Name: a standardized method for the analysis of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and their fenestrations by scanning electron microscopy
Uploaded: 2015-04-30T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Standardized Method for the Analysis of Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells and Their Fenestrations by Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

The authors have no acknowledgements.

NOTE: All procedures involving the use of animals are carried out according to the local legislation. Our work is approved by the Sydney Local Health District Animal Welfare Committee. The allowed procedures are described in the project license documentation and follow guidelines that ensure the welfare of the animal at all times.&#160;Ensure adherence to the legislation on animal experimentation of the country where the work is performed.
1. Protocol for Preparing EM Fixative
<ol>
	<li>For ...

<ol>
	<li>Cogger, V. C., Le Couteur, D. G., Arias, I. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> The Liver: Biology and Pathobiology. , 387-404 (2009).</li><li>Fraser, R., Dobbs, B. R., Rogers, G. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipoproteins+and+the+liver+sieve:+the+role+of+fenestrated+sinusoidal+endothelium+in+lipoprotein+metabolism,+atherosclerosis,+and+cirrhosis.">Lipoproteins and the liver sieve: the role of fenestrated sinusoidal endothelium in lipoprotein metabolism, atherosclerosis, and cirrhosis.</a> Hepatology. 21, 863-874 (1995).</li><li>Wisse, W., De Zanger, R. B., Charels, K., Van Der Smissen, P., McCuskey, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+liver+sieve:+considerations+concerning+the+structure+and+function+of+endothelial+fenestrae,+the+sinusoidal+wall+and+the+space+of+Disse.">The liver sieve: considerations concerning the structure and function of endothelial fenestrae, the sinusoidal wall and the space of Disse.</a> Hepatology. 5 (4), 683-692 (1985).</li><li>Reilly, J. N., Cogger, V. C., Fraser, R., Le Couteur, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+feeding+and+fasting+on+fenestrations+in+the+liver+sinusoidal+endothelial+cell.">The effect of feeding and fasting on fenestrations in the liver sinusoidal endothelial cell.</a> Pathology. 42 (3), 255-258 (2010).</li><li>Tian, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+serotonin+receptor-2B+rescues+small-for-size+liver+graft+failure+in+mice.">Activation of serotonin receptor-2B rescues small-for-size liver graft failure in mice.</a> Hepatology. 53 (1), 253-262 (2011).</li><li>Cogger, V. C., Mitchell, S. J., Warren, A., de Cabo, R., Le Couteur, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-Related+Loss+of+Responsiveness+to+2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Iodoamphetamine+in+Liver+Sinusoidal+Endothelial+Cells.">Age-Related Loss of Responsiveness to 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-Iodoamphetamine in Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells.</a> J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 69 (5), 514-518 (2013).</li><li>Reilly, J. N., Cogger, V. C., Le Couteur, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Old+age+is+associated+with+ultrastructural+changes+in+isolated+rat+liver+sinusoidal+endothelial+cells.">Old age is associated with ultrastructural changes in isolated rat liver sinusoidal endothelial cells.</a> J Electron Microsc. 59 (1), 65-69 (2010).</li><li>Le Couteur, D. G., Rattan, A. E., Le Couteur, D. G., de Cabo, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Calorie Restriction, Aging and Longevity. , 191-216 (2010).</li><li>McLean, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Age-related+pseudocapillarization+of+the+human+liver.">Age-related pseudocapillarization of the human liver.</a> J Pathol. 200 (1), 112-117 (2003).</li><li>Le Couteur, D. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pseudocapillarization+and+associated+energy+limitation+in+the+aged+rat+liver.">Pseudocapillarization and associated energy limitation in the aged rat liver.