We are grateful to the Banner Sun Health Research Institute Brain and Body Donation Program (BBDP) of Sun City, Arizona for the provision of human brain tissues. The BBDP has been supported by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (U24 NS072026 National Brain and Tissue Resource for Parkinson's Disease and Related Disorders), the National Institute on Aging (P30AG19610 Arizona Alzheimer's Disease Core Center), the Arizona Department of Health Services (contract 211002, Arizona Alzheimer's Research Center), the Arizona Biomedical Research Commission (contracts 4001, 0011, 05-901 and 1001 to the Arizona Parkinson&#39;s Disease Consortium) and the Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research27. This study was also supported by the DHS and the State of Arizona (ADHS grant # ADHS14-052688). We also thank Andrea Schmitt (Banner Research) and Cynthia Lechuga (TGen) for administrative support.

This research has been performed in compliance with all institutional, national and international guidelines for human welfare. Brain tissues were obtained from the Banner Sun Health Research Institute Brain and Body Donation Program in Sun City, AZ. The operations of the Brain and Body Donation Program are approved by the Western Institutional Review Board (WIRB protocol #20120821). All subjects or their legal representatives signed the informed consent. Commercial (non-brain) biospecimens were purchased from Proteogene...

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	<li>Salzman, J., Gawad, C., Wang, P. L., Lacayo, N., Brown, P. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circular+RNAs+are+the+predominant+transcript+isoform+from+hundreds+of+human+genes+in+diverse+cell+types.">Circular RNAs are the predominant transcript isoform from hundreds of human genes in diverse cell types.</a> PloS One. 7 (2), e30733 (2012).</li><li>Jeck, W. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circular+RNAs+are+abundant,+conserved,+and+associated+with+ALU+repeats.">Circular RNAs are abundant, conserved, and associated with ALU repeats.</a> RNA. 19 (2), 141-157 (2013).</li><li>Memczak, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circular+RNAs+are+a+large+class+of+animal+RNAs+with+regulatory+potency.">Circular RNAs are a large class of animal RNAs with regulatory potency.</a> Nature. 495 (7441), 333-338 (2013).</li><li>Sanger, H. L., Klotz, G., Riesner, D., Gross, H. J., Kleinschmidt, A. 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O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-type+specific+features+of+circular+RNA+expression.">Cell-type specific features of circular RNA expression.</a> PLoS Genetics. 9 (9), e1003777 (2013).</li><li>Du, W. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Foxo3+circular+RNA+promotes+cardiac+senescence+by+modulating+multiple+factors+associated+with+stress+and+senescence+responses.">Foxo3 circular RNA promotes cardiac senescence by modulating multiple factors associated with stress and senescence responses.</a> European Heart Journal. 38 (18), 1402-1412 (2016).</li><li>Capel, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circular+transcripts+of+the+testis-determining+gene+Sry+in+adult+mouse+testis.">Circular transcripts of the testis-determining gene Sry in adult mouse testis.</a> Cell. 73 (5), 1019-1030 (1993).</li><li>Hansen, T. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=miRNA-dependent+gene+silencing+involving+Ago2-mediated+cleavage+of+a+circular+antisense+RNA.">miRNA-dependent gene silencing involving Ago2-mediated cleavage of a circular antisense RNA.</a> The EMBO Journal. 30 (21), 4414-4422 (2011).</li><li>Hansen, T. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Natural+RNA+circles+function+as+efficient+microRNA+sponges.">Natural RNA circles function as efficient microRNA sponges.</a> Nature. 495 (7441), 384-388 (2013).</li><li>Li, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exon-intron+circular+RNAs+regulate+transcription+in+the+nucleus.">Exon-intron circular RNAs regulate transcription in the nucleus.</a> Nature Structural &amp; Molecular Biology. 22 (3), 256-264 (2015).</li><li>Tan, W. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+landscape+of+circular+RNA+expression+in+the+human+heart.">A landscape of circular RNA expression in the human heart.</a> Cardiovascular Research. 113 (3), 298-309 (2016).</li><li>Zhong, Z., Lv, M., Chen, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Screening+differential+circular+RNA+expression+profiles+reveals+the+regulatory+role+of+circTCF25-miR-103a-3p/miR-107-CDK6+pathway+in+bladder+carcinoma.">Screening differential circular RNA expression profiles reveals the regulatory role of circTCF25-miR-103a-3p/miR-107-CDK6 pathway in bladder carcinoma.</a> Scientific Reports. 6, 30919 (2016).</li><li>Gao, Y., Wang, J., Zhao, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CIRI:+an+efficient+and+unbiased+algorithm+for+de+novo+circular+RNA+identification.">CIRI: an efficient and unbiased algorithm for de novo circular RNA identification.</a> Genome Biology. 16, 4-014-0571-0573 (2015).</li><li>Wang, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MapSplice:+accurate+mapping+of+RNA-seq+reads+for+splice+junction+discovery.">MapSplice: accurate mapping of RNA-seq reads for splice junction discovery.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 38 (18), e178 (2010).</li><li>Szabo, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Statistically+based+splicing+detection+reveals+neural+enrichment+and+tissue-specific+induction+of+circular+RNA+during+human+fetal+development.">Statistically based splicing detection reveals neural enrichment and tissue-specific induction of circular RNA during human fetal development.</a> Genome Biology. 16, 126-015-0690-0695 (2015).</li><li>Cheng, J., Metge, F., Dieterich, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+identification+and+quantification+of+circular+RNAs+from+sequencing+data.">Specific identification and quantification of circular RNAs from sequencing data.</a> Bioinformatics. 32 (7), 1094-1096 (2016).</li><li>Zhang, X. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complementary+sequence-mediated+exon+circularization.">Complementary sequence-mediated exon circularization.</a> Cell. 159 (1), 134-147 (2014).</li><li>Rybak-Wolf, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Circular+RNAs+in+the+mammalian+brain+are+highly+abundant,+conserved,+and+dynamically+expressed.">Circular RNAs in the mammalian brain are highly abundant, conserved, and dynamically expressed.</a> Molecular Cell. 58 (5), 870-885 (2015).</li><li>Ji, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expanded+Expression+Landscape+and+Prioritization+of+Circular+RNAs+in+Mammals.">Expanded Expression Landscape and Prioritization of Circular RNAs in Mammals.</a> Cell Reports. 26 (12), 3444-3460 (2019).</li><li>Hansen, T. B., Ven&#248;, M. T., Damgaard, C. 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In this study, two commercially available library preparation kits, pre-treatment options, and input RNA amounts were tested in order to optimize a circRNA enrichment protocol for construction of circRNA sequencing libraries. Based on this study&rsquo;s assessments, a number of key aspects and critical steps in creating circRNA sequencing libraries are apparent. Our evaluation confirms the utility of RNase R pre-treatment, as reflected by the increased number of circRNAs detected. Overall, a higher diversity of circRNAs ...

