We thank Katherine Clark for technical assistance. A.D.R.G. is funded in part by 5K01MH097957-03

혼합 C57BL / 6 배경에 성인 (3-4 개월) 수컷 마우스는이 프로토콜에 사용되었다. 동물은 12 시간의 빛 / 어둠주기에 보관하고, 음식과 물에 자유롭게 접근 할 수있게 하였다. 이 프로토콜에서 수행되는 모든 절차는 드렉 셀 대학 기관 동물 관리 및 사용위원회에 의해 승인 된 프로토콜에 따라 수행되었다. 1. 외과 영역 준비 <ol><li> 70 % 에탄올로 수술 테이블을 소독 한 후 흡수 패드 전체 수술 벤치를 커버하고 정위에 인접 수술 도구를 준비. </li><li> 조작 암없이 정위 장치를 설정합니다. 정위에 가열 패드를 배열하고 37 ℃로 설정합니다. 동물과 가열 패드 사이에 종이 타월이나 수술 패드의 작은 조각을 배치하여 동물의 과열을 피하십시오. </li><li> 멸균 가위를 사용하여, REA까지 0.9 % 멸균 식염수를 함유하는 무균 페트리 접시에 멸균 gelfoam을 작은 조각을 잘라사용 DY. 참고 : 멸균 장비 및 무균 수술 소모품을 사용하여 멸균 작업 환경을 유지한다. 필요에 따라 10 ~ 15 초 동안 비드 살균기에 침지하여 동물 사이 절차를 수행하는 동안 또는에서 수술 도구를 다시 소독. 소독, 필요에 따라, 70 % 에탄올로 손을 문질러서 절차를 통해 깨끗한 장갑을 유지한다. </li></ol> 수술 2. 준비하고 마우스 <ol><li> (G) 홈 케이지에서 마우스를 제거하고 무게. </li><li> 이소 플루 란 유도 챔버 및 2 내지 5 L / 분으로 설정 이소 플루 란 기화기 산소로 놓고 마우스, 수술 적 단계의 마취에 약 3-5 분을 유도. 둔화 호흡과 고정을위한 모니터링합니다. 마우스가 완전히 발가락 핀치 반사를 이용하여 진정되어 있는지 확인합니다. </li><li> 마우스가 완전히 진정 될 때, 정위 프레임에 배치 이소 플루 란에 튜브로 연결되어 코 콘에 코를 고정합니다. 머리를 보장하는 것은 안정, 귀 운하에 귀 막대를 삽입하고 조입니다. </li><li> 귀에 귀에서 머리를 면도하고, 눈 사이에서 귀 뒤쪽에. </li><li> 이소 프로필 알콜과 betadine 요오드 용액, 3 회씩 교대 와이프로 피부를 소독. </li><li> 수술하는 동안 건조되는 것을 방지하기 위해 두 눈에 인공 눈물을 적용합니다. </li></ol> 3. 수술 <ol><li> 발가락이나 꼬리를 곤란하게하여 마취의 깊이를 모니터링합니다. 응답이없고, 호흡 속도가 느린 경우에도 마우스 적합한 수술면이다. </li><li> 다만 거의 11 호 메스 블레이드를 사용하여 하나, 회사의 움직임에 귀 사이에 눈 뒤에서 시상 피부 절개를합니다. 옆으로 피부를 이동하고 지혈과 오른쪽 클립. </li><li> 11 호 메스와면의 무딘면을 사용하여 상부 막 클리어 두개골 어플리케이터를 쳐 냈습니다. 면 팁 어플리케이터는 0.9 % 식염수에 담근으로 선택적으로, 두개골을 닦습니다. 완전히 건조하도록 허용합니다. </li><li> 우리작은 통치자를 보내고, 영구 마커, 시상 봉합 (그림 1) 측 방향 1mm의 관상 봉합에 꼬리 및 1mm의 개두술의 왼쪽 가장자리에서 개두술의 전방 경계를 표시합니다. 그리고 시상 및 관상 봉합, 각각 (그림 1)에서 4mm에서 개두술의 오른쪽 꼬리 경계를 표시합니다. </li><li> 0.5 mm의 드릴 비트를 사용하여, 영구 마커 개요 다음 천천히 뚫어서 개두술을 시작한다. 완전히 두개골을 돌파하지 말아주십시오. 눌러 부드럽게 제 5 호 집게로 정수리 뼈의 고립 된 조각에, 부족한 부분은 압력에 방법을 제공합니다. 얇게 뼈 경계에 걸쳐 충분히 약한 경우, 뼈 조각 제거를위한 준비가되어 있습니다. 참고 : 연구자의 경험에 어려움이 한 조각의 뼈를 제거하는 경우,이 뼈가 충분히 시추 중에 희석되지 않았 음을 시사한다. facilita 이후 동물에 더 두개골을 드릴 고려뼈 조각의 테 쉽게 제거. </li><li> 23 G 바늘 장착 10 ㎖ 주사기를 사용하여, 고립 된 뼈와 천공 영역을 적시고 0.9 % 식염수의 소량을 적용한다. </li><li> 정위 장비 조작 암을 연결합니다. rostrally 직면 블레이드의 날카로운면이 프로브 홀더에 새 11 호 메스 블레이드를 연결합니다. 주 : 주동이와 꼬리 조직은 블레이드의 날카로운 무딘 에지를 경험하지만, 각각 관통 부상에 의한 기계적 손상이 병변의 범위에 걸쳐 비교이다. 우리는 주동이의와 꼬리 부분 사이 GFAP 발현 또는 확산의 상향 조절을 포함한 반응성 신경교 증의 주요 기능에 뚜렷한 차이가 관찰되지 않습니다. </li><li> 길에서 조작 암을 유지, 신중하게 45분의 5 직각 집게를 사용하여 고립 된 뼈를 들어 올립니다. FUL 하나에 남아 뼈의 조각을 해내 레버리지를 사용하여 고립 된 뼈와 리프트의 측면에 포셉의 끝을 삽입L 운동. 참고 : 뇌를 찔러 또는 두개골 아래에 경질을 방해하지 않도록주의하십시오. </li><li> 흠뻑 흡수 젤 거품의 작은 조각을 가지고 마르지 않도록하고있을 수있는 혈액을 흡수하기 위해 노출 된 뇌에 배치합니다. </li><li> 젤 거품이 장소에 있으면 제자리로 조작하는 사람의 팔을 스윙 젤 폼을 통해 개두술의 중심에 블레이드를 조정합니다. 