</a> Hepatology. 33 (3), 537-543 (2001).</li><li>Cogger, V. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+acute+oxidative+stress+on+the+ultrastructure+of+the+perfused+rat+liver.">The effect of acute oxidative stress on the ultrastructure of the perfused rat liver.</a> Pharmacol Toxicol. 89 (6), 306-311 (2001).</li><li>Horn, T., Christoffersen, P., Henriksen, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alcoholic+liver+injury:+defenestration+in+noncirrhotic+livers-a+scanning+electron+microscopic+study.">Alcoholic liver injury: defenestration in noncirrhotic livers-a scanning electron microscopic study.</a> Hepatology. 7 (1), 77-82 (1987).</li><li>Jamieson, H. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alterations+in+liver+sinusoidal+endothelium+in+a+baboon+model+of+type+1+diabetes.">Alterations in liver sinusoidal endothelium in a baboon model of type 1 diabetes.</a> Diabetologia. 50 (9), 1969-1976 (2007).</li><li>Fraser, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+perfusion+pressure+damages+the+sieving+ability+of+sinusoidal+endothelium+in+rat+livers.">High perfusion pressure damages the sieving ability of sinusoidal endothelium in rat livers.</a> Br J Exp Pathol. 61 (2), 222-228 (1980).</li><li>Wisse, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+electron+microscopic+study+of+the+fenestrated+endothelial+lining+of+rat+liver+sinusoids.">An electron microscopic study of the fenestrated endothelial lining of rat liver sinusoids.</a> J Ultrastruct Res. 31 (1), 125-150 (1970).</li><li>Wisse, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+ultrastructural+characterization+of+the+endothelial+cell+in+the+rat+liver+sinusoid+under+normal+and+various+experimental+conditions,+as+a+contribution+to+the+distinction+between+endothelial+and+Kupffer+cells.">An ultrastructural characterization of the endothelial cell in the rat liver sinusoid under normal and various experimental conditions, as a contribution to the distinction between endothelial and Kupffer cells.</a> J Ultrastruct Res. 38 (5), 528-562 (1972).</li><li>Fahimi, H. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perfusion+and+immersion+fixation+of+rat+liver+with+glutaraldehyde.">Perfusion and immersion fixation of rat liver with glutaraldehyde.</a> Lab Invest. 16 (5), 736-750 (1967).</li><li>Wisse, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fixation+methods+for+electron+microscopy+of+human+and+other+liver.">Fixation methods for electron microscopy of human and other liver.</a> World J Gastroenterol. 16 (23), 2851-2866 (2010).</li><li>Vreuls, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Jet-fixation:+a+novel+method+to+improve+microscopy+of+human+liver+needle+biopsies.">Jet-fixation: a novel method to improve microscopy of human liver needle biopsies.</a> Hepatology. 59 (2), 737-739 (2014).</li><li>Furrer, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Serotonin+reverts+age-related+capillarization+and+failure+of+regeneration+in+the+liver+through+a+VEGF-dependent+pathway.">Serotonin reverts age-related capillarization and failure of regeneration in the liver through a VEGF-dependent pathway.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U. S. A. 108 (7), 2945-2950 (2011).</li><li>Zhang, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=OxLDL+induced+injury+and+defenestration+of+HLSECs+via+LOX-1.">OxLDL induced injury and defenestration of HLSECs via LOX-1.</a> J Mol Endocrinol. , (2014).</li><li>May, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+transgenic+model+for+conditional+induction+and+rescue+of+portal+hypertension+reveals+a+role+of+VEGF-mediated+regulation+of+sinusoidal+fenestrations.">A transgenic model for conditional induction and rescue of portal hypertension reveals a role of VEGF-mediated regulation of sinusoidal fenestrations.</a> PLoS One. 6 (7), e21478 (2011).