Circular RNAs (CircRNAs) are endogenous, non-coding RNAs that have gained attention given their pervasive expression in the eukaryotic transcriptome1,2,3. They are formed when exons back-splice to each other and hence were initially considered to be splicing artifacts4,5. However, recent studies have demonstrated that circRNAs exhibit cell type, tissue, and developmental stage specific expression3,6 and are evolutionarily conserved2,3. Furthermore, they are involved in mediation of protein-protein interactions7, micro-RNA (miRNA) binding3,8,9,10, and regulation of parental gene transcription11.
In classical RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), circRNAs may be completely lost during library construction as a result of poly-A selection for mRNAs or may be difficult to isolate given their low abundance. However, recent circRNA characterization studies have incorporated a pre-treatment step using RNase R in order to enrich for circRNAs2,12,13. RNase R is an exoribonuclease that digests linear RNAs, leaving behind circular RNA structures. CircRNA enrichment protocols were optimized by generating and comparing data from two commercially available whole transcriptome library construction kits, with and without an RNase R pre-treatment step, and using varying amounts of total RNA input (1 to 4 &#181;g). The optimized protocol was next used to evaluate the abundance of circRNAs across five different brain regions (cerebellum [BC], inferior parietal lobe [IP], middle temporal gyrus [MG], occipital cortex [OC] and superior frontal gyrus [SF]) and four other tissue types (liver [LV], lung [LU], lymph node [LN] and pancreas [PA]). RNA-seq libraries were paired end sequenced and data was analyzed using six different circRNA prediction algorithms: find_circ3, CIRI14, Mapsplice15, KNIFE16, DCC17, and CIRCexplorer18. Based on our analysis, the highest number of unique circRNAs was detected when using a stranded total RNA library preparation kit with RNase R pre-treatment and 4 &#181;g total input RNA. The optimized protocol is described here. As previously reported19,20, the highest enrichment of circRNAs was observed in the brain compared to other tissue types.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1000 &#181;L pipette tips</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>GP-L1000F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 &#181;L pipette tips</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>SR L 10F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>200 &#181;L pipette tips</td>
			<td>Rainin</td>
			<td>SR L 200F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2200 TapeStation Accessories (foil covers)</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-5154</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2200 TapeStation Accessories (tips)</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-5153</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive Film for Microplates</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>60941-064</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AMPure XP Beads 450 mL</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>A63882</td>
			<td>PCR purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf twin.tec 96-Well PCR Plates</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>951020401</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Sensitivity D1000 reagents</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-5585</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Sensitivity D1000 ScreenTape</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td>5067-5584</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSeq 2500 Sequencing System</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-401-2501</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSeq 3000/4000 PE Cluster Kit</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>PE-410-1001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSeq 3000/4000 SBS Kit (150 cycles)</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>FC-410-1002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSeq 4000 Sequencing System</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-401-4001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSeq PE PE Rapid Cluster Kit v2</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>PE-402-4002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSeq Rapid SBS Kit v2 (50 cycle)</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>FC-402-4022</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kapa Total RNA Kit</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>KK8400</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molecular biology grade ethanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP28184</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qubit Assay Tubes</td>
			<td>Supply Center by Thermo Fischer</td>
			<td>Q32856</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Qubit dsDNA High Sense Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Supply Center by Thermo Fischer</td>
			<td>Q32854</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNA cleanup and concentrator - 5</td>
			<td>Zymo</td>
			<td>RCC-100</td>
			<td>Contains purification columns, collection tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNAClean XP beads</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter Genomics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>RNA Cleanup beads</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rnase R</td>
			<td>Lucigen</td>
			<td>RNR07250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SuperScript II Reverse Transcriptase 10,000 units</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher (LifeTech)</td>
			<td>18064014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TapeStation 2200</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Nucleic Acid analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TElowE</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10128-588</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TruSeq Stranded Total RNA Library Prep Kit</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>20020596</td>
			<td>Kit used in section 3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Two-Compartment Divided Tray</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>3054-1004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UltraPure Water</td>
			<td>Supply Center by Thermo Fischer</td>
			<td>10977-015</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Universal control RNA</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>740000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