젤 거품을 제거하고 끝이 경질을 천공없이 경질에 닿을 때까지 블레이드를 내립니다. 마크 지느러미 / 정위의 수직 팔에 버니어 스케일을 사용하여 복부 좌표. </li><li> 조작 암을 사용하면, 천천히 블레이드를 뇌에 정확하게 3mm를 내립니다. 이것은 조작자 암에 버니어 스케일 표시를 사용함으로써 달성된다. 잎이 5 ~ 10 초 동안 제자리에 머물 수 있도록합니다. opposi로 이동하기 전에 개두술의 주동이와 꼬리의 경계에 도달하는 날을 허용 세 번이 꼬리 지느러미에 블레이드 첨부 주동이와 정위 팔을 이동테 끝. 참고 : 경질 블레이드를 삽입하기 전에 제거되지 않습니다. 인 쥐 경질, ~와 대조적으로, 두께 80 μm의 7은 마우스 경질 상당히 얇은 (몇 세포층 두께) 및 삽입 중에 메스 블레이드에 상당한 저항이 발생하지 않는다. 각 동물 일관된 부상을받을 수 있도록하기 위해 각 마우스의 새 메스 블레이드를 사용합니다. </li><li> 천천히 뇌에서 블레이드를 제거, 정위 팔을 올립니다. 블레이드의 제거 후, ​​즉시 초과 혈액이나 액체를 흡수하는 뇌 표면에 gelfoam을의 또 다른 조각을 배치합니다. </li><li> 한편, 정위 팔을 제거하고 11 호 메스 블레이드 폐기하십시오. 출혈이 중지되면, gelfoam을 제거합니다. </li><li> 이러한 에틸 론 또는 prolene의 비 흡수성 봉합사와 피부를 봉합에 의해 상처를 닫습니다. 봉합사는 수술 후 9~10일 제거해야합니다. </li><li> 홈 케이지에 마우스를 반환하고, 마우스 난방 시스템에 천천히 복구 할 수 있습니다고통의 흔적에 대한 G 패드와 모니터. 이소 플루오 란 마취 유도 회복은 일반적으로 이소 플루오 란에서 꺼낸 후 2-5 분 이내에 발생한다. 이 흉골 recumbancy을 회복 할 때까지 무인 동물을 방치하지 마십시오. </li><li> 수화을 보장하기 위해 락 테이트 링거액 피하의 0.5 ml의 관리를 선택합니다. </li></ol> 4. 포스트 수술 케어 <ol><li> 밀접하게 식민지로 돌아 가기 전에 마취에서 회복 될 때까지 수술 후 동물을 모니터링 할 수 있습니다. <ol><li> , 수술 후 통증과 불편 함을 줄일 즉시 절차에 따라 IP 주입에 의해 0.05-0.1 ㎎ / ㎏ 부 프레 노르 핀을 관리합니다. </li><li> 거동이 운동, 정리의 부족, 또는 체중 감소와 같은 고통의 심각한 징후 수술 후 2-3 일 동안은 동물을 관찰한다. 고통의 이러한 징후를 보여주는 동물을 안락사 및 연구에서 제거합니다. </li></ol></li><li> 스탠에 의해 동물을 안락사, 손상 조직의 조직 병리학을 검사하려면dard intracardial 관류. <ol><li> 간단히, 케타민 / 자일 라진의 과다 복용과 동물을 마취 한 후 intracardially 15 ~ 20 ml의 0.9 %의 NaCl로 관류, 또는 간은 실험의 결론에 4 % 파라 포름 알데히드의 60 ml의 다음에, 피 제거 될 때까지. </li></ol></li><li> 30 % 자당 용액에 전송하기 전에 4 % 파라 포름 알데히드에 2-4 시간 동안 두뇌 및 사후 수정을 해부하다. 가르시아 8,9에 설명, 또는 표준 조직 학적 또는 면역 조직 화학적 방법에 의해 섹션 40 ~ 60 μm의에서 저온 유지 장치에 두뇌 및 프로세스. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Hamby, M. E., Sofroniew, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+astrocytes+as+therapeutic+targets+for+CNS+disorders.">Reactive astrocytes as therapeutic targets for CNS disorders.</a> Neurotherapeutics. 7 (4), 494-506 (2010).</li><li>Bush, T. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+infiltration,+neuronal+degeneration,+and+neurite+outgrowth+after+ablation+of+scar-forming,+reactive+astrocytes+in+adult+transgenic+mice.">Leukocyte infiltration, neuronal degeneration, and neurite outgrowth after ablation of scar-forming, reactive astrocytes in adult transgenic mice.</a> Neuron. 23 (2), 297-308 (1999).</li><li>Faulkner, J. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+astrocytes+protect+tissue+and+preserve+function+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Reactive astrocytes protect tissue and preserve function after spinal cord injury.