This work was supported by NIH Grants 068625, NSF Grants 1063188 and Center of the Physics of Living Cells 0822613. Special thanks go to Dr. Marina Marjanovic in Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology for the gift of rabbit eyes.

Ethics Statement: The cornea tissue from rabbits was collected in accordance with the University of Illinois Institutional Animal Care and Use guidelines.
1. TIRFM Setup
NOTE: Wear laser-safety goggles all the time.
<ol>
	<li>Make sure that all necessary optical components listed in the List of Materials are available and ready for alignment. If needed, use substitutes with equivalent functions from other companies. Ensure that Mirrors and lenses should have anti-...

<ol>
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D., Selvin, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinesin+Walks+Hand-Over-Hand.">Kinesin Walks Hand-Over-Hand.</a> Science. 303 (5658), 676-678 (2004).</li><li>Yildiz, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myosin+VI+Steps+via+a+Hand-over-Hand+Mechanism+with+Its+Lever+Arm+Undergoing+Fluctuations+when+Attached+to+Actin.">Myosin VI Steps via a Hand-over-Hand Mechanism with Its Lever Arm Undergoing Fluctuations when Attached to Actin.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (36), 37223-37226 (2004).</li><li>Yildiz, A., Selvin, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescence+Imaging+with+One+Nanometer+Accuracy:+Application+to+Molecular+Motors.">Fluorescence Imaging with One Nanometer Accuracy: Application to Molecular Motors.</a> Accounts of Chemical Research. 38 (7), 574-582 (2005).</li><li>Toprak, E., Yildiz, A., Hoffman, M. T., Rosenfeld, S. S., Selvin, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Why+kinesin+is+so+processive.">Why kinesin is so processive.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (31), (2009).</li><li>Kural, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+melanosomes+inside+a+cell+to+study+molecular+motors+and+their+interaction.">Tracking melanosomes inside a cell to study molecular motors and their interaction.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (13), 5378-5382 (2007).</li><li>Gordon, M. P., Ha, T., Selvin, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+high-resolution+imaging+with+photobleaching.">Single-molecule high-resolution imaging with photobleaching.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (17), 6462-6465 (2004).</li><li>Qu, X., Wu, D., Mets, L., Scherer, N. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanometer-localized+multiple+single-molecule+fluorescence+microscopy.">Nanometer-localized multiple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (31), 11298-11303 (2004).</li><li>Churchman, L. S., &#214;kten, Z., Rock, R. S., Dawson, J. F., Spudich, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+molecule+high-resolution+colocalization+of+Cy3+and+Cy5+attached+to+macromolecules+measures+intramolecular+distances+through+time.">Single molecule high-resolution colocalization of Cy3 and Cy5 attached to macromolecules measures intramolecular distances through time.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 (5), 1419-1423 (2005).</li><li>Huang, B., Wang, W., Bates, M., Zhuang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-Dimensional+Super-Resolution+Imaging+by+Stochastic+Optical+Reconstruction+Microscopy.">Three-Dimensional Super-Resolution Imaging by Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy.</a> Science. 319 (5864), 810-813 (2008).</li><li>Rust, M. J., Bates, M., Zhuang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sub-diffraction-limit+imaging+by+stochastic+optical+reconstruction+microscopy+(STORM).">Sub-diffraction-limit imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM).</a> Nat Meth. 3 (10), 793-796 (2006).</li><li>Bates, M., Huang, B., Dempsey, G. T., Zhuang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multicolor+Super-Resolution+Imaging+with+Photo-Switchable+Fluorescent+Probes.">Multicolor Super-Resolution Imaging with Photo-Switchable Fluorescent Probes.</a> Science. 317 (5845), 1749-1753 (2007).</li><li>Betzig, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+Intracellular+Fluorescent+Proteins+at+Nanometer+Resolution.">Imaging Intracellular Fluorescent Proteins at Nanometer Resolution.</a> Science. 313 (5793), 1642-1645 (2006).</li><li>Abramoff, M. D., Magalh&#227;es, P. J., Ram, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Image+processing+with+ImageJ.">Image processing with ImageJ.</a> Biophotonics international. 11 (7), 36-42 (2004).</li><li>Enderlein, J., Toprak, E., Selvin, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polarization+effect+on+position+accuracy+of+fluorophore+localization.">Polarization effect on position accuracy of fluorophore localization.</a> Optics Express. 14 (18), 8111-8120 (2006).</li><li>Cheezum, M. K., Walker, W. F., Guilford, W. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+comparison+of+algorithms+for+tracking+single+fluorescent+particles.">Quantitative comparison of algorithms for tracking single fluorescent particles.</a> Biophysical Journal. 81 (4), 2378-2388 (2001).</li><li>Rasnik, I., McKinney, S. 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FIONA is a technique to localize the position of a fluorescent emitter (organic fluorophore or quantum dot) with nanometer precision and temporal resolution down to 1 msec4-8. When enough photons are collected, this technique allows to determine the position of a fluorescent emitter much more accurately than the diffraction limit (~200 nm) and thus this technique opens a way to observe what has not been seen with conventional/traditional optical microscopy4-8. Since its inventi...