identification of circular rnas using rna sequencing

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs involved in functions including micro-RNA (miRNA) regulation, mediation of protein-protein interactions, and regulation of parental gene transcription. In classical next generation RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), circRNAs are typically overlooked as a result of poly-A selection during construction of mRNA libraries, or are found at very low abundance, and are therefore difficult to isolate and detect. Here, a circRNA library construction protocol was optimized by comparing library preparation kits, pre-treatment options and various total RNA input amounts. Two commercially available whole transcriptome library preparation kits, with and without RNase R pre-treatment, and using variable amounts of total RNA input (1 to 4 &#181;g), were tested. Lastly, multiple tissue types; including liver, lung, lymph node, and pancreas; as well as multiple brain regions; including the cerebellum, inferior parietal lobe, middle temporal gyrus, occipital cortex, and superior frontal gyrus; were compared to evaluate circRNA abundance across tissue types. Analysis of the generated RNA-seq data using six different circRNA detection tools (find_circ, CIRI, Mapsplice, KNIFE, DCC, and CIRCexplorer) revealed that a stranded total RNA library preparation kit with RNase R pre-treatment and 4 &#181;g RNA input is the optimal method for identifying the highest relative number of circRNAs. Consistent with previous findings, the highest enrichment of circRNAs was observed in brain tissues compared to other tissue types.

Data generated using a commercially available universal control RNA (UC) and using two library preparation kits, both of which include a ribo-depletion step in their protocols, was first assessed. Using an analytical workflow (Data analysis workflow, section 4), overall, a higher number of circRNAs was detected in the TruSeq datasets compared to the Kapa ones (Figure 1). Although the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) percentages were below 5% in datasets from both kits for lower input amounts (1, 2 ug), ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of Circular RNAs using RNA Sequencing at JoVE.com

Identification of Circular RNAs using RNA Sequencing

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are non-coding RNAs that may have roles in transcriptional regulation and mediating interactions between proteins. Following assessment of different parameters for construction of circRNA sequencing libraries, a protocol was compiled utilizing stranded total RNA library preparation with RNase R pre-treatment and is presented here.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs involved in functions including micro-RNA (miRNA) regulation, mediation of protein-protein ...

This protocol is the result of evaluating key aspects of circRNA library preparation, such as kit type, RNase R treatment, input amounts and their impact on circRNA detection. It enables optimal circRNA detection and provides data on adjustable parameters depending on the needs of the user. Identifying circRNAs in different sample types will help us to better understand the distribution of their expression and sets the stage for delineating the functional role of these molecules.This method can be applied to any total RNA sample. It is important to keep RNA samples on ice prior to beginning the protocol. Assess the RIN and DV200 values on the Agilent Bioanalyzer or TapeStation before the prep, and follow appropriate procedures when working with RNA.Begin by diluting total RNA to four micrograms in 39 microliters of RNase-free water and pipetting it up and down to mix. In a separate tube, use 1x RNase R Buffer to dilute the RNase R to a working concentration of two units per microliter. Pipette 39 microliters of total RNA and five microliters of 10x RNase R Reaction Buffer into a 1.5-microliter reaction tube, and mix.Add six microliters of the diluted RNase R.Then adjust the pipette to full reaction volume, and mix the solution by pipetting up and down 10 times. Place the tube in a 37-degree Celsius water bath for 10 minutes, making sure that the full reaction volume is immersed in the water bath. Then, place the tube on ice, and immediately proceed with RNA cleanup and concentration.Prior to starting, prepare the RNA Wash Buffer by mixing the concentrate with 48 milliliters of 100%ethanol, and place purification columns into collection tubes. When ready, add two volumes of RNA Binding Buffer to the RNase R-treated sample, and mix well. Add 150 microliters of 100%ethanol to the mixture for a total of 300 microliters, transfer the entire volume to the column, and centrifuge for 30 seconds.Remove the flow through, and add 400 microliters of RNA Prep Buffer directly to the column. Centrifuge for 30 seconds, and discard the flow through. Then, add 700 microliters of RNA Wash Buffer to the column, centrifuge for 30 seconds, and discard the flow through.Add another 400 microliters of the Wash Buffer, centrifuge for two minutes, and transfer the column to a fresh RNase-free 1.5-milliliter tube. Carefully add 11 microliters of RNase-free water directly to the column by holding the pipette tip right above the column filter. Let the sample sit for one minute at room temperature, and then centrifuge it for one minute.Make sure there is flow through in the 1.5-milliliter tube, and discard the column. The purified RNA sample can be stored at minus 80 degrees Celsius or used immediately for library preparation. Transfer 10 microliters of the purified total RNA to a clean well in a 96-well PCR plate.Add five microliters of rRNA Binding Buffer followed by five microliters of rRNA Removal Mix, then gently pipette up and down to mix the reagents. Seal the plate, and incubate it for five minutes at 68 degrees Celsius on a preprogrammed and preheated thermocycler block. After the incubation, let the plate sit at room temperature for one minute.Remove the seal from the plate, and add 35 microliters of vortexed room temperature rRNA removal beads to the sample. Adjust the pipette to 45 microliters, and pipette up and down 10 to 20 times to thoroughly mix. Let the plate sit at room temperature for one minute.Transfer the plate to a magnetic stand, and incubate it there for one minute or until the solution clears. Transfer the supernatant to new well on the plate. Then transfer the plate from the magnetic stand to the plate stand.Vortex RNA cleanup beads until they are well dispersed, and add 99 microliters of beads to the sample. Pipette up and down to mix, and incubate the plate at room temperature for 10 minutes. Transfer the plate to the magnetic stand, and leave it there for five minutes or until the solution clears, then remove and discard all supernatant from the well.With the plate still on the magnetic stand, add 200 microliters of freshly prepared 80%ethanol to the well without disrupting the beads. Leave the ethanol in the well for 30 seconds, then remove and discard it. Add 11 microliters of Elution Buffer to the well, and pipette it up and down to mix.Incubate the plate at room temperature for two minutes, then transfer it back to the magnetic stand, and keep it there until the solution clears. Transfer 8.5 microliters of the supernatant to a new well on the same plate, and add 8.5 microliters of Elute, Primer, Fragment High Mix to each well containing a sample. Pipette up and down 10 times to mix thoroughly, seal the plate, and incubate it for eight minutes in a thermocycler preheated to 94 degrees Celsius.Cool the sample to four degrees Celsius, remove the plate from the thermocycler, and centrifuge it briefly. Two library preparation kits, TruSeq and KAPA, were assessed for this protocol. Overall, a higher number of circular RNAs and lower percentage of ribosomal RNA was detected when using the TruSeq kit, so TruSeq was selected for further experiments.The significance of RNase R pretreatment was evaluated by comparing the data generated from pretreated and non-pretreated libraries. As expected, a higher number of circular RNAs was consistently identified in the pretreated libraries compared to non-pretreated ones. The amount of input RNA was optimized for detecting a higher diversity of circular RNAs.Libraries were prepared using one, two, and four micrograms of input RNA, and the highest diversity of circular RNA species was observed when using four micrograms of total RNA. The optimized protocol was used to compare circular RNA abundances in five brain regions from four healthy donors and for other tissue types from six healthy donors. Overall, a higher abundance of circular RNase was observed in the brain compared to other tissue types.It is important to remember to follow appropriate procedures when working with RNA, including wearing gloves, thoroughly cleaning the bench and pipettes with RNase wipes or spray before beginning the protocol, and keeping RNA on ice beforehand. Following this procedure, orthogonal validation such as Sanger sequencing of identified circRNA junctions can be performed. The discovery of new circRNAs and further evidence of their presence carves out a new area of research for exploring their biological functions.