</li><li>Funyu, J., Mochida, S., Inao, M., Matsui, A., Fujiwara, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=VEGF+can+act+as+vascular+permeability+factor+in+the+hepatic+sinusoids+through+upregulation+of+porosity+of+endothelial+cells.">VEGF can act as vascular permeability factor in the hepatic sinusoids through upregulation of porosity of endothelial cells.</a> Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 280 (2), 481-485 (2001).</li><li>Venkatraman, L., Tucker-Kellogg, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+CD47-binding+peptide+of+thrombospondin-1+induces+defenestration+of+liver+sinusoidal+endothelial+cells.">The CD47-binding peptide of thrombospondin-1 induces defenestration of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells.</a> Liver Int. 33 (9), 1386-1397 (2013).</li><li>Wack, K. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sinusoidal+ultrastructure+evaluated+during+the+revascularization+of+regenerating+rat+liver.">Sinusoidal ultrastructure evaluated during the revascularization of regenerating rat liver.</a> Hepatology. 33 (9), 363-378 (2001).</li><li>Morsiani, E., Mazzoni, M., Aleotti, A., Gorini, P., Ricci, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increased+sinusoidal+wall+permeability+and+liver+fatty+change+after+two-thirds+hepatectomy:+An+ultrastructural+study+in+the+rat.">Increased sinusoidal wall permeability and liver fatty change after two-thirds hepatectomy: An ultrastructural study in the rat.</a> Hepatology. 21 (2), 539-544 (1995).</li><li>Straub, A. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arsenic-stimulated+liver+sinusoidal+capillarization+in+mice+requires+NADPH+oxidase&#8211;generated+superoxide.">Arsenic-stimulated liver sinusoidal capillarization in mice requires NADPH oxidase&#8211;generated superoxide.</a> J Clin Invest. 118 (12), 3980-3989 (2008).</li><li>Barber&#225;-Guillem, E., Arrue, J. M., Ballesteros, J., Vidal-Vanaclocha, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+changes+in+endothelial+cells+of+developing+rat+liver+in+the+transition+from+fetal+to+postnatal+life.">Structural changes in endothelial cells of developing rat liver in the transition from fetal to postnatal life.</a> JJ Ultrastruct Mol Struct Res. 97 (1-3), 197-206 (1986).</li><li>Jamieson, H. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caloric+restriction+reduces+age-related+pseudocapillarization+of+the+hepatic+sinusoid.">Caloric restriction reduces age-related pseudocapillarization of the hepatic sinusoid.</a> Exp Gerontol. 42 (4), 374-378 (2007).</li><li>Cogger, V. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperlipidemia+and+surfactants:+the+liver+sieve+is+a+link.">Hyperlipidemia and surfactants: the liver sieve is a link.</a> Atherosclerosis. 189 (2), 273-281 (2006).</li><li>Cogger, V. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+oxidative+stress+on+the+liver+sieve.">The effects of oxidative stress on the liver sieve.</a> J Hepatol. 41 (3), 370-376 (2004).</li><li>Cogger, V. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+structured+illumination+microscopy+of+liver+sinusoidal+endothelial+cell+fenestrations.">Three-dimensional structured illumination microscopy of liver sinusoidal endothelial cell fenestrations.</a> J Struct Biol. 171 (3), 382-388 (2010).</li><li>Braet, F., de Zanger, R., Seynaeve, C., Baekeland, M., Wisse, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+atomic+force+microscopy+study+on+living+skin+fibroblasts+and+liver+endothelial+cells.">A comparative atomic force microscopy study on living skin fibroblasts and liver endothelial cells.</a> J Electron Microsc. 50 (4), 283-290 (2001).</li><li>Monkemoller, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+fenestrations+in+liver+sinusoidal+endothelial+cells+by+optical+localization+microscopy.">Imaging fenestrations in liver sinusoidal endothelial cells by optical localization microscopy.</a> Phys Chem Chem Phys. 16 (24), 12576-12581 (2014).</li></ol>