Around 1882, Ernst Abbe found that the resolution of a visible light microscope is ~&#955;/2NA, or ~200 nm (where &#955; is the wavelength and NA is the numerical aperture)1,2. Therefore any object smaller than this dimension would appear as a diffraction-limited spot in an optical microscope. However, it is possible to determine the center of the spot, that is, the location of the object, with a much higher precision3. Fluorescence imaging with one-nanometer accuracy (FIONA) is a simple but useful technique for localizing single fluorophores with nanometer precision in the x-y plane4. The precision of localization,&#160;&#963;&#181; (i.e., the standard error of the mean), depends on the total number of collected photons, <img alt="Equation 1" fo:content-width="1in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51774/intro_eqn.jpg" width="100" />, where N is the photon count, s is the standard deviation of the fluorescent spot, a is the pixel size of the imaging detector, and b is the standard deviation of the background3,4. For a fluorophore emitting ~ 10,000 photons, FIONA can achieve ~1 nm precision4.
FIONA can be used to accurately determine the position of a stationary emitter, or a moving one (assuming images can be taken fast enough). FIONA can be applied sequentially to the frames of the movie and thus track the motion of the single molecule4-8. Photo-protective reagents may be necessary to ensure that the sample does not photodegrade. Furthermore, the fluorescent object itself may be of any size, smaller or larger than the diffraction limit&#8212;e.g., it may consist of an organelle (~1 &#181;m) with many fluorescent proteins dispersed on its membrane. Using FIONA can still yield a very accurate (nanometer) average of its average center-of-mass. The great improvement in localization precision by FIONA allows resolving nanometer-scale movements over time. This has pushed microscopy into the molecular length scale4-8.
Since its invention, variants of FIONA have been developed. For example, bright-field imaging with one-nanometer accuracy (bFIONA)9, a slight variant of FIONA, images and localizes dense objects such as melanosomes in vivo (dark objects containing the pigment melanin) with transmitted light. In addition, FIONA has been employed to resolve multiple dyes. For example, single-molecule high-resolution imaging with photobleaching (SHRImP)10,11 or single-molecule high-resolution colocalization (SHREC)12 have been developed to resolve two dyes within about 10 nm. (Notice that this is resolution, i.e. how accurately one can tell identical dyes apart.) More recently, FIONA analysis has contributed to the localization process of certain super-resolution microscopy such as stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM)13-15 and photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM)16, in which temporary dark fluorophores are excited, and then the fluorescence is localized. By repeatedly exciting a fairly low density of dyes (less than one per diffraction limited spot), and then collecting the fluorescence, analyzing each of them by FIONA, one can build up a high-resolution map. The resolution is then just limited by the number of photons each dye puts out, as well as things like keeping the sample stationary (including, e.g., the microscope stage) during the acquisition.
In this paper, a summary of the FIONA technique and briefly describe examples of research that have been performed using FIONA is reported. First, how to set up the required equipment for FIONA experiments, i.e., a total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), with details on aligning the optics, is described. Then how to carry out a simple FIONA experiment on localizing immobilized Cy3-DNA single molecules using appropriate protocols, is illustrated. After that, the use of FIONA to measure the 36 nm step size of a single truncated myosin Va motor labeled with a quantum dot is presented. Myosin Va is an essential processive motor protein which carries cellular cargo while translocating along actin filaments. Here a myosin Va construct truncated is used to remove domains irrelevant to the step size, and with a FLAG tag added to the C-terminus to allow ease of labeling with quantum dots functionalized with Anti-FLAG antibodies. This experiment is done under low ATP to slow down the myosin and allow the use of long enough exposure times to get a good photon count in every frame. Any sufficiently bright fluorescent label could be substituted in the following protocol. Lastly, recent effort of extending the application of FIONA to thick samples is reported. As a proof-of-principle, quantum dots were soaked in sol-gels and rabbit eye corneas and then imaged and localized using FIONA. For imaging, a 60X water immersion objective with NA=1.2 was used because this objective has a longer working distance than previously used 100X oil immersion objective. To compensate the loss in the magnification in the objective, an extra-magnification lens (3.3X or 4.0X) was inserted in the emission path. In addition, epi-fluorescence (not TIR) microscopy needs to be used to access deep regions in the thick samples. It is shown that quantum dots soaked deep in sol-gels and in rabbit eye corneas (Z &#62; 200 &#181;m) can be localized with 2-3 nm precision.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1083">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:443px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Double-sided tape</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">3M</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">--</td>
			<td>~ 75 um thick</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">EMCCD camera</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Andor Technology</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">DU-897E-CS0-#BV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Ultrasonic cleaner</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Branson</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">2510</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Fluorescence filter set</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Chroma</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">49016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Actin polymerization buffer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Cytoskeleton&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">BSA02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Biotin G-actin</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Cytoskeleton&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">AB07</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">G-actin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Cytoskeleton&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">AKL95</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">General actin buffer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Cytoskeleton&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">BSA01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Laser shutter (with driver)</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Electro-Optical Products Corp.&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">SH-10-MP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:220px;">IDL</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Exelis Visual Information Solutions</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">--</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Neutravidin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">PI-31000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Coverslip</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Fisherbrand&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">22X30-1.5</td>
