Name: generation of chimeric axolotls with mutant haploid limbs through embryonic grafting
Uploaded: 2020-01-29T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Chimeric Axolotls with Mutant Haploid Limbs Through Embryonic Grafting at JoVE.com

We would like to thank Katherine Roberts for her care of the axolotl colony. Funding for this work was provided by the Connecticut Innovations Regenerative Medicine Research Fund (15RMA-YALE-09 and 15-RMB-YALE-01) and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Individual Postdoctoral Fellowship F32HD086942).

Experimental procedures used in this protocol were approved by the Yale University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC, 2017&#8211;10557) and were in accordance with all federal policies and guidelines governing the use of vertebrate animals. All animal experiments were carried out on Ambystoma mexicanum (axolotls) in facilities at Yale University.
1. Diploid Embryo Generation
<ol>
	<li>Obtain GFP+ diploid embryos to serve as graft hosts through natural mating using o...

<ol>
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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+analysis+of+the+eyeless+mutant+in+the+mexican+axolotl+(Ambystoma+mexicanum).">Experimental analysis of the eyeless mutant in the mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum).</a> Integrative and Comparative Biology. 18 (2), 273-279 (1978).</li><li>Lopez, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+hematopoiesis+in+a+fully+regenerative+vertebrate:+the+axolotl.">Mapping hematopoiesis in a fully regenerative vertebrate: the axolotl.</a> Blood. 124 (8), 1232-1242 (2014).</li><li>de Both, N. 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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effects+of+Changes+in+Chromosome+Number+on+Amphibian+Development.">The Effects of Changes in Chromosome Number on Amphibian Development.</a> The Quarterly Review of Biology. 20 (1), 20-78 (1945).</li><li>Malacinski, G. M., Brothers, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutant+Genes+in+the+Mexican+Axolotl.">Mutant Genes in the Mexican Axolotl.</a> Science. 184 (4142), 1142-1147 (1974).</li><li>Armstrong, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gynogenesis+in+the+mexican+axolotl.">Gynogenesis in the mexican axolotl.</a> Genetics. 83 (4), 783-792 (1976).</li><li>Flowers, G. P., Sanor, L. D., Crews, C. 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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+Screens+in+Human+Cells+Using+the+CRISPR-Cas9+System.">Genetic Screens in Human Cells Using the CRISPR-Cas9 System.</a> Science. 343 (6166), 80-84 (2014).</li><li>Yin, Z., Chen, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simple+Meets+Single:+The+Application+of.">Simple Meets Single: The Application of.</a> CRISPR/Cas9 in Haploid Embryonic Stem Cells. Stem Cells International. 2017, 1-6 (2017).</li><li>Khattak, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimized+axolotl+(Ambystoma+mexicanum)+husbandry,+breeding,+metamorphosis,+transgenesis+and+tamoxifen-mediated+recombination.">Optimized axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) husbandry, breeding, metamorphosis, transgenesis and tamoxifen-mediated recombination.</a> Nature Protocols. 9 (3), 529-540 (2014).</li><li>Vachon, P., Zullian, C., Dodelet-Devillers, A., Roy, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+the+anesthetic+effects+of+MS222+in+the+adult+Mexican+axolotl+(Ambystoma+mexicanum).">Evaluation of the anesthetic effects of MS222 in the adult Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum).</a> Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports. 7, 1-7 (2016).</li><li>Montague, T. 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There are a few critical steps in our protocol for generating haploid-diploid chimeras that the operating technician should consider for consistent grafting results.
The most likely reason for haploid generation to fail is due to poor in vitro activation conditions. The proper quantities of motile sperm must be used to activate eggs. To prolong motility, sperm samples should always be maintained at 4 &#176;C. Before applying any sperm sample to eggs, check the viability of the sperm using an i...

