Name: measuring phagosome ph by ratiometric fluorescence microscopy
Uploaded: 2015-12-07T14:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 14 min 39 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Phagosome pH by Ratiometric Fluorescence Microscopy at JoVE.com

The authors are financially supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation through an operating grant N&#176; 31003A-149566 (to N.D.), and The Sir Jules Thorn Charitable Overseas Trust through a Young Investigator Subsidy (to P.N.).

倫理の声明：すべての動物の操作は、ジュネーブ大学の動物実験委員会のガイドラインに厳密に従って行きました。 貪食ターゲットの作製<ol><li> 10 mlの滅菌リン酸緩衝食塩水（PBS）で乾燥したザイモサン20mgを加えます。 10分間沸騰水浴中で渦と熱。クールで5分間2,000×gで遠心します。 </li><li>水浴ソニケーターで、上清を除去し1mlのPBS中に再懸濁し、10分間超音波処理。 2 1.5ミリリットルチューブに500μlのを転送します。 5分間11,000×gで遠心分離します。 </li><li> 500μlのPBSで洗浄を繰り返します。煮沸ザイモサンは、等分凍結し、-20℃で保存することができます。 </li><li>たて、0.1M の Na 2 CO 3、（ステップ1.2）上記のようにpHが9.3を用意し500μlの二回ザイモサンを洗ってください。 </li><li>最終洗浄後490μlの再懸濁。ジメチルsulfoxidに溶解し10 mg / mlのFITCの10μLを追加E（DMSO）、ボルテックス、ホイルで覆い、そして室温で4時間撹拌しながらインキュベートします。 </li><li>最初の0.5ミリリットルのDMSO +300μlのPBS、その後、0.5ミリリットルのDMSO +450μlのPBS、その後、PBSのみで、その後+150μlのPBS 0.5ミリリットルのDMSOで、上記のように（ステップ1.2）洗浄し、結合していない色素を除去するために。 </li><li>血球計数器を使用してザイモサンを数えます。それは中央のグリッド上に配置されたカバースリップを満たしている血球計数器室の端に10μlを添加、ボルテックス、500μlのPBSにザイモサンの1μlを添加します。 20Xの対物レンズを搭載した明視野顕微鏡で血球計数器を取り付けます。 </li><li> 16正方形を含む左上隅に焦点を当て、手の数取器を使用して、このエリア内のすべてのザイモサン粒子をカウントします。右下の隅に繰り返します。 =ザイモサン濃度/ 2×500×10 4ザイモサン/ mlのカウント：以下の式を使用してザイモサン濃度を計算します。標識ザイモサンは、等分凍結し、-20℃で保存することができます。 </li><li>ラベルされたザイモサンのwiをオプソニン化1：100希釈でウサギ抗ザイモサン抗体番目。ボルテックスおよび37℃の水浴中で1時間インキュベートします。 （ステップ1.2）上記のように500μlのPBSで洗浄します。 注意：ザイモサン後で解析をより困難にすることができ塊を形成する傾向があるとして、超音波処理は非常に、特にオプソニン化した後に、推奨されます。 65％（v / v）のラットまたはヒト血清でオプソニン化は、代替として使用することができます。 </li><li>ステップ1.7から1.8に記載されているように血球計数器を使用してザイモサンをカウントし、100×10 6粒子/ mlに希釈します。補体、または全くオプソニンのような他の食細胞刺激剤とのオプソニン化は、代わりに実行することができます。 </li></ol> 2.ライブビデオ顕微鏡<ol><li>他の場所38で詳細に説明するように、一次マウスの好中球を分離します。 <ol><li>また、任意の食細胞タイプを使用します。 （RPMI）ロズウェルパーク記念研究所で氷の上での好中球を保ち、5％ウシ胎児血清を補充した1640（V / V）、200 Uペニシリン/ streptomycinは、10×10 6細胞/ mlの濃度で使用直前まで。他の細胞型は、1〜4日前に播種することができます。 </li></ol></li><li> 50μlの培地を追加することで、ドロップを広げ、細胞を接着させるために37℃で5分間インキュベートし、35mmのガラスボトムディッシュの中心に好中球の2×10 5（20μl）を追加します。 </li><li>ハンクス平衡塩溶液（HBSS）1mlを特定のMPO阻害剤、4-アミノ安息香酸ヒドラジド（4- ABH、10μM）を含む37℃に温め加えます。このようなアジ化ナトリウムのような非特異的なMPO阻害剤、（5 mM）を、使用してもよいが、近年pHを39に追加の非特異的効果を発揮することが示唆されています。 </li><li> 37℃の加熱システムと40X油目的を搭載した広視野蛍光顕微鏡の料理をマウントします。細胞や機器を平衡化することを可能にするために10分間イメージングせずに細胞をインキュベートします。 </li><li>明視野透過画像を取得する顕微鏡の設定を調整する[PHASEまたは440 nm以下490nmの励起および535nm放射ごとに30秒で使用可能な場合は微分干渉コントラスト（DIC）]。 </li><li>あまりにも多くの光退色や光毒性を回避するために、顕微鏡システムに応じてと頼まれて、実験の質問に応じて露光時間と取得頻度を調整します。画像取得を開始します。 </li><li> 2分後、10×10 6（50μl）を追加皿の中央にFITC-ザイモサンをオプソニン化。使用食細胞とターゲットの種類に応じて細胞比：ターゲットを調整します。 </li><li> 30分間撮影を続けます。 30分後、タイムラプス取得を停止し、タイマーを開始します。ステージを移動し、すべての5分以内に、画像その他のファゴソームに異なる視野で10以上のスナップショットをキャプチャします。 </li></ol> 3.