</a> The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 24 (9), 2143-2155 (2004).</li><li>Okada, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conditional+ablation+of+Stat3+or+Socs3+discloses+a+dual+role+for+reactive+astrocytes+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Conditional ablation of Stat3 or Socs3 discloses a dual role for reactive astrocytes after spinal cord injury.</a> Nature Medicine. 12 (7), 829-834 (2006).</li><li>Voskuhl, R. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+Astrocytes+Form+Scar-Like+Perivascular+Barriers+to+Leukocytes+during+Adaptive+Immune+Inflammation+of+the+CNS.">Reactive Astrocytes Form Scar-Like Perivascular Barriers to Leukocytes during Adaptive Immune Inflammation of the CNS.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (37), 11511-11522 (2009).</li><li>Burda, J. E., Sofroniew, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+Gliosis+and+the+Multicellular+Response+to+CNS+Damage+and+Disease.">Reactive Gliosis and the Multicellular Response to CNS Damage and Disease.</a> Neuron. 81 (2), 229-248 (2014).</li><li>Maikos, J. T., Elias, R. A., Shreiber, D. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+of+dura+mater+from+the+rat+brain+and+spinal+cord.">Mechanical properties of dura mater from the rat brain and spinal cord.</a> Journal of neurotrauma. 25 (1), 38-51 (2008).</li><li>Garcia, A. D., Doan, N. B., Imura, T., Bush, T. G., Sofroniew, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GFAP-expressing+progenitors+are+the+principal+source+of+constitutive+neurogenesis+in+adult+mouse+forebrain.">GFAP-expressing progenitors are the principal source of constitutive neurogenesis in adult mouse forebrain.</a> Nat Neurosci. 7 (11), 1233-1241 (2004).</li><li>Garcia, A. D., Petrova, R., Eng, L., Joyner, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sonic+hedgehog+regulates+discrete+populations+of+astrocytes+in+the+adult+mouse+forebrain.">Sonic hedgehog regulates discrete populations of astrocytes in the adult mouse forebrain.</a> J Neurosci. 30 (41), 13597-13608 (2010).</li><li>Amat, J. A., Ishiguro, H., Nakamura, K., Norton, W. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phenotypic+diversity+and+kinetics+of+proliferating+microglia+and+astrocytes+following+cortical+stab+wounds.">Phenotypic diversity and kinetics of proliferating microglia and astrocytes following cortical stab wounds.</a> Glia. 16 (4), 368-382 (1996).