			<td>0.16-0.19 mm thick</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Microscope slide</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Gold Seal Microslides&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">30103X1</td>
			<td>0.93-1.05 mm thick</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Plasma cleaner</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Harrick Plasma</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">PDC-001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Glass bottom dish&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">In Vitro Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">D35-20-1.5-N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Cy3-DNA oligos</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">--</td>
			<td>5&#39;-Cy3/GCCTCGCTGCCGTCGCCA-3&#39;Bio</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Fluorescent beads&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">T-7280</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Qdot 605-streptavidin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Q10101MP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Qdot605&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Q21301MP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Qdot705</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Q22021MP&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:220px;">Qdot705 Antibody Conjugation Kit</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Q22061MP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Matlab</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">MathWorks</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">--</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Optical table</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Newport Corp</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">--</td>
			<td>RS4000 Series</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">60X Objective</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Plan Apo VC 60x WI</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">100X Objective</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">PlanApo 100X/1.45 Oil &#8734;/0.17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">60X Objective</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">UPlanApo 60X/1.20W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Inverted microscope</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">IX71/IX70/IX81</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Origin</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">OriginLab</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">--</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Anti-FLAG antibody</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">F7425-.2MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">ATP</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">A7699</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">BME&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">63689-25ML-F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">BSA</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">A7906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">BSA-biotin</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">A8549-10MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">CK</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">C3755</td>
			<td>Creatine Phosphokinase from rabbit muscle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">CP</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">P1937</td>
			<td>Phosphocreatine di(tris) salt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">DTT</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">43815</td>
			<td>DL-Dithiothreitol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">EGTA</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">E3889</td>
			<td>Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N&#8242;,N&#8242;-tetraacetic acid</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">HCl&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">93363-500G</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">HEPES&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">H0887</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">KCl</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">P9333</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">MgCl2</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">M1028</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">NaCl</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">S7653</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">PCA</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">03930590</td>
			<td>Protocatechuic acid&#160;</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">PCD</td>
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			<td style="width:211px;">P8279</td>
			<td>Protocatechuate-3,4-dioxygenase&#160;</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">TMOS</td>
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			<td>Tetramethyl orthosilicate</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Tris-HCl&#160;</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Trolox</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">238813</td>
			<td>6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:220px;">1&#8221; diameter broadband dielectric mirrors with mounts</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">BB1-E02, KM100</td>
			<td>Quantity: 2</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">&#189;&#8221; diameter posts</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">TR4</td>
			<td>Quantity &#8805; 6</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">10x beam expander</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">BE10M-A</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:220px;">2&#8221; diameter broadband dielectric mirrors with mounts</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">BB2-E02, KM200</td>
			<td>Quantity: 2</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:220px;">2&#8221; diameter f = 300 mm lens with mount</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">LA1256-A, LMR2</td>
			<td>TIR lens</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Fluorescent alignment target&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">VRC2SM1</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Laser safety goggles</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">LG3</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">ND filter(s)</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">FW1AND</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Optical beam profiler</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">BP209-VIS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Post-mounted iris diaphragm</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">ID25</td>
			<td>Quantity: 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Shearing interferometer</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">SI100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">XYZ translation stage, &#189;&#8221; travel&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">T12XYZ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:220px;">Laser</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">World Star Technologies&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:211px;">TECGL-30</td>
			<td>532 nm, 30 mW</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fluorescence imaging with one-nanometer accuracy (fiona)