The ability to accurately and reproducibly measure the status of the liver sinusoidal endothelium is an important step in understanding the biology of these highly specialized cells. Newer techniques such as structured illumination microscopy32, atomic force microscopy33&#160;and d-STORM (direct Stochastic Optical Reconstrucion Microscopy) 34 will impart important information regarding the morphology of these cells in vitro but SEM remains the primary methodology to visualize and...

The liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) are highly differentiated endothelial cells that line the wall of the hepatic sinusoid. LSECs are perforated with fenestrations that are non-diaphragmed, transcellular pores 50-250 nm in diameter. Up to 20% of the surface of LSECs is covered by fenestrations, which are usually in groups of tens to hundreds called sieve plates1-3 (Figure 1). Fenestrations allow transfer of plasma and nanosubstrates between blood and hepatocytes, creating a highly efficient ultrafiltration system. Fenestrations are dynamic structures - both their size and/or number can be altered in response to various physiological states, drugs, and disease. For example, fenestrations are larger in the fasted than in the fed state4; 2-di-iodoamphetamine increases fenestration number;5,6 and a reduction in size and number of fenestrations per cell occurs in ageing and many disease states7-13. Accurate measurement of the size and number of fenestrations is important for understanding how LSEC morphology is influenced by various disease, toxic, and physiological states; their impact on liver function; and for developing fenestration-modulating therapeutic interventions1.
The study of fenestrations is difficult. The diameter of fenestrations lies below the resolution of conventional light microscopy, so previously only observation using electron microscopy both in intact liver tissue or cultured LSECs has been possible. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) has most frequently been used to study fenestration size, frequency and porosity (the percentage of LSEC membrane that is perforated by fenestrations) because SEM allows for the observation of large areas of the endothelial surface and measurement of thousands, if not tens of thousands of fenestrations. Despite its utility, the results which are reported from SEM-based studies for LSEC parameters such as fenestration size, number, frequency and porosity vary widely in the literature (Table 1).
Fenestrations and sieve plates are fragile structures that contract, break, dilate or coalesce during specimen preparation, thus careful processing is needed to preserve their integrity. Elevated perfusion pressure14; incorrect osmolarity of the fixative and buffers15; inadequate fixation or fixation time; and speed of post-fixation dehydration and drying are all areas of processing for SEM that may produce artefacts that interfere with preservation of ultrastructure (Figure 2). Loss of fenestrations (&#8216;defenestration&#8217;) and fenestration shrinkage can occur as a result of poor fixation, resulting in reduced fenestration diameter and cell porosity. Methods to improve the preservation of specimens for SEM analysis have been described previously 15-17 and will be discussed here with additional tips on how to improve specimen preservation. The main goals of the specimen preservation are to remove blood from the sinusoids so that the surface of the LSEC can be visualized and to avoid LSEC damage from either high pressure or delayed fixation. Whole liver perfusion of fixative via the portal vein is the preferred method for liver fixation. As described in detail elsewhere16,18 perfusion must be undertaken at low pressure (eg 10 cm of H20) to avoid pressure-related perfusion artefacts and damage to the LSEC, typically manifested as large gaps within in the cell membrane. However, reasonable fixation can often be obtained using needle perfusion of liver biopsies from humans and animals, as described in detail elsewhere19. This technique involves directly injecting fixative into the tissue until blood is flushed out of the sample and the tissue is firm and fixed.&#160;Fixation of samples for electron microscopy needs to be performed as quickly as possible following cessation of blood flow to prevent ultrastructural changes occurring as a result of the livers extremely rapid autolytic processes.
We also present a method of image analysis that minimizes the inclusion of artefacts, and standardizes the measurement of fenestrations. Variation in the selection of sinusoids for micrographs, image analysis of artefacts, and measurement of cell area for porosity and fenestration frequency have led to major discrepancies in published results. A standardized approach for evaluation and measurement of fenestrations and the minimum requirements for data presentation have not been clearly addressed in the literature previously4,10,20-31.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="658">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Name of material</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">Catalogue Number</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:155px;">EM grade Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">ProSciTech</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">C001</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Store stock at -20 C until needed, avoid refreeze</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:155px;">Paraformaldehyde powder</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>158127</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Always prepare Paraformaldehyde fresh</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="73">
			<td height="73" style="height:73px;width:155px;">Sodium Cacodylate powder</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">C0250</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Prepare 0.2 M stock, pH 7.4 by dissolving powder in dH2O, used mostly at 0.1 M by preparing 1:2 dilution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="46">
			<td height="46" style="height:46px;width:155px;">Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">C1016</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Prepare 1 M CaCl2by dissolving powder in dH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:155px;">Osmium tretroxide</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">ProSciTech</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">C011</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Wash ampoules in weak acid prior to use to avoid contamination. Prepare 2 % stock in glass bottle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:155px;">Ethanol- Absolute</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>459836&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">100 % Ethanol must be high grade and stored with Molecular Sieve</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:155px;">Other grades of Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Labtech</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">EL5</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Prepare graded Ethanols with dH2O</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:155px;">Hexamethyldisilazane</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>52619&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Allow to reach room temperature before use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:155px;">Cannulas</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Terumo</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">TSROX1832C, TSROX2225C, TSROX2419C</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">18 G is suitable for most rats, 22 G is suitable for most mice, but it is good to have a few 24 G on hand in case of very small mice</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:155px;">Conductive Carbon tape</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">ProSciTech</td>
			<td>IA0201</td>
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:155px;">Carbon Paint</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">ProSciTech</td>
			<td>I003</td>
			<td style="width:311px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:155px;">Ketamine</td>
			<td style="width:100px;"></td>
			<td style="width:93px;"></td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Must be optained under licence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:155px;">Xylazine</td>
			<td style="width:100px;"></td>
			<td style="width:93px;"></td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Must be obtained under licence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:155px;">Molecular Sieve</td>
			<td style="width:100px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">208647</td>
			<td style="width:311px;">Removes water from the 100 % Ethanol</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a standardized method for the analysis of liver sinusoidal endothelial cells and their fenestrations by scanning electron microscopy