</li><li>Hozumi, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Administration+of+prosaposin+ameliorates+spatial+learning+disturbance+and+reduces+cavity+formation+following+stab+wounds+in+rat+brain.">Administration of prosaposin ameliorates spatial learning disturbance and reduces cavity formation following stab wounds in rat brain.</a> Neuroscience letters. 267 (1), 73-76 (1999).</li><li>Ness, R., David, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leptomeningeal+cells+modulate+the+neurite+growth+promoting+properties+of+astrocytes+in+vitro.">Leptomeningeal cells modulate the neurite growth promoting properties of astrocytes in vitro.</a> Glia. 19 (1), 47-57 (1997).</li><li>Byrnes, K. R., Fricke, S. T., Faden, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuropathological+differences+between+rats+and+mice+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Neuropathological differences between rats and mice after spinal cord injury.</a> Journal of magnetic resonance imaging : JMRI. 32 (4), 836-846 (2010).</li><li>Steward, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+approaches+to+neurotrauma+research:+opportunities+and+potential+pitfalls+of+murine+models.">Genetic approaches to neurotrauma research: opportunities and potential pitfalls of murine models.</a> Experimental neurology. 157 (1), 19-42 (1999).</li><li>Davalos, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ATP+mediates+rapid+microglial+response+to+local+brain+injury+in+vivo.">ATP mediates rapid microglial response to local brain injury in vivo.</a> Nature neuroscience. 8 (6), 752-758 (2005).</li><li>Hanisch, U. -. K., Kettenmann, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microglia:+active+sensor+and+versatile+effector+cells+in+the+normal+and+pathologic+brain.">Microglia: active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain.</a> Nature neuroscience. 10 (11), 1387-1394 (2007).</li><li>Neumann, H., Kotter, M. R., Franklin, R. J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Debris+clearance+by+microglia:+an+essential+link+between+degeneration+and+regeneration.">Debris clearance by microglia: an essential link between degeneration and regeneration.</a> Brain. 132 (2), 288-295 (2008).</li><li>Nimmerjahn, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resting+Microglial+Cells+Are+Highly+Dynamic+Surveillants+of+Brain+Parenchyma+in+Vivo.">Resting Microglial Cells Are Highly Dynamic Surveillants of Brain Parenchyma in Vivo.</a> Science. 308 (5726), 1314-1318 (2005).