キャリブレーションとコントロール実験<ol><li>実験の日に（レシピは表1に記載されている）は、従来のpH校正ソリューションを準備し、10mlのアリコートで凍結します。37℃の水浴中に較正溶液と暖かいを解凍します。 pHメーターでpHをチェックして、ソリューションの実際のpHを記録します。 </li><li>前の画像取得にガラスボトムディッシュの蠕動ポンプをマウントして、上記のようにライブビデオ顕微鏡を行う（セクション2）。 </li><li> 30分の取得期間の終わりに、ディッシュ内の溶液を除去第1の較正溶液1mlを加え、ポンプを停止する上でポンプの電源を入れます。 </li><li>信号は、通常は5分を安定するまで待ちます。各校正液で繰り返します。 <ol><li>実験日ごとに少なくとも1つのキャリブレーションを実行して、最高のpHで始まり、最低に順次作業だけでなく、最低のpHから出発して、最高に向けて順次作業を調整します。 </li></ol></li><li>対照として、ガラスボトムディッシュで900μlのHBSS中の細胞にHBSS中で希釈し、100μMNADPHオキシダーゼ阻害剤ジフェニルpropioniumヨウ化（DPI）の100μlを添加し、10分間インキュベートします。 </li><li>取得を開始して（ステップ2.7）上記のようにザイモサンを追加します。食作用の15分後、HBSS中で希釈した（コンカ）コンカナマイシン、10μMのV-ATPaseの阻害剤の10μlを添加し、さらに15分間撮影を続けます。 </li></ol> 4.分析<ol><li>タイムラプス映画やファゴソームスナップショットの分析。 注意：以下の手順は、ImageJのに特異的です。ステップバイステップの手順は、使用するソフトウェアの依存して広く変化し得るが、この節で説明する関数は、ほとんどのプロの画像解析ソフトで利用できます。 <ol><li>プロの画像解析ソフトウェアで画像を開きます。何の細胞が存在しない領域に四角ポリゴン選択ツールを使用して、小さな正方形のROIを描画し、ROIからプラグイン&gt; BGの減算をクリックすることで、490チャンネルのバックグラウンドを減算します。次に&gt;選択&gt;選択と繰り返しを復元し、[編集]をクリックすることで、440チャンネルで同じROIをアップロードします。 </li><li>その後、[操作]ドロップダウンメニューで「分割」を選択、...プロセス&gt;画像電卓をクリック画像1と画像2のドロップダウンメニューで、適切な画像を選択することにより、440チャンネルで割った490チャンネルの32ビットの比画像を作ります、および32ビット（フロート）結果チェック・ボックスをチェック。 </li><li> &gt;レインボーRGBの画像&gt;ルックアップテーブルをクリックすることで、比と互換性の色分けにカラーコーディングルックアップテーブルを変更します。画像をクリックして、0と無限大のピクセルを排除するための閾値比画像は、&gt;&gt;しきい値を...調整します。 NaNのチェックボックスに設定した背景ピクセルが選択されていることを確認すること、そのザイモサンは赤で表示されるようにスクロールバーを調整し、[適用]をクリックします。 </li><li>画像をクリックすることで、マルチチャンネルコンポジットに明視野チャンネルとこの比スタックを組み合わせ&gt;カラー&gt;チャンネルをマージし、灰色のチャネルのドロップダウンメニューで、明視野像と緑のチャネルのドロップダウンメニューで、比画像を選択し、選択しますチェックボックスをソース画像を保管してください。タイムラプスムービーやファゴソームが分析されるかを決定するためにスナップショットをスキャンします。明視野チャンネルは、この場合に便利です。 </li><li>追加&gt;ファゴソームの周りに楕円形、多角形選択ツールを使用して、関心領域（ROI）を描画し、分析]&gt; [ツール]&gt; [ROIマネージャ]をクリックして、ROIマネージャーに追加します。詳細&gt;マルチ測定デスライス選択]チェックボックスごとに1つの行をクリックすることで、彼らのザイモサン強度比を測定します。 </li><li>タイムラプスムービーでは、トラックは、各時点を測定するには、Ctrl + Mを入力し、ROIを描画し、時間をかけて強度値を追跡するために必要な場合に、ROIを移動させることにより、一度に一つのファゴソーム。表計算ソフトに結果ウィンドウからの測定値をコピーします。 注：15（実験X 3当たり5時間のコース）の独立した実験の分析は理想的ですが、多かれ少なかれ観察変動に応じて必要となる場合があります。 ROIを保存すると、常に推奨されます。一部のソフトウェアパッケージでは、画像レジを許可ストレーションおよびROIの動的更新、分析のこの部分を容易にします。 </li></ol></li><li>蛍光のpH値への変換<ol><li> 4.1節で説明したように、キャリブレーションタイムラプスムービーでファゴソームのための440分の490の比率を測定します。 </li><li>スプレッドシートでは、時間をかけて比の​​値をプロットし、各pH校正に対応する期間の中央内5の時点から（5-20​​の間、通常は）視野内の全てのファゴソームから平均の比の値を計算します溶液。 （ 図5Aにも赤いボックスを参照してください。） </li><li>実際に測定されたpH値に対してこれらの平均440分の490比の値をプロットします。一つのグラフに、少なくとも3つの独立したキャリブレーションを結合します。通常シグモイド方程式に、非線形回帰（ベストフィット曲線）を実行するために、統計や数値ソフトウェアパッケージを使用してください。 注：例えば、 図5（b）で使用される式は、ボルツマンシグモイド[Y =ボトム+（（上下）でした/（1 + EXP（（V50-X）/スロープ））Yの値が440分の490比である]、Xは、pHの値であり、上、下、V50及び傾斜パラメータは、ソフトウェアによって計算されます。 </li><li> pHに比の値を変換するために取得した式を使用します。 注：例えば、 図5（b）にアジ化ナトリウムの存在下での検量線について得られた方程式は440分の490率で= 1.103 + [（2.89から1.103）/（1 + EXP（（6.993-PH）/0.9291）] 。pHを解くことは、以下の式が得られます。pH値= 6.993から0.9291 * [LN（（1.178 /（比-1.103）） - 1））]。 </li></ol></li></ol>