identification-of-circular-rnas-using-rna-sequencing

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

11.9K ビュー.  Translational Genomic Research Institute. このプロトコルは、キットタイプ、RNase R処理、入力量、およびcircRNA検出への影響など、circRNAライブラリ調製の主要な側面を評価した結果です。それは最適なサークRNAの検出を可能にし、ユーザーの必要性に応じて調節可能な変数のデータを提供する。異なるサンプルタイプのcircRNAを同定することは、その発現の分布をよりよく理解するのに役立ち、これらの分子の機?...

ビデオ: Identification of Circular RNAs using RNA Sequencing

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are non-coding RNAs that may have roles in transcriptional regulation and mediating interactions between proteins. Following assessment of different parameters for construction of circRNA sequencing libraries, a protocol was compiled utilizing stranded total RNA library preparation with RNase R pre-treatment and is presented...

quantification of circular rnas using digital droplet pcr

Quantification of Circular RNAs Using Digital Droplet PCR

This protocol describes the detailed method of digital droplet PCR (dd-PCR) for precise quantification of circular RNA (circRNA) levels in cells using divergent primers.

identification of rnas engaged in direct rna-rna interaction with a long non-coding rna

Identification of RNAs Engaged in Direct RNA-RNA Interaction with a Long Non-Coding RNA

An easy-to-use RNA pull-down protocol is designed for the identification of RNAs engaged in direct RNA/RNA interaction with a long non-coding RNA. The protocol uses psoralen as a fixative to cross-link only RNA/RNA interactions and provides the whole direct RNA interactome of a long non-coding RNA when coupled with RNA sequencing.

use of alu element containing minigenes to analyze circular rnas

Use of Alu Element Containing Minigenes to Analyze Circular RNAs

We clone and analyze reporter genes generating circular RNAs. These reporter genes are larger than constructs to analyze linear splicing and contain Alu elements. To investigate the circular RNAs, the constructs are transfected into cells and resulting RNA is analyzed using RT-PCR after removal of linear...

Use of Alu Element Containing Minigenes to Analyze Circular RNAs

post-transcriptional methylation removal in rnas using alkb demethylase and subsequent rna-cdna hybrid hydrolysis in rna sequencing preparation

Post-Transcriptional Methylation Removal in RNAs Using AlkB Demethylase and Subsequent RNA-cDNA Hybrid Hydrolysis in RNA Sequencing Preparation

high-throughput identification of gene regulatory sequences using next-generation sequencing of circular chromosome conformation capture (4c-seq)

High-throughput Identification of Gene Regulatory Sequences Using Next-generation Sequencing of Circular Chromosome Conformation Capture 4C-seq

The identification of physical interactions between genes and regulatory elements is challenging but has been facilitated by chromosome conformation capture methods. This modification to the 4C-seq protocol mitigates PCR bias by minimizing over-amplification of PCR templates and maximizes the mappability of reads by incorporating an addition restriction enzyme digest...