Fluorescence imaging with one-nanometer accuracy (FIONA) is a simple but useful technique for localizing single fluorophores with nanometer precision in the x-y plane. Here a summary of the FIONA technique is reported and examples of research that have been performed using FIONA are briefly described. First, how to set up the required equipment for FIONA experiments, i.e., a total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), with details on aligning the optics, is described. Then how to carry out a simple FIONA experiment on localizing immobilized Cy3-DNA single molecules using appropriate protocols, followed by the use of FIONA to measure the 36 nm step size of a single truncated myosin Va motor labeled with a quantum dot, is illustrated. Lastly, recent effort to extend the application of FIONA to thick samples is reported. It is shown that, using a water immersion objective and quantum dots soaked deep in sol-gels and rabbit eye corneas (&#62;200 &#181;m), localization precision of 2-3 nm can be achieved.

A typical objective-type TIRFM setup is shown in Figure&#160;3. First, surface-immobilized Cy3-DNA sample was imaged. A typical image is shown in Figure&#160;4a. The image was taken with exposure time 0.5 sec, with EM gain = 50 and CCD sensitivity = 12.13 for the camera. The point-spread-function (PSF) of a single Cy3-DNA molecule is shown in Figure&#160;4b (from the spot indicated by the arrow in Figure&#160;4a), where the color-bar shows the scale of p...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence Imaging with One-nanometer Accuracy FIONA at JoVE.com

Fluorescence Imaging with One-nanometer Accuracy FIONA

Single fluorophores can be localized with nanometer precision using FIONA. Here a summary of the FIONA technique is reported, and how to carry out FIONA experiments is described.

Fluorescence Imaging with One-nanometer Accuracy (FIONA)

Fluorescence imaging with one-nanometer accuracy (FIONA) is a simple but useful technique for localizing single fluorophores with nanometer precision in ...

fluorescence-imaging-with-one-nanometer-accuracy-fiona

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

17.5K ビュー.  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. シングルフルオロフォアはFIONAを使用して、ナノメートルの精度で定位させることができる。ここでFIONA技術の概要が報告され、そしてどのようにFIONA実験を実施する方法について説明する。 

ビデオ: Fluorescence Imaging with One-nanometer Accuracy FIONA

Single fluorophores can be localized with nanometer precision using FIONA. Here a summary of the FIONA technique is reported, and how to carry out FIONA experiments is...

conducting multiple imaging modes with one fluorescence microscope

Conducting Multiple Imaging Modes with One Fluorescence Microscope

Here we present a practical guide of building an integrated microscopy system, which merges conventional epi-fluorescent imaging, single-molecule detection-based super-resolution imaging, and multi-color single-molecule detection, including single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging, into one set-up in a cost-efficient...

sub-nanometer resolution imaging with amplitude-modulation atomic force microscopy in liquid

Sub-nanometer Resolution Imaging with Amplitude-modulation Atomic Force Microscopy in Liquid

We present a method for achieving sub-nanometer resolution images with amplitude-modulation (tapping mode) atomic force microscopy in liquid. The method is demonstrated on commercial atomic force microscopes. We explain the rationale behind our choices of parameters and suggest strategies for resolution...

simultaneous multicolor imaging of biological structures with fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy

Simultaneous Multicolor Imaging of Biological Structures with Fluorescence Photoactivation Localization Microscopy

We demonstrate the use of fluorescence photo activation localization microscopy (FPALM) to simultaneously image multiple types of fluorescently labeled molecules&#160;within cells. The techniques described yield the localization of thousands to hundreds of thousands of individual fluorescent labeled proteins, with a precision of tens of nanometers&#160;within single...

imaging mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice with reporter enzyme fluorescence

Imaging Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mice with Reporter Enzyme Fluorescence

We describe the optical imaging of mice infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) using reporter enzyme fluorescence (REF). This protocol facilitates the sensitive and specific detection of M. tuberculosis in pre-clinical animal models for pathogenesis, therapeutics and vaccine...

Imaging Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Mice with Reporter Enzyme Fluorescence

imaging the aging cochlea with light-sheet fluorescence microscopy

Imaging the Aging Cochlea with Light-Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy

A light-sheet microscope was developed to image and digitize whole...

single-digit nanometer electron-beam lithography with an aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope

Single-Digit Nanometer Electron-Beam Lithography with an Aberration-Corrected Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope

We use an aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope to define single-digit nanometer patterns in two widely-used electron-beam resists: poly (methyl methacrylate) and hydrogen silsesquioxane. Resist patterns can be replicated in target materials of choice with single-digit nanometer fidelity using liftoff, plasma etching, and resist infiltration by...

imaging amyloid tissues stained with luminescent conjugated oligothiophenes by hyperspectral confocal microscopy and fluorescence lifetime imaging

Imaging Amyloid Tissues Stained with Luminescent Conjugated Oligothiophenes by Hyperspectral Confocal Microscopy and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging

Amyloid deposition is a hallmark of different diseases and afflicts many different organs. This paper describes the application of luminescent conjugated oligothiophene fluorescence staining in combination with fluorescence microscopy techniques. This staining method represents a powerful tool for detection and exploration of protein aggregates in both clinical and scientific...

visualization of endosome dynamics in living nerve terminals with four-dimensional fluorescence imaging

Visualization of Endosome Dynamics in Living Nerve Terminals with Four-dimensional Fluorescence Imaging

Four-dimensional (4D) imaging is utilized to study the behavior and interactions among two types of endosomes in living vertebrate nerve terminals.  Movement of these small structures is characterized in three dimensions, permitting confirmation of events such as endosome fusion and...

creating adhesive and soluble gradients for imaging cell migration with fluorescence microscopy

Creating Adhesive and Soluble Gradients for Imaging Cell Migration with Fluorescence Microscopy

A method for the assembly of adhesive and soluble gradients in a microscopy chamber for live cell migration studies is described. The engineered environment combines antifouling surfaces and adhesive tracks with solution gradients and therefore allows one to determine the relative importance of guidance...

high-accuracy correction of 3d chromatic shifts in the age of super-resolution biological imaging using chromagnon

High-Accuracy Correction of 3D Chromatic Shifts in the Age of Super-Resolution Biological Imaging Using Chromagnon

Correction of chromatic shifts in three-dimensional (3D) multicolor fluorescence microscopy images is crucial for quantitative data analyses. This protocol is developed to measure and correct chromatic shifts in biological samples through acquisition of suitable reference images and processing with the open-source software,...

