...

ms2-affinity purification coupled with rna sequencing in gram-positive bacteria

MS2-Affinity Purification Coupled with RNA Sequencing in Gram-Positive Bacteria

MAPS technology has been developed to scrutinize the targetome of a specific regulatory RNA in vivo. The sRNA of interest is tagged with a MS2 aptamer enabling the co-purification of its RNA partners and their identification by RNA sequencing. This modified protocol is particularly suited for Gram-positive...

scalable isolation and purification of extracellular vesicles from escherichia coli and other bacteria

Scalable Isolation and Purification of Extracellular Vesicles from Escherichia coli and Other Bacteria

Bacteria secrete nanometer-sized extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying bioactive biological molecules. EV research focuses on understanding their biogenesis, role in microbe-microbe and host-microbe interactions and disease, as well as their potential therapeutic applications. A workflow for scalable isolation of EVs from various bacteria is presented to facilitate standardization of EV...

Scalable Isolation and Purification of Extracellular Vesicles from Escherichia coli and Other Bacteria

plastoglobule lipid droplet isolation from plant leaf tissue and cyanobacteria

Plastoglobule Lipid Droplet Isolation from Plant Leaf Tissue and Cyanobacteria

A fast and efficient protocol is presented for the isolation of plastoglobule lipid droplets associated with various photosynthetic organisms. The successful preparation of isolated plastoglobules is a crucial first step that precedes detailed molecular investigations such as proteomic and lipidomic...

isolation and identification of waterborne antibiotic-resistant bacteria and molecular characterization of their antibiotic resistance genes

Isolation and Identification of Waterborne Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Molecular Characterization of their Antibiotic Resistance Genes

Here, we present a detailed protocol for the isolation and identification of antibiotic-resistant bacteria from water and the molecular characterization of their antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). The use of culture-based and non-culture-based (metagenomic analysis) techniques provides complete information about the total bacterial diversity and the total pool of different ARGs present in freshwaters from Mumbai,...

characterization and functional prediction of bacteria in ovarian tissues

Characterization and Functional Prediction of Bacteria in Ovarian Tissues

Immunohistochemistry staining and 16S ribosomal RNA gene (16S rRNA gene) sequencing were performed in order to discover and distinguish bacteria in cancerous and noncancerous ovarian tissues in situ. The compositional and functional differences of the bacteria were predicted by using BugBase and Phylogenetic Investigation of Communities by Reconstruction of Unobserved States...

isolation of l-form bacteria from urine using filtration method

Isolation of L-form Bacteria from Urine using Filtration Method

Here, we present a protocol for the isolation of L-form bacteria from urine, using a filtration method. Complementary methods for the preparation of L-form medium, observation of L-forms by phase-contrast microscopy and induction of L-forms under laboratory conditions are also...

swab-based conjunctival commensal bacteria isolation: a technique to isolate commensal bacteria from conjunctiva of murine model

This video describes a swab-based technique to isolate viable commensal bacteria from the ocular conjunctiva. The technique can be used to profile the commensal bacterial microbiome of the conjunctiva, which plays a defensive role against...

Swab-based Conjunctival Commensal Bacteria Isolation: A Technique to Isolate Commensal Bacteria from Conjunctiva of Murine Model

isolation and characterization of microvesicles from peripheral blood

Isolation and Characterization of Microvesicles from Peripheral Blood

Extracellular vesicles present in blood have been suggested as novel biomarkers for various diseases. Here, we present a protocol for the isolation of large plasma membrane-derived microvesicles from peripheral blood samples and their subsequent analysis by conventional flow cytometry and Western Blotting.

collection, isolation and enrichment of naturally occurring magnetotactic bacteria from the environment

Collection, Isolation and Enrichment of Naturally Occurring Magnetotactic Bacteria from the Environment

We demonstrate a method to collect magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) that can be applied to natural waters.  MTB can be isolated and enriched from sediment samples using a relatively simple setup that takes advantage of the bacteria's natural magnetism.  Isolated MTB can then be examined in detail using both light and electron...

isolation of double negative &#945;&#946; t cells from the kidney

Isolation of Double Negative &amp;#945;&amp;#946; T Cells from the Kidney

DNabT cells are rare among peripheral T cells; however, they are abundant in certain non-lymphoid tissues. Difficulty of isolating DN T cells from non-lymphoid tissue hinders their functional analysis despite increasing recognized pathophysiologic significance. We describe a novel protocol for isolation of highly purified DN T cells from murine...

Isolation of Double Negative &#945;&#946; T Cells from the Kidney

isolation and characterization of exosomes from skeletal muscle fibroblasts

Isolation and Characterization of Exosomes from Skeletal Muscle Fibroblasts

This protocol illustrates the 1) the isolation and culture of primary fibroblasts from the adult mouse gastrocnemius muscle as well as 2) purification and characterization of exosomes using a differential ultracentrifugation method combined with sucrose density gradients followed by western blot...