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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virulent+and+avirulent+strains+of+Francisella+tularensis+prevent+acidification+and+maturation+of+their+phagosomes+and+escape+into+the+cytoplasm+in+human+macrophages.">Virulent and avirulent strains of Francisella tularensis prevent acidification and maturation of their phagosomes and escape into the cytoplasm in human macrophages.</a> Infect Immun. 72 (6), 3204-3217 (2004).</li><li>Alpuche-Aranda, C. M., Swanson, J. A., Loomis, W. P., Miller, S. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Salmonella+typhimurium+activates+virulence+gene+transcription+within+acidified+macrophage+phagosomes.">Salmonella typhimurium activates virulence gene transcription within acidified macrophage phagosomes.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 89 (21), 10079-10083 (1992).</li><li>Lukacs, G. L., Rotstein, O. D., Grinstein, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determinants+of+the+phagosomal+pH+in+macrophages.+In+situ+assessment+of+vacuolar+H(+)-ATPase+activity,+counterion+conductance,+and+H++'leak'.">Determinants of the phagosomal pH in macrophages. In situ assessment of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase activity, counterion conductance, and H+ 'leak'.</a> J Biol Chem. 266 (36), 24540-24548 (1991).</li><li>Watanabe, K., Kagaya, K., Yamada, T., Fukazawa, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanism+for+candidacidal+activity+in+macrophages+activated+by+recombinant+gamma+interferon.">Mechanism for candidacidal activity in macrophages activated by recombinant gamma interferon.</a> Infect Immun. 59 (2), 521-528 (1991).</li><li>Ip, W. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagocytosis+and+phagosome+acidification+are+required+for+pathogen+processing+and+MyD88-dependent+responses+to+Staphylococcus+aureus.">Phagocytosis and phagosome acidification are required for pathogen processing and MyD88-dependent responses to Staphylococcus aureus.</a> J Immunol. 184 (12), 7071-7081 (2010).</li><li>Clarke, M., Maddera, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagocyte+meets+prey:+uptake,+internalization,+and+killing+of+bacteria+by+Dictyostelium+amoebae.">Phagocyte meets prey: uptake, internalization, and killing of bacteria by Dictyostelium amoebae.</a> Eur J Cell Biol. 85 (9-10), 1001-1010 (2006).</li><li>Jankowski, A., Scott, C. C., Grinstein, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determinants+of+the+phagosomal+pH+in+neutrophils.">Determinants of the phagosomal pH in neutrophils.</a> J Biol Chem. 277 (8), 6059-6066 (2002).</li><li>Segal, A. W., Geisow, M., Garcia, R., Harper, A., Miller, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+respiratory+burst+of+phagocytic+cells+is+associated+with+a+rise+in+vacuolar+pH.">The respiratory burst of phagocytic cells is associated with a rise in vacuolar pH.</a> Nature. 290 (5805), 406-409 (1981).</li><li>Savina, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NOX2+controls+phagosomal+pH+to+regulate+antigen+processing+during+crosspresentation+by+dendritic+cells.">NOX2 controls phagosomal pH to regulate antigen processing during crosspresentation by dendritic cells.</a> Cell. 126 (1), 205-218 (2006).</li><li>Rybicka, J. M., Balce, D. R., Chaudhuri, S., Allan, E. R., Yates, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagosomal+proteolysis+in+dendritic+cells+is+modulated+by+NADPH+oxidase+in+a+pH-independent+manner.">Phagosomal proteolysis in dendritic cells is modulated by NADPH oxidase in a pH-independent manner.</a> EMBO J. 31 (4), 932-944 (2012).</li><li>Mantegazza, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NADPH+oxidase+controls+phagosomal+pH+and+antigen+cross-presentation+in+human+dendritic+cells.">NADPH oxidase controls phagosomal pH and antigen cross-presentation in human dendritic cells.</a> Blood. 112 (12), 4712-4722 (2008).</li><li>Balce, D. R., Allan, E. R., McKenna, N., Yates, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=gamma-Interferon-inducible+lysosomal+thiol+reductase+(GILT)+maintains+phagosomal+proteolysis+in+alternatively+activated+macrophages.">gamma-Interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT) maintains phagosomal proteolysis in alternatively activated macrophages.</a> J Biol Chem. 289 (46), 31891-31904 (2014).</li><li>Sanjurjo, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+scavenger+protein+apoptosis+inhibitor+of+macrophages+(AIM)+potentiates+the+antimicrobial+response+against+Mycobacterium+tuberculosis+by+enhancing+autophagy.">The scavenger protein apoptosis inhibitor of macrophages (AIM) potentiates the antimicrobial response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis by enhancing autophagy.</a> PLoS One. 8 (11), e79670 (2013).</li><li>Yuan, Z., Zhi, L., Li-Juan, Z., Hong-Tao, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Utility+of+Chloroquine+in+Cancer+Therapy.">The Utility of Chloroquine in Cancer Therapy.</a> Curr Med Res Opin. , 1-12 (2015).</li><li>Ohkuma, S., Poole, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescence+probe+measurement+of+the+intralysosomal+pH+in+living+cells+and+the+perturbation+of+pH+by+various+agents.">Fluorescence probe measurement of the intralysosomal pH in living cells and the perturbation of pH by various agents.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 75 (7), 3327-3331 (1978).</li><li>El Chemaly, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=VSOP/Hv1+proton+channels+sustain+calcium+entry,+neutrophil+migration,+and+superoxide+production+by+limiting+cell+depolarization+and+acidification.">VSOP/Hv1 proton channels sustain calcium entry, neutrophil migration, and superoxide production by limiting cell depolarization and acidification.</a> J Exp Med. 207 (1), 129-139 (2010).</li><li>Levine, A. P., Duchen, M. R., Segal, A. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+HVCN1+channel+conducts+protons+into+the+phagocytic+vacuole+of+neutrophils+to+produce+a+physiologically+alkaline+pH.">The HVCN1 channel conducts protons into the phagocytic vacuole of neutrophils to produce a physiologically alkaline pH.</a> bioRxiv. , (2014).</li><li>Al-Fageeh, M. B., Smales, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+and+regulation+of+the+cellular+responses+to+cold+shock:+the+responses+in+yeast+and+mammalian+systems.">Control and regulation of the cellular responses to cold shock: the responses in yeast and mammalian systems.</a> Biochem J. 397 (2), 247-259 (2006).</li><li>Yui, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Basolateral+targeting+and+microtubule-dependent+transcytosis+of+the+aquaporin-2+water+channel.">Basolateral targeting and microtubule-dependent transcytosis of the aquaporin-2 water channel.</a> Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 304 (1), C38-C48 (2013).</li><li>Griffiths, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=On+phagosome+individuality+and+membrane+signalling+networks.">On phagosome individuality and membrane signalling networks.</a> Trends Cell Biol. 14 (7), 343-351 (2004).</li><li>Poburko, D., Santo-Domingo, J., Demaurex, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+regulation+of+the+mitochondrial+proton+gradient+during+cytosolic+calcium+elevations.">Dynamic regulation of the mitochondrial proton gradient during cytosolic calcium elevations.</a> J Biol Chem. 286 (13), 11672-11684 (2011).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