High-Accuracy Correction of 3D Chromatic Shifts in the Age of Super-Resolution Biological Imaging Using Chromagnon

optical frequency domain imaging of ex vivo pulmonary resection specimens: obtaining one to one image to histopathology correlation

Optical Frequency Domain Imaging of Ex vivo Pulmonary Resection Specimens: Obtaining One to One Image to Histopathology Correlation

A method to image ex vivo pulmonary resection specimens with optical frequency domain imaging (OFDI) and obtain precise correlation to histology is described, which is essential to developing specific OFDI interpretation criteria for pulmonary pathology. This method is applicable to other tissue types and imaging techniques to obtain precise imaging to histology correlation for accurate image interpretation and assessment.  Imaging criteria established with this technique would then be...

Optical Frequency Domain Imaging of Ex vivo Pulmonary Resection Specimens: Obtaining One to One Image to Histopathology Correlation

visualizing stromule frequency with fluorescence microscopy

Visualizing Stromule Frequency with Fluorescence Microscopy

Protocols to investigate the dynamics of chloroplast stromules, the stroma-filled tubules that extend from the surface of chloroplasts, are...

multi-layer cortical ca2+ imaging in freely moving mice with prism probes and miniaturized fluorescence microscopy

Multi-layer Cortical Ca2+ Imaging in Freely Moving Mice with Prism Probes and Miniaturized Fluorescence Microscopy

Here, we present a procedure for performing large-scale Ca2+ imaging with cellular-resolution across multiple cortical layers in freely moving mice. Hundreds of active cells can be observed simultaneously using a miniature, head-mounted microscope coupled with an implanted prism...

Multi-layer Cortical Ca2+ Imaging in Freely Moving Mice with Prism Probes and Miniaturized Fluorescence Microscopy

fluorescence lifetime imaging of molecular rotors in living cells

Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging of Molecular Rotors in Living Cells

Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM) has emerged as a key technique to image the environment and interaction of specific proteins and dyes in living cells. FLIM of fluorescent molecular rotors allows mapping of viscosity in living...

evaluation of capnography sampling line compatibility and accuracy when used with a portable capnography monitor

Evaluation of Capnography Sampling Line Compatibility and Accuracy when Used with a Portable Capnography Monitor

The goal of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of capnography sampling lines used in conjunction with a portable bedside capnography monitor. Sampling lines from 7 manufacturers were evaluated for tensile strength, rise time, and ETCO2 accuracy as a function of respiratory rate or supplemental oxygen flow...

photoactivated localization microscopy with bimolecular fluorescence complementation (bifc-palm)

Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM

Protein-protein interactions are visualized in cells with nanometer spatial resolution by combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Described here is the use of BiFC-PALM for imaging Ras-Raf interactions in U2OS cells for visualizing the nanoscale clustering and diffusion of individual Ras-Raf complexes.

Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC-PALM)

in vivo imaging of biological tissues with combined two-photon fluorescence and stimulated raman scattering microscopy

In vivo Imaging of Biological Tissues with Combined Two-Photon Fluorescence and Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy allows label-free imaging of biomolecules based on their intrinsic vibration of specific chemical bonds. In this protocol, the instrumental setup of an integrated SRS and two-photon fluorescence microscope is described to visualize cellular structures in the spinal cord of live...

In vivo Imaging of Biological Tissues with Combined Two-Photon Fluorescence and Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

mesoscopic fluorescence tomography for in-vivo imaging of developing drosophila

Mesoscopic Fluorescence Tomography for In-vivo Imaging of Developing Drosophila

Mesoscopic  fluorescence tomography operates beyond the penetration limits of  tissue-sectioning fluorescence microscopy. The technique is based on  multi-projection illumination and a photon transport description. We  demonstrate in-vivo whole-body 3D visualization of the morphogenesis of  GFP-expressing wing imaginal discs in Drosophila...

Mesoscopic Fluorescence Tomography for In-vivo Imaging of Developing Drosophila

optical clearing of plant tissues for fluorescence imaging

Optical Clearing of Plant Tissues for Fluorescence Imaging

Here, a method is described for making plant tissues transparent while maintaining the stability of fluorescent proteins. This technique facilitates deep imaging of cleared plant tissues without physical...