Historically, embryonic tissue grafting in amphibians has been an important technique for exploring fundamental mechanisms of developmental biology and regeneration. The axolotl, a species of salamander, possesses an impressive ability to regenerate tissues and complex structures such as limbs and organs after injury or amputation. Similarly impressively, they can receive, without rejection, tissue grafts from other individuals at embryonic, juvenile, and adult stages1,2,3. Regions of embryos that produce whole structures such as limbs, tails, eyes, and heads, and more specific tissues, such as neuroectoderm and somites, can be grafted between embryos to produce chimeric animals1,2,4,5,6. For nearly a century, studies of such chimeric animals have provided crucial insights into regeneration, tissue differentiation, size control, and patterning1,7,8.
In the last the decade, numerous transcriptional studies of regenerating tissues have produced insights into the genetic programs underlying salamander regeneration9,10,11,12,13. These studies have added to an expanding list of candidate genes that, to date, are largely uncharacterized in the context of regeneration. Targeted mutagenesis techniques, such as CRISPR/Cas, now permit the investigation of such genes, and such genetic approaches are greatly facilitated by the recent sequencing and assembly of the large axolotl genome14,15,16.
We sought to develop techniques that coupled classic developmental biology with new genetic technology for the purpose of dissecting the mechanisms of regeneration. Methods for generating haploid embryos of axolotls and other salamanders have been established for decades17. While these techniques have long been noted to be advantages of salamanders as genetic model organisms18, few subsequent genetic studies have incorporated haploid animals. We use in vitro activation in the axolotl to produce haploid embryos that serve as tissue donors for grafting19. Using embryos carrying fluorescent genetic markers, we have devised reliable methods for generating limbs derived almost entirely from donor tissues (Figure 1A). By combining these two techniques, we have bypassed the late embryonic lethality associated with haploidy, allowing for the production of fully developed, grafted haploid limbs (Figure 1B, Figure 1B&#39;, and Figure 2).
By conducting CRISPR/Cas-mediated mutagenesis in haploid embryos prior to grafting to create chimeric axolotls with mutant haploid limbs, we may investigate gene function specifically within the context of limb development and regeneration. This allows the rescue of limbs from potentially embryonic-lethal mutant phenotypes. While CRISPR/Cas microinjection can generate animals that are highly mutant, such animals are typically highly mosaic, with some degree of retention of wildtype alleles and a variety of distinct mutations at targeted sites14,20. CRISPR-based mutagenesis in haploid cells increases the penetrance of single allele loss-of-function mutations, as they cannot be masked by retained wildtype alleles. For this reason, CRISPR-based screening in haploid cell lines is increasingly used to investigate the genetic basis of many cellular processes21,22,23. By combining CRISPR-based lineage tracing with our haploid limb bud grafting protocols, the approach described here can serve as a platform for haploid genetic screens in living animals20.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>#55 Dumont Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11295-1</td>
			<td>Only use Dumostar material (can be autoclaved)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2942-20ML</td>
			<td>20 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic-Antimycotic 100x</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>15240062</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ciprofloxacin</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>17850-5G-F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ficoll 400 (polysucrose 400)</td>
			<td>bioworld</td>
			<td>40600032-3</td>
			<td>Ficoll 400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gentamicin</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G1914-250MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heating/Cooling Incubator</td>
			<td>RevSci</td>
			<td>RS-IF-233</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human Chorionic Gonadotropin</td>
			<td>Merk</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Chorulon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Megascript T7 Transcription Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>AM1334</td>
			<td>40 reactions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miroscope Cooling Stage</td>
			<td>Brook Industries</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NLS Cas9 Protein</td>
			<td>PNAbio</td>
			<td>CP01-200</td>
			<td>4 vials of 50 &#181;g protein each</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasmocin</td>
			<td>Invivogen</td>
			<td>ant-mpt-1</td>
			<td>Treatment level</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recipes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.0x Marc&#39;s modified Ringer&#39;s solution (MMR)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>0.1 M NaCl, 2 mM KCl, 1 mM MgSO4, 2 mM CaCl2, 0.1 mM EDTA, 5 mM HEPES (pH 7.8), ph 7.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40% Holtfreter&#39;s solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>20 mM NaCl, 0.2 mM KCl, 0.8 mM NaHCO3, 0.2 mM CaCl2, 4 mM MgSO4, pH to 7.4</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

generation of chimeric axolotls with mutant haploid limbs through embryonic grafting