ターゲットに接続されたpH感受性色素を用いた同様の戦略を採用するが、ファゴソームの集​​団の平均pH値を測定し、このような分光法およびFACSなどの代替の方法、より多くの時間がかかりますが、顕微鏡検査は、いくつかの利点を提供しています。最初に、内部および外部で結合したことであるが、内在化しない、粒子は容易にそれぞれ、外部粒子を急冷または標識するために、トリパ?...

Phagocytosis, the process through which innate immune cells engulf large particles, evolved from the eating mechanism of single-celled organisms, and involves binding to a target, enveloping it with a membrane and pinching the membrane off to form a vacuole within the cytosol called a phagosome. While the phagosomal membrane is derived from the plasma membrane, active protein and lipid sorting, as well as fusion with endomembranes during phagosome formation, transform the phagosome into a distinct organelle within the cell with degradative properties that allow the killing, neutralization and breakdown of the ingested material1-3. This process, called phagosomal maturation, relies on the delivery of a host of proteolytic and microbicidal enzymes, including the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase which transfers electrons into phagosomes producing the strong oxidant O2- and its derivative reactive oxygen species (ROS) 2,4. 
The luminal pH of phagosomes has a profound influence on several events required for phagosome function. First, pH influences trafficking of endomembranes in general, as pH-dependent conformational changes of transmembrane trafficking regulators alters the recruitment of trafficking determinants such as Arfs, Rabs and vesicular coat-proteins, which in turn define which vesicles may fuse with phagosomes 5-8. Second, the ionic composition of the phagosomal lumen is also transformed as phagosomes mature, and some ion transporters, such as the Na+/H+ exchanger or ClC family Cl-/H+ antiporters, which promote phagocytic function, rely on H+ translocation 9,10. Similarly, ROS production is intimately linked with phagosomal pH. ROS and its toxic oxidant byproducts have long been recognized as crucial for phagosomal killing in neutrophils 4,11,12, and have been shown to play critical roles in other phagocytes including macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs) and amoeba 13-16. The NADPH oxidase is an electrogenic enzyme that releases H+ in the cytosol as NADPH is consumed, and that requires the simultaneous transfer of H+ through companion HVCN1 channels alongside the transported electrons into the phagosomal lumen, in order to alleviate the massive depolarization that would otherwise lead to self-inhibition of the enzyme 17-21. Finally, several proteolytic enzymes have optimal activity at different pH, so time-dependent phagosomal pH changes can influence which enzymes are active and when. The importance of phagosomal pH is highlighted by organisms such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Franciscella tularensis and Salmonella typherium that subvert phagocytic killing at least in part by altering phagosomal pH 22-24.
In mammals the main phagocytes are neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, and depending on cell type, time-dependent phagosomal pH changes can vary widely, and appear to play different roles. In macrophages a strong and rapid acidification mediated by the ATP-dependent proton pump vacuolar ATPase (V-ATPase) is one of the key factors mediating killing 25-27, resembling the mechanisms present in amoeba that use phagocytosis as an eating mechanism 28. In these cells activation of acidic proteases is thought to play a key role. In contrast, neutrophil killing relies more on ROS as well as HOCl produced by myeloperoxidase (MPO)11, and the pH remains neutral or alkaline during the first 30 min acidifying only later 29,30. Neutral pH has been suggested to favor the activity of oxidative proteases such as certain cathepsins. In DCs phagosomal pH is controversial, with some reporting acidification and others neutral or alkaline pH 31,32, but ROS and pH may profoundly influence the ability of these cells to present antigens to T cells, one of their main functions 33. 
Importantly, hormones, chemokines and cytokines may produce signaling events that induce maturation and changes in phagocyte behavior, and in turn influence phagosomal pH 34,35. Similarly, drugs, for example the antimalarial chloroquine, which is also considered for anti-cancer therapies 36, may affect phagosomal pH and therefore immune outcomes. Thus, a variety of cell biologists, immunologists, microbiologists and drug developers may be interested in measuring phagosomal pH when seeking to understand the mechanisms underlying the effects of a particular genetic disruption, bioactive compound or microorganism on innate and adaptive immune responses. 
Here we describe a method for measuring phagosomal pH in neutrophils that allowed us to show the importance of the HVCN1 channel in regulating neutrophil phagosomal pH 19. The method is based on the ratiometric property of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) whose fluorescence emission at 535 nm is pH sensitive when excited at 490 nm but not 440 nm 37. When this dye is chemically coupled to a target, in this case zymosan, it can be followed using wide-field fluorescence microscopy, where cells are imaged as they phagocytose, and phagosomal pH changes are measured in real time as the phagosome matures. The actual pH is then gleaned by performing a calibration experiment where cells that have phagocytosed are exposed to solutions of different pH that contain the ionophores nigericin and monensin, that allow the rapid equilibration of the pH within phagosomes with the external solution. Ratio values are then compared to the known pH of solutions, a calibration curve is constructed by nonlinear regression and the resulting equation used to calculate pH from the ratio value.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Zymosan A powder</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>Z4250</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Fluorescein isothiocyanate</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>F7250</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Anti-zymosan antibody (Zymosan A Bioparticles opsonizing reagent)</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>Z2850</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich O6637 is an equivalent product. Alternatively 25% serum can be used as an opsonizing reagent.</td></tr><tr><td>4-Aminobenzoic hydrazide (4-ABH)</td><td>Santa Cruz</td><td>sc-204107</td><td>Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>D2926</td><td>Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Concanamycin A (ConcA)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>27689</td><td>Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Nigericin</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>N7143</td><td>Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Monensin</td><td>Enzo</td><td>ALX-380-026-G001</td><td>Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate buffered saline (PBS)</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>14200-075</td><td>Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Hank&#039;s balance salt solution</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>14025092</td><td>Ringer&#039;s balanced salt solution or other clear physiological buffers may be substituted.</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium carbonate (Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S7795</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>M3671&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazine-1-ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>H3375</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>N-Methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>M2004&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N&amp;prime;,N&amp;prime;-tetraacetic acid (EGTA)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>3777</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>T1503&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Potassium chloride (KCl)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P9333</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>S7653</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium chloride (MgCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>M8266</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Absolute Ethanol (EtOH)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>2860</td><td>Various providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Glass-bottom 35 mm petri dishes (Fluorodish)</td><td>World Precision Instruments</td><td>FD35-100</td><td>Ibidi &amp;micro;-clear dishes or coverslips with appropriate imaging chambers may be sustituted</td></tr><tr><td>Sonicating water bath</td><td>O. Kleiner AG</td><td></td><td>A sonicator may be used instead, various instrument providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Heamocytometer</td><td>Marienfeld GmbH</td><td></td><td>Various instrument providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Widefield live imaging microscope</td><td>Carl Zeiss AG</td><td></td><td>Various instrument providers exist, but the microscope must be able to image 440/535 and 490/535 excitation/emission respective. Spinning disk confocal set-ups with brightfield capabilities may substituted, but zymosan tend to go out of focus more often.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Peristaltic pump (Dynamax RP-1)</td><td>Rainin</td><td></td><td>Various instrument providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>pH meter</td><td>Schott Gerate GmbH</td><td></td><td>Various instrument providers exist</td></tr><tr><td>Manual Counter</td><td>Milian SA</td><td></td><td>Various instrument providers exist</td></tr></tbody></table>