Born Normalization for Fluorescence Optical Projection Tomography for Whole Heart Imaging

Optical projection tomography is a three-dimensional imaging technique that has been recently introduced as an imaging tool primarily in developmental biology and gene expression studies. The technique renders biological sample optically transparent by first dehydrating them and then placing in a mixture of benzyl alcohol and benzyl benzoate in a 2:1 ratio (BABB or Murray s Clear solution). The technique renders biological samples optically transparent by first dehydrating them in graded ethanol solutions then placing them in a mixture of benzyl alcohol and benzyl benzoate in a 2:1 ratio (BABB or Murray s Clear solution) to clear. After the clearing process the scattering contribution in the sample can be greatly reduced and made almost negligible while the absorption contribution cannot be eliminated completely. When trying to reconstruct the fluorescence distribution within the sample under investigation, this contribution affects the reconstructions and leads, inevitably, to image artifacts and quantification errors.. While absorption could be reduced further with a permanence of weeks or months in the clearing media, this will lead to progressive loss of fluorescence and to an unrealistically long sample processing time. This is true when reconstructing both exogenous contrast agents (molecular contrast agents) as well as endogenous contrast (e.g. reconstructions of genetically expressed fluorescent proteins).

We suggest a Born normalized approach for Optical Projection Tomography (BnOPT) that accounts for the absorption properties of imaged samples to obtain accurate and quantitative fluorescence tomographic reconstructions. We use the proposed algorithm to reconstruct the fluorescence molecular probe distribution within small animal organs.

Optical projection tomography is a three-dimensional imaging technique that has been recently introduced as an imaging tool primarily in developmental ...

Visualizing developing organ formation as well as progession and treatment of disease often heavily relies on the ability to optically interrogate molecular and functional changes in intact living organisms. Most existing optical imaging methods are inadequate for imaging at dimensions that lie between the penetration limits of modern optical microscopy (0.5-1mm) and the diffusion-imposed limits of optical macroscopy (&gt;1cm) [1]. Thus, many important model organisms, e.g. insects, animal embryos or small animal extremities, remain inaccessible for in-vivo optical imaging. 
Although there is increasing interest towards the development of nanometer-resolution optical imaging methods, there have not been many successful efforts in improving the imaging penetration depth. The ability to perform in-vivo imaging beyond microscopy limits is in fact met with the difficulties associated with photon scattering present in tissues. Recent efforts to image entire embryos for example [2,3] require special chemical treatment of the specimen, to clear them from scattering, a procedure that makes them suitable only for post-mortem imaging. These methods however evidence the need for imaging larger specimens than the ones usually allowed by two-photon or confocal microscopy, especially in developmental biology and in drug discovery.
We have developed a new optical imaging technique named Mesoscopic Fluorescence Tomography [4], which appropriate for non-invasive in-vivo imaging at dimensions of 1mm-5mm. The method exchanges resolution for penetration depth, but offers unprecedented tomographic imaging performance and it has been developed to add time as a new dimension in developmental biology observations (and possibly other areas of biological research) by imparting the ability to image the evolution of fluorescence-tagged responses over time. As such it can accelerate studies of morphological or functional dependencies on gene mutations or external stimuli, and can importantly, capture the complete picture of development or tissue function by allowing longitudinal time-lapse visualization of the same, developing organism.
The technique utilizes a modified laboratory microscope and multi-projection illumination to collect data at 360-degree projections. It applies the Fermi simplification to Fokker-Plank solution of the photon transport equation, combined with geometrical optics principles in order to build a realistic inversion scheme suitable for mesoscopic range. This allows in-vivo whole-body visualization of non-transparent three-dimensional structures in samples up to several millimeters in size.
We have demonstrated the in-vivo performance of the technique by imaging three-dimensional structures of developing Drosophila tissues in-vivo and by following the morphogenesis of the wings in the opaque Drosophila pupae in real time over six consecutive hours.

Mesoscopic fluorescence tomography operates beyond the penetration limits of tissue-sectioning fluorescence microscopy. The technique is based on multi-projection illumination and a photon transport description. We demonstrate in-vivo whole-body 3D visualization of the morphogenesis of GFP-expressing wing imaginal discs in Drosophila melanogaster.

Visualizing  developing organ formation as well as progession and treatment of disease often  heavily relies on the ability to optically interrogate ...

Visualizing Single-molecule DNA Replication with Fluorescence Microscopy

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA template is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and replicated extensively after introduction of replication proteins and nucleotides (Figure 1). The growing product double-strand DNA (dsDNA) is extended with laminar flow and visualized by using an intercalating dye. Measuring the position of the growing DNA end in real time allows precise determination of replication rate (Figure 2). Furthermore, the length of completed DNA products reports on the processivity of replication. This experiment can be performed very easily and rapidly and requires only a fluorescence microscope with a reasonably sensitive camera.


This protocol demonstrates a simple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy technique for visualizing DNA replication by individual replisomes in real time.

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA ...