</li><li>Horn, K. P., Busch, S. A., Hawthorne, A. L., van Rooijen, N., Silver, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Another+Barrier+to+Regeneration+in+the+CNS:+Activated+Macrophages+Induce+Extensive+Retraction+of+Dystrophic+Axons+through+Direct+Physical+Interactions.">Another Barrier to Regeneration in the CNS: Activated Macrophages Induce Extensive Retraction of Dystrophic Axons through Direct Physical Interactions.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (38), 9330-9341 (2008).</li><li>Ip, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immune+Cells+Contribute+to+Myelin+Degeneration+and+Axonopathic+Changes+in+Mice+Overexpressing+Proteolipid+Protein+in+Oligodendrocytes.">Immune Cells Contribute to Myelin Degeneration and Axonopathic Changes in Mice Overexpressing Proteolipid Protein in Oligodendrocytes.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (31), 8206-8216 (2006).</li><li>Perry, V. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+systemic+inflammation+to+chronic+neurodegeneration.">Contribution of systemic inflammation to chronic neurodegeneration.</a> Acta neuropathologica. 120 (3), 277-286 (2010).</li><li>McKeon, R. J., Jurynec, M. J., Buck, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+chondroitin+sulfate+proteoglycans+neurocan+and+phosphacan+are+expressed+by+reactive+astrocytes+in+the+chronic+CNS+glial+scar.">The chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans neurocan and phosphacan are expressed by reactive astrocytes in the chronic CNS glial scar.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 19 (24), 10778-10788 (1999).</li><li>Silver, J., Miller, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regeneration+beyond+the+glial+scar.">Regeneration beyond the glial scar.</a> Nature reviews. Neuroscience. 5 (2), 146-156 (2004).</li><li>Zamanian, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+analysis+of+reactive+astrogliosis.">Genomic analysis of reactive astrogliosis.</a> J Neurosci. 32 (18), 6391-6410 (2012).</li><li>Buffo, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Origin+and+progeny+of+reactive+gliosis:+A+source+of+multipotent+cells+in+the+injured+brain.">Origin and progeny of reactive gliosis: A source of multipotent cells in the injured brain.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (9), 3581-3586 (2008).</li><li>Sirko, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+glia+in+the+injured+brain+acquire+stem+cell+properties+in+response+to+sonic+hedgehog.+[corrected].">Reactive glia in the injured brain acquire stem cell properties in response to sonic hedgehog. [corrected].</a> Cell stem cell. 12 (4), 426-439 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