High-throughput Identification of Gene Regulatory Sequences Using Next-generation Sequencing of Circular Chromosome Conformation Capture (4C-seq)

aqrna-seq for quantifying small rnas

Author Spotlight: AQRNA-seq Role in Mapping Small RNAs and Unraveling Protein Translation Mechanisms

Absolute quantification RNA sequencing (AQRNA-seq) is a technology developed to quantify the landscape of all small RNAs in biological mixtures. Here, both the library preparation and data processing steps of AQRNA-seq are demonstrated, quantifying changes in the transfer RNA (tRNA) pool in Mycobacterium bovis BCG during starvation-induced...

Analyzing tRNA Dynamics Using AQRNA-seq

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large-scale production of recombinant rnas on a circular scaffold using a viroid-derived system in escherichia coli

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

Here, we present a protocol to produce large amounts of recombinant RNA in Escherichia coli by co-expressing a chimeric RNA that contains the RNA of interest in a viroid scaffold and a plant tRNA ligase. The main product is a circular molecule that facilitates purification to...

Large-scale Production of Recombinant RNAs on a Circular Scaffold Using a Viroid-derived System in Escherichia coli

reliable identification of living dopaminergic neurons in midbrain cultures using rna sequencing and th-promoter-driven egfp expression

Reliable Identification of Living Dopaminergic Neurons in Midbrain Cultures Using RNA Sequencing and TH-promoter-driven eGFP Expression

In Parkinson&#39;s Disease (PD), Substantia Nigra (SNc) dopaminergic neurons degenerate, leading to motor dysfunction. Here we report a protocol for culturing ventral midbrain neurons from a mouse expressing eGFP driven by a Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) promoter sequence, harvesting individual fluorescent neurons from the cultures, and measuring their transcriptome using...

identification of footprints of rna:protein complexes via rna immunoprecipitation in tandem followed by sequencing (ripit-seq)

Identification of Footprints of RNA:Protein Complexes via RNA Immunoprecipitation in Tandem Followed by Sequencing RIPiT-Seq

Here, we present a protocol to enrich endogenous RNA binding sites or &#34;footprints&#34;&#160;of RNA:protein (RNP) complexes from mammalian cells. This approach involves two immunoprecipitations of RNP subunits and is therefore dubbed RNA immunoprecipitation in tandem...

Identification of Footprints of RNA:Protein Complexes via RNA Immunoprecipitation in Tandem Followed by Sequencing (RIPiT-Seq)

capture and identification of rna-binding proteins by using click chemistry-assisted rna-interactome capture (caric) strategy

Capture and Identification of RNA-binding Proteins by Using Click Chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome Capture CARIC Strategy

A detailed protocol for applying the click chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome capture (CARIC) strategy to identify proteins binding to both coding and noncoding RNAs is...

Capture and Identification of RNA-binding Proteins by Using Click Chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome Capture (CARIC) Strategy

identification of key factors regulating self-renewal and differentiation in eml hematopoietic precursor cells by rna-sequencing analysis

Identification of Key Factors Regulating Self-renewal and Differentiation in EML Hematopoietic Precursor Cells by RNA-sequencing Analysis

RNA-sequencing and bioinformatics analyses were used to identify significantly and differentially expressed transcription factors in Lin-CD34+ and Lin-CD34- subpopulations of mouse EMLcells. These transcription factors might play important roles in determining the switch between self-renewing Lin-CD34+ and partially differentiated Lin-CD34-...

rare event detection using error-corrected dna and rna sequencing

Rare Event Detection Using Error-corrected DNA and RNA Sequencing

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a powerful tool for genomic characterization that is limited by the high error rate of the platform (~0.5&#8211;2.0%). We describe our methods of error-corrected sequencing that allow us to obviate the NGS error rate and detect mutations at variant allele fractions as rare as...

identification of rna fragments resulting from enzymatic degradation using maldi-tof mass spectrometry

Identification of RNA Fragments Resulting from Enzymatic Degradation using MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry

MALDI-TOF was used to characterize fragments obtained from the reactivity between oxidized RNA and the exoribonuclease Xrn-1. The present protocol describes a methodology that can be applied to other processes involving RNA and/or...

computational analysis tutorial for chimeric small noncoding rna: target rna sequencing libraries

Author Spotlight: A Computational Pipeline for Analyzing Chimeric Noncoding RNA-Target RNA Interactions in High-Throughput Sequencing Data 

Here, we present a protocol demonstrating the installation and use of a bioinformatics pipeline to analyze chimeric RNA sequencing data used in the study of in vivo RNA:RNA...