Time-lapse Imaging of Mitosis After siRNA Transfection

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and cellular content. Hallmark events of mitosis, such as chromosome movement, can be readily tracked on an individual cell basis using time-lapse fluorescence microscopy of mammalian cell lines expressing specific GFP-tagged proteins. In combination with RNAi-based depletion, this can be a powerful method for pinpointing the stage(s) of mitosis where defects occur after levels of a particular protein have been lowered. In this protocol, we present a basic method for assessing the effect of depleting a potential mitotic regulatory protein on the timing of mitosis. Cells are transfected with siRNA, placed in a stage-top incubation chamber, and imaged using an automated fluorescence microscope. We describe how to use software to set up a time-lapse experiment, how to process the image sequences to make either still-image montages or movies, and how to quantify and analyze the timing of mitotic stages using a cell-line expressing mCherry-tagged histone H2B. Finally, we discuss important considerations for designing a time-lapse experiment. This strategy is complementary to other approaches and offers the advantages of 1) sensitivity to changes in kinetics that might not be observed when looking at cells as a population and 2) analysis of mitosis without the need to synchronize the cell cycle using drug treatments. The visual information from such imaging experiments not only allows the sub-stages of mitosis to be assessed, but can also provide unexpected insight that would not be apparent from cell cycle analysis by FACS.

Here we describe a basic protocol to image and quantify the mitotic timing of live mammalian tissue culture cells after siRNA transfection.

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and ...

Cell Electrofusion Visualized with Fluorescence Microscopy

Cell electrofusion is a safe, non-viral and non-chemical method that can be used for preparing hybrid cells for human therapy. Electrofusion involves application of short high-voltage electric pulses to cells that are in close contact. Application of short, high-voltage electric pulses causes destabilization of cell plasma membranes. Destabilized membranes are more permeable for different molecules and also prone to fusion with any neighboring destabilized membranes. Electrofusion is thus a convenient method to achieve a non-specific fusion of very different cells in vitro. In order to obtain fusion, cell membranes, destabilized by electric field, must be in a close contact to allow merging of their lipid bilayers and consequently their cytoplasm. In this video, we demonstrate efficient electrofusion of cells in vitro by means of modified adherence method. In this method, cells are allowed to attach only slightly to the surface of the well, so that medium can be exchanged and cells still preserve their spherical shape. Fusion visualization is assessed by pre-labeling of the cytoplasm of cells with different fluorescent cell tracker dyes; half of the cells are labeled with orange CMRA and the other half with green CMFDA. Fusion yield is determined as the number of dually fluorescent cells divided with the number of all cells multiplied by two.

In this video we demonstrate efficient electrofusion of cells in vitro by means of modified adherence method using electroporation and the subsequent detection of fused cells visualization with fluorescence microscopy.

Cell electrofusion is a safe, non-viral and non-chemical method that can be used for preparing hybrid cells for human therapy. Electrofusion involves ...

Localization-based super resolution microscopy can be applied to obtain a spatial map (image) of the distribution of individual fluorescently labeled single molecules within a sample with a spatial resolution of tens of nanometers. Using either photoactivatable (PAFP) or&#160;photoswitchable (PSFP) fluorescent proteins fused to proteins of interest, or organic dyes conjugated to antibodies or other molecules of interest, fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy (FPALM) can simultaneously image multiple species of molecules within single cells. By using the following approach, populations of large numbers (thousands to hundreds of thousands) of individual molecules are imaged in single cells and localized with a precision of ~10-30 nm. Data obtained can be applied to understanding the nanoscale spatial distributions of multiple protein types within a cell. One primary advantage of this technique is the dramatic increase in spatial resolution: while diffraction limits resolution to ~200-250 nm in conventional light microscopy, FPALM can image length scales more than an order of magnitude smaller. As many biological hypotheses concern the spatial relationships among different biomolecules, the improved resolution of FPALM can provide insight into questions of cellular organization which have previously been inaccessible to conventional fluorescence microscopy. In addition to detailing the methods for sample preparation and data acquisition, we here describe the optical setup for FPALM. One additional consideration for researchers wishing to do super-resolution microscopy is cost: in-house setups are significantly cheaper than most commercially available imaging machines. Limitations of this technique include the need for optimizing the labeling of molecules of interest within cell samples, and the need for post-processing software to visualize results. We here describe the use of PAFP and PSFP expression to image two protein species in fixed cells. Extension of the technique to living cells is also described.

We demonstrate the use of fluorescence photo activation localization microscopy (FPALM) to simultaneously image multiple types of fluorescently labeled molecules&#160;within cells. The techniques described yield the localization of thousands to hundreds of thousands of individual fluorescent labeled proteins, with a precision of tens of nanometers&#160;within single cells.

Localization-based super resolution microscopy can be applied to obtain a spatial map (image) of the distribution of individual fluorescently labeled ...