measuring phagosome ph by ratiometric fluorescence microscopy

食作用は、先天性免疫細胞が死滅させるかまたは中和摂取材料を、または抗原として​​それを提示し、適応免疫応答を開始するために、細菌、アポ​​トーシス細胞または他の異物を飲み込み、それを通して基本的な過程です。ファゴソームのpHは、内膜およびタンパク質分解酵素の活性化、食作用性空胞が分解オルガネラに成熟することを可能にするイベントと核分裂や核融合を制御する重要なパラメータです。加えて、H +との転座は、他の宿主組織への効率的な殺傷及びシグナリングのために必須である活性酸素種（ROS）の高レベルの産生のために必要とされます。多くの細胞内病原体は、フ​​ァゴソームの生物学におけるpHの重要性を強調し、ファゴソーム酸性化を制限することにより、食細胞死滅を覆します。ここでは、フルオレセインイソチオシアネート（FITC）を使用して、好中球にファゴソームのpHを測定するためのレシオメトリック法は貪食TARGとしてザイモサンを標識説明しますETS、ライブセルイメージング。アッセイは、単一色素の蛍光よりもむしろ絶対的なpH依存性比の定量を、可能にする、440 nmで励起した場合、490nmで励起した場合、酸性pHによりクエンチされないが、FITCの蛍光特性に基づいています。 インサイチュ染料較正及び実際のpH値との比の変換を行うための詳細なプロトコルも提供されます。彼らは、このような漂白などの摂動に対する感度が低いなどの単一染料レシオメトリック法は、一般的に測定された信号を歪ま変化、レーザーの変動、および不均一なラベルを、集中、単一の波長またはデュアル色素擬似レシオメトリックのプロトコルよりも優れて考えられています。この方法は、容易に他の食細胞タイプのpHを測定するために変更することができ、及びザイモサンは、不活性ビーズからの生きた微生物を、任意の他のアミン含有粒子で置き換えることができます。最後に、この方法は、異なるpH範囲に感受性の他の蛍光プローブまたは他のphagosomを利用するように適合させることができますアル活動は、それファゴソームの機能イメージングのための一般的なプロトコルとなっています。

/ - -以下は、初代マウス好中球のファゴソームpHは野生型またはHvcn1の骨髄から分離された実験の代表的な結果であります マウスを比較しました。成功した実験では、それは後の画像解析の際にセグメントに、より困難になりますあまりにも多くのファゴソームを回避しながら、タイムラプスムービーの全期間中に視野内に十分なファゴソームを得ることが重要で...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Measuring Phagosome pH by Ratiometric Fluorescence Microscopy at JoVE.com

Measuring Phagosome pH by Ratiometric Fluorescence Microscopy

Phagosomal pH influences phagosome maturation, oxidant production, phagosomal killing as well as antigen presentation. Here we describe a ratiometric method for measuring time-course and endpoint pH changes in individual phagosomes in living phagocytes using fluorescence microscopy.

レシオメトリック蛍光顕微鏡によってファゴソームのpHを測定します

Phagocytosis is a fundamental process through which innate immune cells engulf bacteria, apoptotic cells or other foreign particles in order to kill or ...

measuring-phagosome-ph-by-ratiometric-fluorescence-microscopy

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

13.9K ビュー.  University of Geneva. Phagosomal pH influences phagosome maturation, oxidant production, phagosomal killing as well as antigen presentation. Here we describe a ratiometric method for measuring time-course and endpoint pH changes in individual phagosomes in living phagocytes using fluorescence microscopy. 