Free Radicals in Chemical Biology: from Chemical Behavior to Biomarker Development

The involvement of free radicals in life sciences has constantly increased with time and has been connected to several physiological and pathological processes. This subject embraces diverse scientific areas, spanning from physical, biological and bioorganic chemistry to biology and medicine, with applications to the amelioration of quality of life, health and aging. Multidisciplinary skills are required for the full investigation of the many facets of radical processes in the biological environment and chemical knowledge plays a crucial role in unveiling basic processes and mechanisms. We developed a chemical biology approach able to connect free radical chemical reactivity with biological processes, providing information on the mechanistic pathways and products. The core of this approach is the design of biomimetic models to study biomolecule behavior (lipids, nucleic acids and proteins) in aqueous systems, obtaining insights of the reaction pathways as well as building up molecular libraries of the free radical reaction products. This context can be successfully used for biomarker discovery and examples are provided with two classes of compounds: mono-trans isomers of cholesteryl esters, which are synthesized and used as references for detection in human plasma, and purine 5',8-cyclo-2'-deoxyribonucleosides, prepared and used as reference in the protocol for detection of such lesions in DNA samples, after ionizing radiations or obtained from different health conditions.

Radical-based biomimetic chemistry has been applied to building-up libraries necessary for biomarker development.

The involvement of free radicals in life sciences has constantly increased with time and has been connected to several physiological and pathological ...

Folding and Characterization of a Bio-responsive Robot from DNA Origami

The DNA nanorobot is a hollow hexagonal nanometric device, designed to open in response to specific stimuli and present cargo sequestered inside. Both stimuli and cargo can be tailored according to specific needs. Here we describe the DNA nanorobot fabrication protocol, with the use of the DNA origami technique. The procedure initiates by mixing short single-strand DNA staples into a stock mixture which is then added to a long, circular, single-strand DNA scaffold in presence of a folding buffer. A standard thermo cycler is programmed to gradually lower the mixing reaction temperature to facilitate the staples-to-scaffold annealing, which is the guiding force behind the folding of the nanorobot. Once the 60 hr folding reaction is complete, excess staples are discarded using a centrifugal filter, followed by visualization via agarose-gel electrophoresis (AGE). Finally, successful fabrication of the nanorobot is verified by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), with the use of uranyl-formate as negative stain.

DNA origami is a powerful method for fabricating precise nanoscale objects by programming the self-assembly of DNA molecules. Here we describe a protocol for the folding of a bio-responsive robot from DNA origami, its purification and negative staining for transmission electron microscopic imaging (TEM).

The DNA nanorobot is a hollow hexagonal nanometric device, designed to open in response to specific stimuli and present cargo sequestered inside. Both ...

Nucleoside Triphosphates - From Synthesis to Biochemical Characterization

The traditional strategy for the introduction of chemical functionalities is the use of solid-phase synthesis by appending suitably modified phosphoramidite precursors to the nascent chain. However, the conditions used during the synthesis and the restriction to rather short sequences hamper the applicability of this methodology. On the other hand, modified nucleoside triphosphates are activated building blocks that have been employed for the mild introduction of numerous functional groups into nucleic acids, a strategy that paves the way for the use of modified nucleic acids in a wide-ranging palette of practical applications such as functional tagging and generation of ribozymes and DNAzymes. One of the major challenges resides in the intricacy of the methodology leading to the isolation and characterization of these nucleoside analogues.
	
	In this video article, we present a detailed protocol for the synthesis of these modified analogues using phosphorous(III)-based reagents. In addition, the procedure for their biochemical characterization is divulged, with a special emphasis on primer extension reactions and TdT tailing polymerization. This detailed protocol will be of use for the crafting of modified dNTPs and their further use in chemical biology.

The protocol described herein aims to explain and abridge the numerous obstacles in the way of the intricate route leading to modified nucleoside triphosphates. Consequently, this protocol facilitates both the synthesis of these activated building-blocks and their availability for practical applications.

The  traditional strategy for the introduction of chemical functionalities is the  use of solid-phase synthesis by appending suitably modified ...