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells are the gateway to the liver, their transcellular fenestrations allow the unimpeded transfer of small and dissolved substances from the blood into the liver parenchyma for metabolism and processing. Fenestrations are dynamic structures - both their size and/or number can be altered in response to various physiological states, drugs, and disease, making them an important target for modulation. An understanding of how LSEC morphology is influenced by various disease, toxic, and physiological states and how these changes impact on liver function requires accurate measurement of the size and number of fenestrations. In this paper, we describe scanning electron microscopy fixation and processing techniques used in our laboratory to ensure reproducible specimen preparation and accurate interpretation. The methods include perfusion fixation, secondary fixation and dehydration, preparation for the scanning electron microscope and analysis. Finally, we provide a step by step method for standardized image analysis which will benefit all researchers in the field.

Initial visualization at low magnification by scanning electron microscopy reveals a flat surface of the liver specimen with an exposed area large enough to observe many large liver vessels and sinusoids (Figure 1A). Ensuring correct liver block placement on the mounting stub is essential for obtaining clear images of the sinusoids and the Glisson&#8217;s capsule of the liver should be avoided for this reason (Figure 1B). Increasing the magnification allows closer inspection of the dense...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Standardized Method for the Analysis of Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells and Their Fenestrations by Scanning Electron Microscopy at JoVE.com

A Standardized Method for the Analysis of Liver Sinusoidal Endothelial Cells and Their Fenestrations by Scanning Electron Microscopy

The fenestrated liver sinusoidal endothelial cell is a biologically important filter system that is highly influenced by various diseases, toxins, and physiological states. These changes significantly impact on liver function. We describe methods for the standardisation of the measurement of the size and number of fenestrations in these cells.

Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells are the gateway to the liver, their transcellular fenestrations allow the unimpeded transfer of small and dissolved ...

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Biology

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ...

Isolation of Murine Valve Endothelial Cells

Normal valve structures consist of stratified layers of specialized extracellular matrix (ECM) interspersed with valve interstitial cells (VICs) and ...

Scanning Electron Microscopy of Macerated Tissue to Visualize the Extracellular Matrix

Fibrosis is a component of all forms of heart disease regardless of etiology, and while much progress has been made in the field of cardiac matrix ...

Studying the Supramolecular Organization of Photosynthetic Membranes within Freeze-fractured Leaf Tissues by Cryo-scanning Electron Microscopy

Cryo-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of freeze-fractured samples allows investigation of biological structures at near native conditions. Here, we ...

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Protocols for Problematic Plant, Oomycete, and Fungal Samples

Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM Protocols for Problematic Plant, Oomycete, and Fungal Samples

Common problems in the processing of biological samples for observations with the scanning electron microscope (SEM) include cell collapse, treatment of ...

Molecular Analysis of Endothelial-mesenchymal Transition Induced by Transforming Growth Factor-&#946; Signaling

Phenotypic plasticity of endothelial cells underlies cardiovascular system development, cardiovascular diseases, and various conditions associated with ...

Preparation of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms Using Chemical Drying for Morphological Analysis in Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Preparation of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms Using Chemical Drying for Morphological Analysis in Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a widely available technique that has been applied to study biological specimens ranging from individual proteins to ...

Biological Sample Preparation by High-pressure Freezing, Microwave-assisted Contrast Enhancement, and Minimal Resin Embedding for Volume Imaging

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the ...

The CryoAPEX Method for Electron Microscopy Analysis of Membrane Protein Localization Within Ultrastructurally-Preserved Cells

Key cellular events like signal transduction and membrane trafficking rely on proper protein location within cellular compartments. Understanding precise ...

Array Tomography Workflow for the Targeted Acquisition of Volume Information using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Electron microscopy is applied in biology and medicine for imaging of cellular and structural details at nanometer resolution. Historically, Transmission ...