A growing set of genetic techniques and resources enable researchers to probe the molecular origins of the ability of some species of salamanders, such as axolotls, to regenerate entire limbs as adults. Here, we outline techniques used to generate chimeric axolotls with Cas9-mutagenized haploid forelimbs that can be used for exploring gene function and the fidelity of limb regeneration. We combine several embryological and genetic techniques, including haploid generation via in vitro activation, CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis, and tissue grafting into one protocol to produce a unique system for haploid genetic screening in a model organism of regeneration. This strategy reduces the number of animals, space, and time required for the functional analysis of genes in limb regeneration. This also permits the investigation of regeneration-specific functions of genes that may be required for other essential processes, such as organogenesis, tissue morphogenesis, and other essential embryonic processes. The method described here is a unique platform for conducting haploid genetic screening in a vertebrate model system.

Developing haploid embryos can be distinguished from diploid embryos by their &#39;haploid syndrome&#39; phenotype29. At graft-stage, haploid embryos exhibit reduced curvature along the anterior-posterior axis and incomplete enclosure of the yolk plug (Figure 3A). A fluorescent microscope can be used to ensure that haploid embryos are free of paternally derived GFP expression (Figure 3<str...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Generation of Chimeric Axolotls with Mutant Haploid Limbs Through Embryonic Grafting at JoVE.com

Generation of Chimeric Axolotls with Mutant Haploid Limbs Through Embryonic Grafting

This goal of this protocol is to produce chimeric axolotls with haploid forelimbs derived from Cas9-mutagenized donor tissue using embryonic tissue grafting techniques.

A growing set of genetic techniques and resources enable researchers to probe the molecular origins of the ability of some species of salamanders, such as ...

This protocol allows the production of mutagenized haploid limbs that can be used for genetic screening in the axolotl. In haploids, even low-level mutagenesis can produce loss of function phenotypes within cells. This grafting technique can also be used to rescue embryonic lethal phenotypes.This method can be used to study regeneration in any amphibian species that is amenable to in vitro fertilization and grafting. Before using haploid embryos as donors, we recommend practicing and confirming the success of grafts between GFP positive and negative diploid embryos. For female gamete donor preparation, anesthetize a sexually mature white or white RFP female axolotl to serve as the gamete donor.After confirming a lack of response to pain simulation, use a 30 gauge insulin syringe to inject 0.15 milliliters of human chorionic gonadotropin into the musculature dorsal to the hind limb. Insert the syringe at a 45 degree angle to the midline to avoid contact with the spinal cord. Place the injected animal in fresh 40%Holtfreter's solution and transfer the axolotl to an eight to 12 degree Celsius refrigerator for 48 hours.Then return the female to room temperature. While the female is laying eggs, place a fully anesthetized male in the supine position on damp paper towels under a dissecting microscope and position the tip of a P1000 pipette at the base of the cloaca with the dominant hand. Place the other forefinger and thumb two to three centimeters rostral to the pelvis and gently squeeze the animal while moving the fingers toward the hind legs to flush out the spermic urine samples collecting each sample into a new microcentrifuge tube.Then transfer five microliters from each sample into a Petri dish to inspect the quality of the sperm using an inverted microscope. After counting, dilute the sperm to a concentration of eight times 10 to the fourth cells per milliliter in 0.1X sterile MMR and transfer 0.5 microliters of sperm cells per egg to a new Petri dish. Then use the pipette tip to spread the suspension to a one millimeter thick layer and use a plastic lift to place the sample four centimeters from the bulbs of a 254 nanometer crosslinker for irradiation at eight times 10 to the fifth microjoules per millimeter squared.After collecting a healthy sperm sample, place the female in the supine position on a stack of damp paper towels and use a similar flushing motion to extract unfertilized eggs from the female axolotl. Then use wet forceps to transfer the eggs into a 10 centimeter Petri dish. Within 15 minutes of collection, use a P10 pipette to dispense the irradiated sperm onto the unfertilized eggs coating each egg with 0.25 to 0.5 microliters of inactivated sperm.After allowing the eggs to sit at room temperature for 30 minutes, flood the eggs with 0.1X MMR. Thirty minutes after the hydration, use sharp forceps to dejelly the eggs and place the eggs at 18 degrees Celsius for microinjection within seven hours. To generate a haploid-diploid chimera, place one healthy haploid donor with one or two stage matched GFP positive diploid host embryos inside the trough of a pre-chilled operating dish containing surgical medium on a 10 degree Celsius or lower cooling stage.Use two ultra fine autoclaved straight tip forceps to remove the entire limb bud and the surrounding ectoderm and mesoderm tissue layers and set aside the host tissue. Remove an equivalently sized tissue sheath from the haploid donor and place the haploid donor tissue sheath onto the corresponding region of the host embryo. Secure the tissue with an autoclaved rectangular glass shard from a crushed microscope coverglass and gently press the tissue into the host embryo body.Leave the anchor in place for 60 to 75 minutes checking every 20 minutes to confirm that the glass has not slipped before using the forceps to peel off the coverglass fragment. Transfer the engrafted embryos into fresh surgical medium allowing them to heal at eight to 12 degrees Celsius overnight before housing the engrafted embryos individually in 12 or 24-well plates. 38.7%of oocytes developed into normally developed haploid embryos.At the graft stage, haploid embryos exhibit a reduced curvature along the anterior-posterior axis and an incomplete enclosure of the yolk plug. In addition, a fluorescent microscope can be used to confirm the haploid embryos are free of paternally-derived GFP expression. Failed and impure grafts produce a variety of phenotypes.When the grafts are clean and normally developed, GFP expression should be limited primarily to the brachial plexus, the neural network derived from the host spinal cord. Punctate GFP expression is also present in single cells that appear to be sensory neurons in blood-derived host cells that migrate into the developing limb. When RFP positive donors are used, haploid graft limbs exhibit a universal expression of RFP.Throughout development, non-mutagenized haploid limbs are significantly shorter than the opposing diploid forelimbs in chimeric animals. Non-mutagenized haploid limbs fully regenerate, although they demonstrate a slight delay in reaching the digital outgrowth stage compared to diploids. Remember to use sterile technique and completely remove and replace the full mesoderm and ectoderm tissue layers from the embryonic host in order to produce a cleanly grafted limb.Mutant limbs can be amputated and scored for regeneration phenotypes. Mutant alleles can be quantified with next generation sequencing. Combined with CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis, our grafting technique has allowed us to conduct a negative selection screen of targeted genes in regenerating haploid limbs.