An Inverse Analysis Approach to the Characterization of Chemical Transport in Paints

The ability to directly characterize chemical transport and interactions that occur within a material (i.e., subsurface dynamics) is a vital component in understanding contaminant mass transport and the ability to decontaminate materials. If a material is contaminated, over time, the transport of highly toxic chemicals (such as chemical warfare agent species) out of the material can result in vapor exposure or transfer to the skin, which can result in percutaneous exposure to personnel who interact with the material. Due to the high toxicity of chemical warfare agents, the release of trace chemical quantities is of significant concern. Mapping subsurface concentration distribution and transport characteristics of absorbed agents enables exposure hazards to be assessed in untested conditions. Furthermore, these tools can be used to characterize subsurface reaction dynamics to ultimately design improved decontaminants or decontamination procedures. To achieve this goal, an inverse analysis mass transport modeling approach was developed that utilizes time-resolved mass spectroscopy measurements of vapor emission from contaminated paint coatings as the input parameter for calculation of subsurface concentration profiles. Details are provided on sample preparation, including contaminant and material handling, the application of mass spectrometry for the measurement of emitted contaminant vapor, and the implementation of inverse analysis using a physics-based diffusion model to determine transport properties of live chemical warfare agents including distilled mustard (HD) and the nerve agent VX.

In this paper, a procedure for quantifying the mass transport parameters of chemicals in various materials is presented. This process involves employing an inverse-analysis based diffusion model to vapor emission profiles recorded by real-time, mass spectrometry in high vacuum.

The ability to directly characterize chemical transport and interactions that occur within a material (i.e., subsurface dynamics) is a vital component in ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Metal-organic Frameworks

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and technological applications. Their signature property is their ultrahigh porosity, which however imparts a series of challenges when it comes to both constructing them and working with them. Securing desired MOF chemical and physical functionality by linker/node assembly into a highly porous framework of choice can pose difficulties, as less porous and more thermodynamically stable congeners (e.g., other crystalline polymorphs, catenated analogues) are often preferentially obtained by conventional synthesis methods. Once the desired product is obtained, its characterization often requires specialized techniques that address complications potentially arising from, for example, guest-molecule loss or preferential orientation of microcrystallites. Finally, accessing the large voids inside the MOFs for use in applications that involve gases can be problematic, as frameworks may be subject to collapse during removal of solvent molecules (remnants of solvothermal synthesis). In this paper, we describe synthesis and characterization methods routinely utilized in our lab either to solve or circumvent these issues. The methods include solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries, and materials activation (cavity evacuation) by supercritical CO2 drying. Finally, we provide a protocol for determining a suitable pressure region for applying the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis to nitrogen isotherms, so as to estimate surface area of MOFs with good accuracy.

Synthesis, activation, and characterization of intentionally designed metal-organic framework materials is challenging, especially when building blocks are incompatible or unwanted polymorphs are thermodynamically favored over desired forms. We describe how applications of solvent-assisted linker exchange, powder X-ray diffraction in capillaries and activation via supercritical CO2 drying, can address some of these challenges.

Metal-organic frameworks have attracted extraordinary amounts of research attention, as they are attractive candidates for numerous industrial and ...

Preparing Adherent Cells for X-ray Fluorescence Imaging by Chemical Fixation

X-ray fluorescence imaging allows us to non-destructively measure the spatial distribution and concentration of multiple elements simultaneously over large or small sample areas. It has been applied in many areas of science, including materials science, geoscience, studying works of cultural heritage, and in chemical biology. In the case of chemical biology, for example, visualizing the metal distributions within cells allows us to study both naturally-occurring metal ions in the cells, as well as exogenously-introduced metals such as drugs and nanoparticles. Due to the fully hydrated nature of nearly all biological samples, cryo-fixation followed by imaging under cryogenic temperature represents the ideal imaging modality currently available. However, under the circumstances that such a combination is not easily accessible or practical, aldehyde based chemical fixation remains useful and sometimes inevitable. This article describes in as much detail as possible in the preparation of adherent mammalian cells by chemical fixation for X-ray fluorescent imaging.

Here, we present a protocol on how to determine the quantity and distribution of metals in a sample using synchrotron X-ray fluorescence. We focus on adherent cells, and describe the chemical fixation method to prepare this sample. We then describe how to mount and image the sample using synchrotron X-rays.

X-ray fluorescence imaging allows us to non-destructively measure the spatial distribution and concentration of multiple elements simultaneously over ...

Synthesis and Characterization of Supramolecular Colloids

Control over colloidal assembly is of utmost importance for the development of functional colloidal materials with tailored structural and mechanical properties for applications in photonics, drug delivery and coating technology. Here we present a new family of colloidal building blocks, coined supramolecular colloids, whose self-assembly is controlled through surface-functionalization with a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) derived supramolecular moiety. Such BTAs interact via directional, strong, yet reversible hydrogen-bonds with other identical BTAs. Herein, a protocol is presented that describes how to couple these BTAs to colloids and how to quantify the number of coupling sites, which determines the multivalency of the supramolecular colloids. Light scattering measurements show that the refractive index of the colloids is almost matched with that of the solvent, which strongly reduces the van der Waals forces between the colloids. Before photo-activation, the colloids remain well dispersed, as the BTAs are equipped with a photo-labile group that blocks the formation of hydrogen-bonds. Controlled deprotection with UV-light activates the short-range hydrogen-bonds between the BTAs, which triggers the colloidal self-assembly. The evolution from the dispersed state to the clustered state is monitored by confocal microscopy. These results are further quantified by image analysis with simple routines using ImageJ and Matlab. This merger of supramolecular chemistry and colloidal science offers a direct route towards light- and thermo-responsive colloidal assembly encoded in the surface-grafted monolayer.