Rapid Analysis and Exploration of Fluorescence Microscopy Images

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized image analysis tools are available, most traditional image-analysis-based workflows have steep learning curves (for fine tuning of analysis parameters) and result in long turnaround times between imaging and analysis. In particular, cell segmentation, the process of identifying individual cells in an image, is a major bottleneck in this regard.
Here we present an alternate, cell-segmentation-free workflow based on PhenoRipper, an open-source software platform designed for the rapid analysis and exploration of microscopy images. The pipeline presented here is optimized for immunofluorescence microscopy images of cell cultures and requires minimal user intervention. Within half an hour, PhenoRipper can analyze data from a typical 96-well experiment and generate image profiles. Users can then visually explore their data, perform quality control on their experiment, ensure response to perturbations and check reproducibility of replicates. This facilitates a rapid feedback cycle between analysis and experiment, which is crucial during assay optimization. This protocol is useful not just as a first pass analysis for quality control, but also may be used as an end-to-end solution, especially for screening. The workflow described here scales to large data sets such as those generated by high-throughput screens, and has been shown to group experimental conditions by phenotype accurately over a wide range of biological systems. The PhenoBrowser interface provides an intuitive framework to explore the phenotypic space and relate image properties to biological annotations. Taken together, the protocol described here will lower the barriers to adopting quantitative analysis of image based screens.

Here we describe a workflow for rapidly analyzing and exploring collections of fluorescence microscopy images using PhenoRipper, a recently developed image-analysis platform.

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized ...

Stromules, or "stroma-filled tubules", are narrow, tubular extensions from the surface of the chloroplast that are universally observed in plant cells but whose functions remain mysterious. Alongside growing attention on the role of chloroplasts in coordinating plant responses to stress, interest in stromules and their relationship to chloroplast signaling dynamics has increased in recent years, aided by advances in fluorescence microscopy and protein fluorophores that allow for rapid, accurate visualization of stromule dynamics. Here, we provide detailed protocols to assay stromule frequency in the epidermal chloroplasts of Nicotiana benthamiana, an excellent model system for investigating chloroplast stromule biology. We also provide methods for visualizing chloroplast stromules in vitro by extracting chloroplasts from leaves. Finally, we outline sampling strategies and statistical approaches to analyze differences in stromule frequencies in response to stimuli, such as environmental stress, chemical treatments, or gene silencing. Researchers can use these protocols as a starting point to develop new methods for innovative experiments to explore how and why chloroplasts make stromules.

Protocols to investigate the dynamics of chloroplast stromules, the stroma-filled tubules that extend from the surface of chloroplasts, are described.

Stromules, or "stroma-filled tubules", are narrow, tubular extensions from the surface of the chloroplast that are universally observed in plant cells but ...

Mixed Primary Cultures of Murine Small Intestine Intended for the Study of Gut Hormone Secretion and Live Cell Imaging of Enteroendocrine Cells

The gut is the largest endocrine organ of the body, with hormone-secreting enteroendocrine cells located along the length of the gastrointestinal epithelium. Despite their physiological importance, enteroendocrine cells represent only a small fraction of the epithelial cell population and in the past, their characterization has presented a considerable challenge resulting in a reliance on cell line models. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the isolation and culture of mixed murine small intestinal cells. These primary cultures have been used to identify the signaling pathways underlying the stimulation and inhibition of gut peptide secretion in response to a number of nutrients and neuropeptides as well as pharmacological agents. Furthermore, in combination with the use of transgenic fluorescent reporter mice, we have demonstrated that these primary cultures become a powerful tool for the examination of fluorescently-tagged enteroendocrine cells at the intracellular level, using methods such as patch clamping and single-cell calcium and cAMP-FRET imaging.

This protocol describes the isolation and culture of mixed murine small intestinal cells. These primary intestinal cultures enable the investigation of signaling pathways underlying gut peptide secretion using a number of techniques.

The gut is the largest endocrine organ of the body, with hormone-secreting enteroendocrine cells located along the length of the gastrointestinal ...

Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching of Yellow Fluorescent Protein Tagged p62 in Aggresome-like Induced Structures

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)&#160;is a microscopy technique that can be used to quantify protein mobility in live cells. In a typical FRAP experiment, steady-state fluorescence is observed by repeated imaging with low-intensity laser light. Subsequently, the fluorescent molecules are rapidly and irreversibly impaired via brief exposure to high-intensity laser light. Information about protein mobility is obtained by monitoring the recovery of fluorescence. We used FRAP to determine the mobility of p62 in aggresome-like induced structures (ALIS) in murine macrophages after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Because many existing FRAP protocols are either incomplete or complex, our goal was to provide a comprehensive, practical, and straightforward step-by-step protocol for FRAP experiments with live cells. Here, we describe RAW264.7 macrophage transfection with yellow fluorescent protein-p62 (YFP-p62), induction of ALIS by exposing the cells to LPS, and a step-by-step method for collecting prebleach and postbleach FRAP images and data analysis. Finally, we discuss important factors to consider when conducting a FRAP experiment.

We describe a comprehensive and practical protocol for fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments with live cells. Although the protocol was used to measure the mobility of yellow fluorescent protein-tagged p62 in aggresome-like induced structures, it can be applied to a variety of microscopy systems and fluorescent proteins.

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP)&#160;is a microscopy technique that can be used to quantify protein mobility in live cells. In a typical ...