Computational Analysis Tutorial for Chimeric Small Noncoding RNA: Target RNA Sequencing Libraries

next-generation sequencing of 16s ribosomal rna gene amplicons

Next-generation Sequencing of 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene Amplicons

Characterizing microbial community has been a longstanding goal in environmental microbiology. Next-generation sequencing methods now allow for the characterization of microbial communities at an unprecedented depth with minimal cost and labor. We detail here our approach to sequence bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA genes using a benchtop sequencer.

optimization for sequencing and analysis of degraded ffpe-rna samples

Optimization for Sequencing and Analysis of Degraded FFPE-RNA Samples

This method describes the steps to improve the quality and quantity of sequence data that can be obtained from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) RNA samples. We describe the methodology to more accurately assess the quality of FFPE-RNA samples, prepare sequencing libraries, and analyze the data from FFPE-RNA...

retrospective microrna sequencing: complementary dna library preparation protocol using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded rna specimens

Retrospective MicroRNA Sequencing: Complementary DNA Library Preparation Protocol Using Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded RNA Specimens

Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded specimens represent a valuable source of molecular biomarkers of human diseases. Here we present a laboratory-based cDNA library preparation protocol, initially designed with fresh frozen RNA, and optimized for the analysis of archived microRNAs from tissues stored up to 35...

gel-seq: a method for simultaneous sequencing library preparation of dna and rna using hydrogel matrices

Gel-seq: A Method for Simultaneous Sequencing Library Preparation of DNA and RNA Using Hydrogel Matrices

Gel-seq enables researchers to simultaneously prepare libraries for both DNA- and RNA-seq at negligible added cost starting from 100 - 1000 cells using a simple hydrogel device. This paper presents a detailed approach for the fabrication of the device as well as the biological protocol to generate paired...

improving small rna-seq: less bias and better detection of 2'-o-methyl rnas

Improving Small RNA-seq: Less Bias and Better Detection of 2&#039;-O-Methyl RNAs

We present a detailed small RNA library reparation protocol with less bias than standard methods and an increased sensitivity for 2&#39;-O-methyl RNAs. This protocol can be followed using homemade reagents to save cost or using kits for...

Improving Small RNA-seq: Less Bias and Better Detection of 2'-O-Methyl RNAs

Mapping RNA-RNA Interactions Globally Using Biotinylated Psoralen

Knowing how RNAs interact with themselves and with others is key to understanding RNA based gene regulation in the cell. While examples of RNA-RNA interactions such as microRNA-mRNA interactions have been shown to regulate gene expression, the full extent to which RNA interactions occur in the cell is still unknown. Previous methods to study RNA interactions have primarily focused on subsets of RNAs that are interacting with a particular protein or RNA species. Here, we detail a method named Sequencing of Psoralen crosslinked, Ligated, and Selected Hybrids (SPLASH) that allows genome-wide capture of RNA interactions in vivo in an unbiased manner. SPLASH utilizes in vivo crosslinking, proximity ligation, and high throughput sequencing to identify intramolecular and intermolecular RNA base-pairing partners globally. SPLASH can be applied to different organisms including bacteria, yeast and human cells, as well as diverse cellular conditions to facilitate the understanding of the dynamics of RNA organization under diverse cellular contexts. The entire experimental SPLASH protocol takes about 5 days to complete and the computational workflow takes about 7 days to complete.

Here, we detail the method of Sequencing of Psoralen crosslinked, Ligated, and Selected Hybrids (SPLASH), which enables genome-wide mapping of intramolecular and intermolecular RNA-RNA interactions in vivo. SPLASH can be applied to study RNA interactomes of organisms including yeast, bacteria and humans.

Knowing how RNAs interact with themselves and with others is key to understanding RNA based gene regulation in the cell. While examples of RNA-RNA ...

Metabolic Labeling and Profiling of Transfer RNAs Using Macroarrays

Transfer RNAs (tRNA) are abundant short non-coding RNA species that are typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length. tRNAs are directly responsible for protein synthesis by translating codons in mRNA into amino acid sequences. tRNAs were long considered as house-keeping molecules that lacked regulatory functions. However, a growing body of evidence indicates that cellular tRNA levels fluctuate in correspondence to varying conditions such as cell type, environment, and stress. The fluctuation of tRNA expression directly influences gene translation, favoring or repressing the expression of particular proteins. Ultimately comprehending the dynamic of protein synthesis requires the development of methods able to deliver high-quality tRNA profiles. The method that we present here is named SPOt, which stands for Streamlined Platform for Observing tRNA. SPOt consists of three steps starting with metabolic labeling of cell cultures with radioactive orthophosphate, followed by guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction of radioactive total RNAs and finally hybridization on in-house printed macroarrays. tRNA levels are estimated by quantifying the radioactivity intensities at each probe spot. In the protocol presented here we profile tRNAs in Mycobacterium smegmatis mc2155, a nonpathogenic bacterium often used as a model organism to study tuberculosis.

We describe an original transfer RNA analysis platform named SPOt (Streamlined Platform for Observing tRNA). SPOt simultaneously measures cellular levels of all tRNAs in biological samples, in only three steps, and in less than 24 hours.

Transfer RNAs (tRNA) are abundant short non-coding RNA species that are typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length. tRNAs are directly responsible for ...

&#8211;Archived, clinically classified formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues can provide nucleic acids for retrospective molecular studies of cancer development. By using non-invasive or pre-malignant lesions from patients who later develop invasive disease, gene expression analyses may help identify early molecular alterations that predispose to cancer risk. It has been well described that nucleic acids recovered from FFPE tissues have undergone severe physical damage and chemical modifications, which make their analysis difficult and generally requires adapted assays. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), however, which represent a small class of RNA molecules spanning only up to ~18&#8211;24 nucleotides, have been shown to withstand long-term storage and have been successfully analyzed in FFPE samples. Here we present a 3&#39; barcoded complementary DNA (cDNA) library preparation protocol specifically optimized for the analysis of small RNAs extracted from archived tissues, which was recently demonstrated to be robust and highly reproducible when using archived clinical specimens stored for up to 35 years. This library preparation is well adapted to the multiplex analysis of compromised/degraded material where RNA samples (up to 18) are ligated with individual 3&#39; barcoded adapters and then pooled together for subsequent enzymatic and biochemical preparations prior to analysis. All purifications are performed by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), which allows size-specific selections and enrichments of barcoded small RNA species. This cDNA library preparation is well adapted to minute RNA inputs, as a pilot polymerase chain reaction (PCR) allows determination of a specific amplification cycle to produce optimal amounts of material for next-generation sequencing (NGS). This approach was optimized for the use of degraded FFPE RNA from specimens archived for up to 35 years and provides highly reproducible NGS data.

Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded specimens represent a valuable source of molecular biomarkers of human diseases. Here we present a laboratory-based cDNA library preparation protocol, initially designed with fresh frozen RNA, and optimized for the analysis of archived microRNAs from tissues stored up to 35 years.

&#8211;Archived, clinically classified formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues can provide nucleic acids for retrospective molecular studies of ...

Conventional next-generation sequencing techniques (NGS) have allowed for immense genomic characterization for over a decade. Specifically, NGS has been used to analyze the spectrum of clonal mutations in malignancy. Though far more efficient than traditional Sanger methods, NGS struggles with identifying rare clonal and subclonal mutations due to its high error rate of ~0.5&#8211;2.0%. Thus, standard NGS has a limit of detection for mutations that are &#62;0.02 variant allele fraction (VAF). While the clinical significance for mutations this rare in patients without known disease remains unclear, patients treated for leukemia have significantly improved outcomes when residual disease is &#60;0.0001 by flow cytometry. In order to mitigate this artefactual background of NGS, numerous methods have been developed. Here we describe a method for Error-corrected DNA and RNA Sequencing (ECS), which involves tagging individual molecules with both a 16 bp random index for error-correction and an 8 bp patient-specific index for multiplexing. Our method can detect and track clonal mutations at variant allele fractions (VAFs) two orders of magnitude lower than the detection limit of NGS and as rare as 0.0001 VAF.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a powerful tool for genomic characterization that is limited by the high error rate of the platform (~0.5&#8211;2.0%). We describe our methods of error-corrected sequencing that allow us to obviate the NGS error rate and detect mutations at variant allele fractions as rare as 0.0001.

Conventional next-generation sequencing techniques (NGS) have allowed for immense genomic characterization for over a decade. Specifically, NGS has been ...

The identification of regulatory elements for a given target gene poses a significant technical challenge owing to the variability in the positioning and effect sizes of regulatory elements to a target gene. Some progress has been made with the bioinformatic prediction of the existence and function of proximal epigenetic modifications associated with activated gene expression using conserved transcription factor binding sites. Chromatin conformation capture studies have revolutionized our ability to discover physical chromatin contacts between sequences and even within an entire genome. Circular chromatin conformation capture coupled with next-generation sequencing (4C-seq), in particular, is designed to discover all possible physical chromatin interactions for a given sequence of interest (viewpoint), such as a target gene or a regulatory enhancer. Current 4C-seq strategies directly sequence from within the viewpoint but require numerous and diverse viewpoints to be simultaneously sequenced to avoid the technical challenges of uniform base calling (imaging) with next generation sequencing platforms. This volume of experiments may not be practical for many laboratories. Here, we report a modified approach to the 4C-seq protocol that incorporates both an additional restriction enzyme digest and qPCR-based amplification steps that are designed to facilitate a greater capture of diverse sequence reads and mitigate the potential for PCR bias, respectively. Our modified 4C method is amenable to the standard molecular biology lab for assessing chromatin architecture.

The identification of physical interactions between genes and regulatory elements is challenging but has been facilitated by chromosome conformation capture methods. This modification to the 4C-seq protocol mitigates PCR bias by minimizing over-amplification of PCR templates and maximizes the mappability of reads by incorporating an addition restriction enzyme digest step.

The identification of regulatory elements for a given target gene poses a significant technical challenge owing to the variability in the positioning and ...

Overexpressing Long Noncoding RNAs Using Gene-activating CRISPR

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) biology is a new and exciting field of research, with the number of publications from this field growing exponentially since 2007. These studies have confirmed that lncRNAs are altered in almost all diseases. However, studying the functional roles for lncRNAs in the context of disease remains difficult due to the lack of protein products, tissue-specific expression, low expression levels, complexities in splice forms, and lack of conservation among species. Given the species-specific expression, lncRNA studies are often restricted to human research contexts when studying disease processes. Since lncRNAs function at the molecular level, one way to dissect lncRNA biology is to either remove the lncRNA or overexpress the lncRNA and measure cellular effects. In this article, a written and visualized protocol to overexpress lncRNAs in vitro is presented. As a representative experiment, an lncRNA associated with inflammatory bowel disease, Interferon Gamma Antisense 1 (IFNG-AS1), is shown to be overexpressed in a Jurkat T-cell model. To accomplish this, the activating clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) technique is used to enable overexpression at the endogenous genomic loci. The activating CRISPR technique targets a set of transcription factors to the transcriptional start site of a gene, enabling a robust overexpression of multiple lncRNA splice forms. This procedure will be broken down into three steps, namely (i) guide RNA (gRNA) design and vector construction, (ii) virus generation and transduction, and (iii) colony screening for overexpression. For this representative experiment, a greater than 20-fold enhancement in IFNG-AS1 in Jurkat T cells was observed.