그것은 두개골 또는 기본 두라는 시추하는 동안 손상되​​지 것이 중요합니다. 구멍이되지 두개골을 보장하기 위해 시추하는 동안 가벼운 압력을 사용합니다. 경질을 보장​​하기 위해 두개골 조각을 해제하는 것은 뼈와 함께 들어 올려되지 않은 상태뿐만 아니라,주의를 기울여야합니다. 전뇌의 자상 부상 모델 여기 중추 신경계에 침투 부상을 설명했다. 이러한 FPI 또는 ...

A major challenge for developing successful therapies to treat the injured CNS is an incomplete understanding of the complex multicellular events that are triggered by the trauma. Reactive astrocytes are gaining increasing recognition as a promising target for novel therapies1. Though historically regarded as hostile to neural repair, reactive astrocytes are now recognized as critical components of a complex, multicellular neuroprotective response that includes attenuation of inflammatory processes and limiting secondary damage and neurodegeneration2-6. Although the neuropathological characteristics of reactive gliosis have long been well defined, the cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating reactive gliosis, and the diverse array of downstream consequences remain poorly understood. Understanding the mechanisms that drive reactive gliosis, as well as the subsequent cellular and molecular events, is an important step towards developing strategies aimed at promoting the neuroprotective properties of reactive gliosis, while attenuating the detrimental effects. 
Here we demonstrate a method to induce severe reactive astrogliosis in the forebrain of adult mice using a stab injury. In contrast to other traumatic brain injury (TBI) models, such as controlled cortical impact (CCI) or fluid percussion injury (FPI), which require specialized equipment to produce an injury, the forebrain stab requires only a stereotaxic device to stabilize the head and a No. 11 scalpel blade. Thus the forebrain stab lesion model is more broadly accessible to a wide range of laboratories that do not have access to the specialized devices necessary for creating an FPI or CCI injury. The method described here enables investigators to reliably and reproducibly trigger a robust gliosis response to investigate subsequent cellular and molecular events. Once recovered from surgery, animals that have received a forebrain stab injury can survive for prolonged periods without the need for specialized care and can be returned to the colony for acute, intermediate, or chronic studies. Though less clinically translatable than FPI or CCI models of TBI, a forebrain lesion produced by a stab injury serves as a simple yet useful experimental model to investigate basic biological mechanisms underlying reactive gliosis and other neuropathological events following trauma to the CNS.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotax</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>726049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High speed micro drill</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>724950</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stainless steel scalpel blade, #11</td>
			<td>MedVet</td>
			<td>JOR581S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5/45 angled forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11251-35</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gelfoam sponge 12cmx7mm</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>NC9841478</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibodies and other reagents</td>
			<td>Manufacturer</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Dilution (brightfield) 
			Dilution (fluorescence)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rb anti-GFAP</td>
			<td>DAKO</td>
			<td>&#160;Z033429-2</td>
			<td>1:20k 
			1:1k</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shp anti-BrdU</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab1893</td>
			<td>1:2k 
			1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated goat anti-rabbit</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>BA-1000&#160;</td>
			<td>1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated rabbit anti-sheep</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>BA-6000</td>
			<td>1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexafluor 488 goat anti-rabbit</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A-11008</td>
			<td>1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexafluor 568 donkey anti-sheep</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A-21099</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI Nucleic Acid Stain</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>D3571</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cresyl Violet Acetate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5042-10G</td>
			<td>1%</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