A protocol for the synthesis and characterization of colloids coated with supramolecular moieties is described. These supramolecular colloids undergo self-assembly upon the activation of the hydrogen-bonds between the surface-anchored molecules by UV-light.

Control over colloidal assembly is of utmost importance for the development of functional colloidal materials with tailored structural and mechanical ...

Microfluidic Dry-spinning and Characterization of Regenerated Silk Fibroin Fibers

The protocol demonstrates a method for mimicking the spinning process of silkworm. In the native spinning process, the contracting spinning duct enables the silk proteins to be compact and ordered by shearing and elongation forces. Here, a biomimetic microfluidic channel was designed to mimic the specific geometry of the spinning duct of the silkworm. Regenerated silk fibroin (RSF) spinning doped with high concentration, was extruded through the microchannel to dry-spin fibers at ambient temperature and pressure. In the post-treated process, the as-spun fibers were drawn and stored in ethanol aqueous solution. Synchrotron radiation wide-angle X-ray diffraction (SR-WAXD) technology was used to investigate the microstructure of single RSF fibers, which were fixed to a sample holder with the RSF fiber axis normal to the microbeam of the X-ray. The crystallinity, crystallite size, and crystalline orientation of the fiber were calculated from the WAXD data. The diffraction arcs near the equator of the two-dimensional WAXD pattern indicate that the post-treated RSF fiber has a high orientation degree.

A protocol for the microfluidic spinning and microstructure characterization of regenerated silk fibroin monofilament is presented.

The protocol demonstrates a method for mimicking the spinning process of silkworm. In the native spinning process, the contracting spinning duct enables ...

Synthesis and Evaluation of a Ruthenium-based Mitochondrial Calcium Uptake Inhibitor

We detail the synthesis and purification of a mitochondrial calcium uptake inhibitor, [(OH2)(NH3)4Ru(&#181;-O)Ru(NH3)4(OH2)]5+. The optimized synthesis of this compound commences from [Ru(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 in 1 M NH4OH in a closed container, yielding a green solution. Purification is accomplished with cation-exchange chromatography. This compound is characterized and verified to be pure by UV-vis and IR spectroscopy. The mitochondrial calcium uptake inhibitory properties are assessed in permeabilized HeLa cells by fluorescence spectroscopy.

A protocol for the synthesis, purification, and characterization of a ruthenium-based inhibitor of mitochondrial calcium uptake is presented. A procedure to evaluate its efficacy in permeabilized mammalian cells is demonstrated.

We detail the synthesis and purification of a mitochondrial calcium uptake inhibitor, [(OH2)(NH3)4Ru(&#181;-O)Ru(NH3)4(OH2)]5+. The optimized synthesis of ...

An Engineered Split-TET2 Enzyme for Chemical-inducible DNA Hydroxymethylation and Epigenetic Remodeling

DNA methylation is a stable and heritable epigenetic modification in the mammalian genome and is involved in regulating gene expression to control cellular functions. The reversal of DNA methylation, or DNA demethylation, is mediated by the ten-eleven translocation (TET) protein family of dioxygenases. Although it has been widely reported that aberrant DNA methylation and demethylation are associated with developmental defects and cancer, how these epigenetic changes directly contribute to the subsequent alteration in gene expression or disease progression remains unclear, largely owing to the lack of reliable tools to accurately add or remove DNA modifications in the genome at defined temporal and spatial resolution. To overcome this hurdle, we designed a split-TET2 enzyme to enable temporal control of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) oxidation and subsequent remodeling of epigenetic states in mammalian cells by simply adding chemicals. Here, we describe methods for introducing a chemical-inducible epigenome remodeling tool (CiDER), based on an engineered split-TET2 enzyme, into mammalian cells and quantifying the chemical inducible production of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC) with immunostaining, flow cytometry or a dot-blot assay. This chemical-inducible epigenome remodeling tool will find broad use in interrogating cellular systems without altering the genetic code, as well as in probing the epigenotype&#8722;phenotype relations in various biological systems.

Detailed protocols for introducing an engineered split-TET2 enzyme (CiDER) into mammalian cells for chemical inducible DNA hydroxymethylation and epigenetic remodeling are presented.