Traditional cDNA-based overexpression techniques have a limited applicability for the overexpression of long noncoding RNAs due to their multiple splice forms with potential functionality. This review reports a protocol using CRISPR technology to overexpress multiple splice variants of a long noncoding RNA.

Long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) biology is a new and exciting field of research, with the number of publications from this field growing exponentially since ...

Sequencing of mRNA from Whole Blood using Nanopore Sequencing

Sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings presents unique challenges. Nanopore sequencing can be successfully used under such conditions, and was deployed to West Africa during the recent Ebola virus epidemic, highlighting this possibility. In addition to its practical advantages (low cost, ease of equipment transport and use), this technology also provides fundamental advantages over second-generation sequencing approaches, particularly the very long read length, ability to directly sequence RNA, and real-time availability of data. Raw read accuracy is lower than with other sequencing platforms, which represents the main limitation of this technology; however, this can be partially mitigated by the high read depth generated. Here, we present a field-compatible protocol for sequencing of the mRNAs encoding for Niemann-Pick C1, which is the cellular receptor for ebolaviruses. This protocol encompasses extraction of RNA from animal blood samples, followed by RT-PCR for target enrichment, barcoding, library preparation, and the sequencing run itself, and can be easily adapted for use with other DNA or RNA targets.

Nanopore sequencing is a novel technology that allows cost-effective sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings. Here, we present a protocol for sequencing of mRNAs from whole blood that is compatible with such conditions.

Sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings presents unique challenges. Nanopore sequencing can be successfully used under such conditions, ...

Single-cell RNA Sequencing and Analysis of Human Pancreatic Islets

Pancreatic islets comprise of endocrine cells with distinctive hormone expression patterns. The endocrine cells show functional differences in response to normal and pathological conditions. The goal of this protocol is to generate high-quality, large-scale transcriptome data of each endocrine cell type with the use of a droplet-based microfluidic single-cell RNA sequencing technology. Such data can be utilized to build the gene expression profile of each endocrine cell type in normal or specific conditions. The process requires careful handling, accurate measurement, and rigorous quality control. In this protocol, we describe detailed steps for human pancreatic islets dissociation, sequencing, and data analysis. The representative results of about 20,000 human single islet cells demonstrate the successful application of the protocol.

Here, we present a protocol to generate high-quality, large-scale transcriptome data of single cells from isolated human pancreatic islets using a droplet-based microfluidic single-cell RNA sequencing technology.

Pancreatic islets comprise of endocrine cells with distinctive hormone expression patterns. The endocrine cells show functional differences in response to ...

RNA immunoprecipitation in tandem (RIPiT) is a method for enriching RNA footprints of a pair of proteins within an RNA:protein (RNP) complex. RIPiT employs two purification steps. First, immunoprecipitation of a tagged RNP subunit is followed by mild RNase digestion and subsequent non-denaturing affinity elution. A second immunoprecipitation of another RNP subunit allows for enrichment of a defined complex. Following a denaturing elution of RNAs and proteins, the RNA footprints are converted into high-throughput DNA sequencing libraries. Unlike the more popular ultraviolet (UV) crosslinking followed by immunoprecipitation (CLIP) approach to enrich RBP binding sites, RIPiT is UV-crosslinking independent. Hence RIPiT can be applied to numerous proteins present in the RNA interactome and beyond that are essential to RNA regulation but do not directly contact the RNA or UV-crosslink poorly to RNA. The two purification steps in RIPiT provide an additional advantage of identifying binding sites where a protein of interest acts in partnership with another cofactor. The double purification strategy also serves to enhance signal by limiting background. Here, we provide a step-wise procedure to perform RIPiT and to generate high-throughput sequencing libraries from isolated RNA footprints. We also outline RIPiT&#39;s advantages and applications and discuss some of its limitations.

Here, we present a protocol to enrich endogenous RNA binding sites or &#34;footprints&#34;&#160;of RNA:protein (RNP) complexes from mammalian cells. This approach involves two immunoprecipitations of RNP subunits and is therefore dubbed RNA immunoprecipitation in tandem (RIPiT).

RNA immunoprecipitation in tandem (RIPiT) is a method for enriching RNA footprints of a pair of proteins within an RNA:protein (RNP) complex. RIPiT ...

The study of small RNAs (sRNAs) by next-generation sequencing (NGS) is challenged by bias issues during library preparation. Several types of sRNA such as plant microRNAs (miRNAs) carry a 2&#39;-O-methyl (2&#39;-OMe) modification at their 3&#39;&#160;terminal nucleotide. This modification adds another difficulty as it inhibits 3&#39;&#160;adapter ligation. We previously demonstrated that modified versions of the &#39;TruSeq (TS)&#39;&#160;protocol have less bias and an improved detection of 2&#39;-OMe RNAs. Here we describe in detail protocol &#39;TS5&#39;, which showed the best overall performance. TS5 can be followed either using homemade reagents or reagents from the TS kit, with equal performance.

We present a detailed small RNA library reparation protocol with less bias than standard methods and an increased sensitivity for 2&#39;-O-methyl RNAs. This protocol can be followed using homemade reagents to save cost or using kits for convenience.

The study of small RNAs (sRNAs) by next-generation sequencing (NGS) is challenged by bias issues during library preparation. Several types of sRNA such as ...