ビデオ: Measuring Phagosome pH by Ratiometric Fluorescence Microscopy

Study of Phagolysosome Biogenesis in Live Macrophages

Phagocytic cells play a major role in the innate immune system by removing and eliminating invading microorganisms in their phagosomes. Phagosome maturation is the complex and tightly regulated process during which a nascent phagosome undergoes drastic transformation through well-orchestrated interactions with various cellular organelles and compartments in the cytoplasm. This process, which is essential for the physiological function of phagocytic cells by endowing phagosomes with their lytic and bactericidal properties, culminates in fusion of phagosomes with lysosomes and biogenesis of phagolysosomes which is considered to be the last and critical stage of maturation for phagosomes. In this report, we describe a live cell imaging based method for qualitative and quantitative analysis of the dynamic process of lysosome to phagosome content delivery, which is a hallmark of phagolysosome biogenesis. This approach uses IgG-coated microbeads as a model for phagocytosis and fluorophore-conjugated dextran molecules as a luminal lysosomal cargo probe, in order to follow the dynamic delivery of lysosmal content to the phagosomes in real time in live macrophages using time-lapse imaging and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Here we describe in detail the background, the preparation steps and the step-by-step experimental setup to enable easy and precise deployment of this method in other labs. Our described method is simple, robust, and most importantly, can be easily adapted to study phagosomal interactions and maturation in different systems and under various experimental settings such as use of various phagocytic cells types, loss-of-function experiments, different probes, and phagocytic particles.

ライブマクロファージにおけるファゴリソソーム生合成の研究

Phagocytic cells play a major role in the innate immune system by removing and eliminating invading microorganisms in their phagosomes. Phagosome ...

免疫・感染学

High Throughput Fluorometric Technique for Assessment of Macrophage Phagocytosis and Actin Polymerization

The goal of fluorometric analysis is to serve as an efficient, cost effective, high throughput method of analyzing phagocytosis and other cellular processes. This technique can be used on a variety of cell types, both adherent and non-adherent, to examine a variety of cellular properties. When studying phagocytosis, fluorometric technique utilizes phagocytic cell types such as macrophages, and fluorescently labeled opsonized particles whose fluorescence can be extinguished in the presence of trypan blue. Following plating of adherent macrophages in 96-well plates, fluorescent particles (green or red) are administered and cells are allowed to phagocytose for varied amounts of time. Following internalization of fluorescent particles, cells are washed with trypan blue, which facilitates extinction of fluorescent signal from bacteria which are not internalized, or are merely adhering to the cell surface. Following the trypan wash, cells are washed with PBS, fixed, and stained with DAPI (nuclear blue fluorescent label), which serves to label nuclei of cells. By a simple fluorometric quantification through plate reading of nuclear (blue) or particle (red/green) fluorescence we can examine the ratio of relative fluorescence units of green:blue and determine a phagocytic index indicative of amount of fluorescent bacteria internalized per cell. The duration of assay using a 96-well method and multichannel pipettes for washing, from end of phagocytosis to end of data acquisition, is less than 45 min. Flow cytometry could be used in a similar manner but the advantage of fluorometry is its high throughput, rapid method of assessment with minimal manipulation of samples and quick quantification of fluorescent intensity per cell. Similar strategies can be applied to non adherent cells, live labeled bacteria, actin polymerization, and essentially any process utilizing fluorescence. Therefore, fluorometry is a promising method for its low cost, high throughput capabilities in the study of cellular processes.

Here we present a protocol to quantify phagocytosis of fluorescent particles by adherent macrophage cell line using a fluorometric method. This method facilitates a high throughput quantification of particle internalization as well as the resulting actin polymerization.

マクロファージ食作用およびアクチン重合の評価のためのハイスループット蛍光技術

The goal of fluorometric analysis is to serve as an efficient, cost effective, high throughput method of analyzing phagocytosis and other cellular ...

"Phagosome Closure Assay" to Visualize Phagosome Formation in Three Dimensions Using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescent Microscopy (TIRFM)

Phagocytosis is a mechanism used by specialized cells to internalize and eliminate microorganisms or cellular debris. It relies on profound rearrangements of the actin cytoskeleton that is the driving force for plasma membrane extension around the particle. In addition, efficient engulfment of large material relies on focal exocytosis of intracellular compartments. This process is highly dynamic and numerous molecular players have been described to have a role during phagocytic cup formation. The precise regulation in time and space of all of these molecules, however, remains elusive. In addition, the last step of phagosome closure has been very difficult to observe because inhibition by RNA interference or dominant negative mutants often results in stalled phagocytic cup formation. 
We have set up a dedicated experimental approach using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) combined with epifluorescence to monitor step by step the extension of pseudopods and their tips in a phagosome growing around a particle loosely bound to a coverslip. This method allows us to observe, with high resolution the very tips of the pseudopods and their fusion during closure of the phagosome in living cells for two different fluorescently tagged proteins at the same time.

"Phagosome Closure Assay" to Visualize Phagosome Formation in Three Dimensions Using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescent Microscopy TIRFM

We describe an experimental setup to visualize with unprecedented high resolution phagosome formation and closure in three dimensions in living macrophages, using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. It allows monitoring of the base of the phagocytic cup, the extending pseudopods, as well as the precise site of phagosome scission.

「ファゴソーム閉鎖アッセイ」全反射蛍光顕微鏡（TIRFM）を用いて、三次元的にファゴソーム形成を可視化します

Phagocytosis is a mechanism used by specialized cells to internalize and eliminate microorganisms or cellular debris. It relies on profound rearrangements ...