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

The Terroir Concept Interpreted through Grape Berry Metabolomics and Transcriptomics

Terroir refers to the combination of environmental factors that affect the characteristics of crops such as grapevine (Vitis vinifera) according to ...

Generation of Fluorescent Protein Fusions in Candida Species

Generation of Fluorescent Protein Fusions in Candida Species

Candida species, prevalent colonizers of the intestinal and genitourinary tracts, are the cause of the majority of invasive fungal infections in humans. ...

Controllable Ion Channel Expression through Inducible Transient Transfection

Transfection, the delivery of foreign nucleic acids into a cell, is a powerful tool in protein research. Through this method, ion channels can be ...

Generation of Native Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Sequencing Libraries for Nucleosome Density Analysis

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experimental protocol compatible with a Gaussian mixture distribution ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Protocol for Low-abundance Embryonic Samples

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP Protocol for Low-abundance Embryonic Samples

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used technique for mapping the localization of post-translationally modified histones, histone variants, ...

Generation of a Gene-disrupted Streptococcus mutans Strain Without Gene Cloning

Generation of a Gene-disrupted Streptococcus mutans Strain Without Gene Cloning

Typical methods for the elucidation of the function of a particular gene involve comparative phenotypic analyses of the wild-type strain and a strain in ...

Generation of Tumor Organoids from Genetically Engineered Mouse Models of Prostate Cancer

Methods based on homologous recombination to modify genes have significantly furthered biological research. Genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) ...

Generation of Defined Genomic Modifications Using CRISPR-CAS9 in Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Human pluripotent stem cells offer a powerful system to study gene function and model specific mutations relevant to disease. The generation of precise ...

Using Next Generation Sequencing to Identify Mutations Associated with Repair of a CAS9-induced Double Strand Break Near the CD4 Promoter

Double strand breaks (DSBs) in DNA are the most cytotoxic type of DNA damage. Because a myriad of insults can result in these lesions (e.g., replication ...