Imaging the Neutrophil Phagosome and Cytoplasm Using a Ratiometric pH Indicator

Neutrophils are crucial to host innate defense and, consequently, constitute an important area of medical research. The phagosome, the intracellular compartment where the killing and digestion of engulfed particles take place, is the main arena for neutrophil pathogen killing that requires tight regulation. Phagosomal pH is one aspect that is carefully controlled, in turn regulating antimicrobial protease activity. Many fluorescent pH-sensitive dyes have been used to visualize the phagosomal environment. S-1 has several advantages over other pH-sensitive dyes, including its dual emission spectra, its resistance to photo-bleaching, and its high pKa. Using this method, we have demonstrated that the neutrophil phagosome is unusually alkaline in comparison to other phagocytes. By using different biochemical conjugations of the dye, the phagosome can be delineated from the cytoplasm so that changes in the size and shape of the phagosome can be assessed. This allows for further monitoring of ionic movement.

This manuscript describes a simple method to measure the phagosomal pH and area as well as the cytoplasmic pH of human and mouse neutrophils using the ratiometric indicator seminaphthorhodafluor (SNARF)-1, or S-1. This is achieved using live-cell confocal fluorescence microscopy and image analysis.

レシオメトリックpH指示薬を使用して好中球ファゴソームと細胞質のイメージング

Neutrophils are crucial to host innate defense and, consequently, constitute an important area of medical research. The phagosome, the intracellular ...

Quantification of Efferocytosis by Single-cell Fluorescence Microscopy

Studying the regulation of efferocytosis requires methods that are able to accurately quantify the uptake of apoptotic cells and to probe the signaling and cellular processes that control efferocytosis. This quantification can be difficult to perform as apoptotic cells are often efferocytosed piecemeal, thus necessitating methods which can accurately delineate between the efferocytosed portion of an apoptotic target versus residual unengulfed cellular fragments. The approach outlined herein utilizes dual-labeling approaches to accurately quantify the dynamics of efferocytosis and efferocytic capacity of efferocytes such as macrophages. The cytosol of the apoptotic cell is labeled with a cell-tracking dye to enable monitoring of all apoptotic cell-derived materials, while surface biotinylation of the apoptotic cell allows for differentiation between internalized and non-internalized apoptotic cell fractions. The efferocytic capacity of efferocytes is determined by taking fluorescent images of live or fixed cells and quantifying the amount of bound versus internalized targets, as differentiated by streptavidin staining. This approach offers several advantages over methods such as flow cytometry, namely the accurate delineation of non-efferocytosed versus efferocytosed apoptotic cell fractions, the ability to measure efferocytic dynamics by live-cell microscopy, and the capacity to perform studies of cellular signaling in cells expressing fluorescently-labeled transgenes. Combined, the methods outlined in this protocol serve as the basis for a flexible experimental approach that can be used to accurately quantify efferocytic activity and interrogate cellular signaling pathways active during efferocytosis.

Efferocytosis, the phagocytic removal of apoptotic cells, is required to maintain homeostasis and is facilitated by receptors and signaling pathways that allow for the recognition, engulfment, and internalization of apoptotic cells. Herein, we present a fluorescence microscopy protocol for the quantification of efferocytosis and the activity of efferocytic signaling pathways.

単一細胞の蛍光顕微鏡による Efferocytosis の定量化

Studying the regulation of efferocytosis requires methods that are able to accurately quantify the uptake of apoptotic cells and to probe the signaling ...

Measuring the pH, Redox Chemistries, and Degradative Capacity of Macropinosomes using Dual-Fluorophore Ratiometric Microscopy

In recent years, the field of macropinocytosis has grown rapidly. Macropinocytosis has emerged as a central mechanism by which innate immune cells maintain organismal homeostasis and immunity. Simultaneously, and in contrast to its homeostatic role, it can also drive various pathologies, including cancer and viral infections. Unlike other modes of endocytosis, the tools developed for studying the maturation of macropinosomes remain underdeveloped. Here the protocol describes newly developed tools for studying the redox environment within the lumen of early and maturing macropinosomes. Methodologies for using ratiometric fluorescence microscopy in assessing the pH, production of reactive oxygen species, and the degradative capacity within the lumen of individual macropinosomes in live cells are described. Single organelle measurements offer the advantage of revealing spatiotemporal heterogeneity, which is often lost with population-based approaches. Emphasis is placed on the basic principles of dual fluorophore ratiometric microscopy, including probe selection, instrumentation, calibration, and single-cell versus population-based methods.

We describe protocols for measuring pH, oxidative events, and protein digestion in individual macropinosomes in live cells. An emphasis is placed on dual-fluorophore ratiometric microscopy and the advantages it offers over population-based techniques.

二重蛍光系比測定法を用いたマクロピノソームのpH、レドックス化学、分解能の測定

In recent years, the field of macropinocytosis has grown rapidly. Macropinocytosis has emerged as a central mechanism by which innate immune cells ...

Simultaneous pH Measurement in Endocytic and Cytosolic Compartments in Living Cells using Confocal Microscopy

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported1. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial for homeostatic control of physiological processes that include: protein, DNA and RNA synthesis, vesicular trafficking, cell growth and cell division. Alterations in cellular pH homeostasis can lead to detrimental functional changes and promote progression of various diseases2. Various methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of pH in the cytoplasm and in organelles. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate method for the simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH by using confocal microscopy on living cells3. This goal is achieved with the use of two pH-sensing ratiometric dyes that possess selective cellular compartment partitioning. For instance, SNARF-1 is compartmentalized inside the cytoplasm whereas HPTS is compartmentalized inside endosomal/lysosomal organelles. Although HPTS is commonly used as a cytoplasmic pH indicator, this dye can specifically label vesicles along the endosomal-lysosomal pathway after being taken up by pinocytosis3,4. Using these pH-sensing probes, it is possible to simultaneously measure pH within the endocytic and cytoplasmic compartments. The optimal excitation wavelength of HPTS varies depending on the pH while for SNARF-1, it is the optimal emission wavelength that varies. Following loading with SNARF-1 and HPTS, cells are cultured in different pH-calibrated solutions to construct a pH standard curve for each probe. Cell imaging by confocal microscopy allows elimination of artifacts and background noise. Because of the spectral properties of HPTS, this probe is better suited for measurement of the mildly acidic endosomal compartment or to demonstrate alkalinization of the endosomal/lysosomal organelles. This method simplifies data analysis, improves accuracy of pH measurements and can be used to address fundamental questions related to pH modulation during cell responses to external challenges.

Several methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate methodology to simultaneously measure cytoplasmic and vesicular pH by ratiometric imaging of living cells.

共焦点顕微鏡を用いた生細胞におけるエンドサイトーシスおよび細胞質区画における同時pH測定

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported1. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial ...

生物学

In vitro Quantitative Imaging Assay for Phagocytosis of Dead Neuroblastoma Cells by iPSC-Macrophages

Microglia orchestrate neuroimmune responses in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson&#39;s disease and Alzheimer&#39;s disease. Microglia clear up dead and dying neurons through the process of efferocytosis, a specialized form of phagocytosis. The phagocytosis function can be disrupted by environmental or genetic risk factors that affect microglia. This paper presents a rapid and simple in vitro&#160;microscopy protocol for studying microglial efferocytosis in an induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) model of microglia, using a human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) labeled with a pH-sensitive dye for the phagocytic cargo. The procedure results in a high yield of dead neuroblastoma cells, which display surface phosphatidylserine, recognized as an &#34;eat-me&#34; signal by phagocytes. The 96-well plate assay is suitable for live-cell time-lapse imaging, or the plate can be successfully fixed prior to further processing and quantified by high-content microscopy. Fixed-cell high-content microscopy enables the assay to be scaled up for screening of small molecule inhibitors or assessing the phagocytic function of genetic variant iPSC lines. While this assay was developed to study phagocytosis of whole dead neuroblastoma cells by iPSC-macrophages, the assay can be easily adapted for other cargoes relevant to neurodegenerative diseases, such as synaptosomes and myelin, and other phagocytic cell types.

Neurodegenerative diseases are associated with dysregulated microglia functions. This article outlines an in vitro assay of phagocytosis of neuroblastoma cells by iPSC-macrophages. Quantitative microscopy readouts are described for both live-cell time-lapse imaging and fixed-cell high-content imaging.

iPSCマクロファージによる死んだ神経芽細胞の食細胞に対するインビトロ定量イメージングアッセイ

Microglia orchestrate neuroimmune responses in several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson&#39;s disease and Alzheimer&#39;s disease. ...

神経科学

Utilizing pHluorin-tagged Receptors to Monitor Subcellular Localization and Trafficking

Understanding membrane protein trafficking, assembly, and expression requires an approach that differentiates between those residing in intracellular organelles and those localized on the plasma membrane. Traditional fluorescence-based measurements lack the capability to distinguish membrane proteins residing in different organelles. Cutting edge methodologies transcend traditional methods by coupling pH-sensitive fluorophores with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). TIRF illumination excites the sample up to approximately 150 nm from the glass-sample interface, thus decreasing background, increasing the signal to noise ratio, and enhancing resolution. The excitation volume in TIRFM encompasses the plasma membrane and nearby organelles such as the peripheral ER. Superecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH sensitive version of GFP. Genetically encoding SEP into the extracellular domain of a membrane protein of interest positions the fluorophore on the luminal side of the ER and in the extracellular region of the cell. SEP is fluorescent when the pH is greater than 6, but remains in an off state at lower pH values. Therefore, receptors tagged with SEP fluoresce when residing in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or upon insertion in the plasma membrane (PM) but not when confined to a trafficking vesicle or other organelles such as the Golgi. The extracellular pH can be adjusted to dictate the fluorescence of receptors on the plasma membrane. The difference in fluorescence between TIRF images at neutral and acidic extracellular pH for the same cell corresponds to a relative number of receptors on the plasma membrane. This allows a simultaneous measurement of intracellular and plasma membrane resident receptors. Single vesicle insertion events can also be measured when the extracellular pH is neutral, corresponding to a low pH trafficking vesicle fusing with the plasma membrane and transitioning into a fluorescent state. This versatile technique can be exploited to study localization, expression, and trafficking of membrane proteins.

Labeling the extracellular domain of a membrane protein with a pH sensitive fluorophore, superecliptic pHluorin (SEP), allows subcellular localization, expression, and trafficking to be determined. Imaging SEP-labeled proteins with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) enables the quantification of protein levels in the peripheral ER and plasma membrane.

細胞内局在や人身売買を監視するpHluorinタグ付き受容体を利用します

Understanding membrane protein trafficking, assembly, and expression requires an approach that differentiates between those residing in intracellular ...

TIRF Microscopy-Based Visualization of Phagosome Formation and Closure

For non-covalent fixation of the SRBCs, pour 2 milliliters of the IgG-opsonized cells into each of the poly-lysine-coated dishes, and centrifuge the samples in a swinging rotor centrifuge. Discard the supernatants, and wash the particles one time with 2 milliliters of PBS plus 10% BSA.
Then, incubate the particles with 2 milliliters of fresh PBS plus 10% BSA for 30 minutes at room temperature, followed by three washes with 2 milliliters of PBS. After the last wash, replace the PBS with 2 milliliters of 37 degrees Celsius serum-free microscopy medium.
Place an SRBC-coded dish onto the microscope stage. Then, scrape the transfected cells of interest from the bottom of the culture dish and pipette the cells a few times to achieve a single-cell suspension. Add the transfected cells to the SRBC-coated dish.
Start the live acquisition software. Find a cell that expresses the fluorescently tagged proteins and adjust the position of the dish so that a cell of interest is in the middle of the field. Acquire 500 images at different angles from 0 to 5 degrees at 0.01-degree increments at one excitation wavelength.
To determine the critical angle for the incident light to be totally reflected at the glass-medium interface and generate an evanescent wave, open the image sequence in the appropriate imaging software. Select a region of interest in the cell with uniform fluorescence.
Then, under the Image tab, select Stacks and plot Z-axis profile. To plot the Z-axis profile mean fluorescence intensity measured in the region of interest with the function of the angles on the X-axis. Any angle value on the x-axis superior to the critical angle can then be used during the microscopy session to obtain a TIRF signal.