triggering reactive gliosis in vivo by a forebrain stab injury

Following injury to the CNS, astrocytes undergo a broad range of biochemical, morphological, and molecular changes collectively referred to as reactive astrogliosis. Reactive astrocytes exert both inflammatory and protective effects that inhibit and promote, respectively, neural repair. The mechanisms underlying the diverse functional properties of reactive astrogliosis are not well understood. Achieving a greater understanding of these mechanisms is critical to developing therapeutic strategies to treat the injured CNS. Here we demonstrate a method to trigger reactive astrogliosis in the adult mouse forebrain using a forebrain stab lesion. This lesion model is simple, reliable, and requires only a stereotaxic device and a scalpel blade to produce the injury. The use of stab lesions as an injury model in the forebrain is well established and amenable to studies addressing a broad range of neuropathological outcomes, such as neuronal degeneration, neuroinflammation, and disruptions in the blood brain barrier (BBB). Thus, the forebrain stab injury model serves as a powerful tool that can be applied for a broad range of studies on the CNS response to trauma.

이 절차를 겪는 동물이 필요하지 않기 때문에, 수술후 치료 전문 단기 또는 장기 생존 시간주기 쉽게 손상 후 급성 또는 만성 병리학 조사 할 필요성에 따라, 연구에 포함된다. 이러한 GFAP와 소마의 비대의 상향 조절 반응성 신경교 증의 주요 기능은, 일찍 부상 다음 2~3일으로 관찰 할 수있다. 반응성 성상 세포에 대한 증식의 최고 단계는 부상 10 다음 일 ~ 5시입니다. 아래의 대표적인 결과 ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury at JoVE.com

Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury

This article describes a detailed protocol to produce a forebrain stab injury in adult mice. The stab injury induces severe reactive gliosis and glial scar formation which can be subsequently examined by standard immunohistochemistry methods.

반응성 신경교 증 트리거링<em&gt; 생체</em&gt; 전뇌 찔러 상해로

Following injury to the CNS, astrocytes undergo a broad range of biochemical, morphological, and molecular changes collectively referred to as reactive ...

triggering-reactive-gliosis-in-vivo-by-a-forebrain-stab-injury

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury

10.4K 조회수.  Drexel University. This article describes a detailed protocol to produce a forebrain stab injury in adult mice. The stab injury induces severe reactive gliosis and glial scar formation which can be subsequently examined by standard immunohistochemistry methods. 

비디오: Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury

An in vivo Rodent Model of Contraction-induced Injury and Non-invasive Monitoring of Recovery

Muscle strains are one of the most common complaints treated by physicians. A muscle injury is typically diagnosed from the patient history and physical exam alone, however the clinical presentation can vary greatly depending on the extent of injury, the patient's pain tolerance, etc. In patients with muscle injury or muscle disease, assessment of muscle damage is typically limited to clinical signs, such as tenderness, strength, range of motion, and more recently, imaging studies. Biological markers, such as serum creatine kinase levels, are typically elevated with muscle injury, but their levels do not always correlate with the loss of force production. This is even true of histological findings from animals, which provide a "direct measure" of damage, but do not account for all the loss of function. Some have argued that the most comprehensive measure of the overall health of the muscle in contractile force. Because muscle injury is a random event that occurs under a variety of biomechanical conditions, it is difficult to study. Here, we describe an in vivo animal model to measure torque and to produce a reliable muscle injury. We also describe our model for measurement of force from an isolated muscle in situ. Furthermore, we describe our small animal MRI procedure.

An in vivo Rodent Model of Contraction-induced Injury and Non-invasive Monitoring of Recovery

An in vivo animal model of injury is described. The method takes advantage of the subcutaneous position of the fibular nerve. Velocity, timing of muscle activation, and arc of motion are all pre-determined and synchronized using commercial software. Post injury changes are monitored in vivo using MR imaging/spectroscopy.

생체내에</em수축 유도 부상 및 복구의 비침습 모니터링> 쥐 모델

Muscle strains are one of the most  common complaints treated by physicians. A muscle injury is typically diagnosed from the patient history and  physical ...

연구

의학

Implantation of a Carotid Cuff for Triggering Shear-stress Induced Atherosclerosis in Mice

It is widely accepted that alterations in vascular shear stress trigger the expression of inflammatory genes in endothelial cells and thereby induce atherosclerosis (reviewed in 1 and 2). The role of shear stress has been extensively studied in vitro investigating the influence of flow dynamics on cultured endothelial cells 1,3,4 and in vivo in larger animals and humans 1,5,6,7,8. However, highly reproducible small animal models allowing systematic investigation of the influence of shear stress on plaque development are rare. Recently, Nam et al. 9 introduced a mouse model in which the ligation of branches of the carotid artery creates a region of low and oscillatory flow. Although this model causes endothelial dysfunction and rapid formation of atherosclerotic lesions in hyperlipidemic mice, it cannot be excluded that the observed inflammatory response is, at least in part, a consequence of endothelial and/or vessel damage due to ligation.
In order to avoid such limitations, a shear stress modifying cuff has been developed based upon calculated fluid dynamics, whose cone shaped inner lumen was selected to create defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress within the common carotid artery 10. By applying this model in Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout mice fed a high cholesterol western type diet, vascular lesions develop upstream and downstream from the cuff. Their phenotype is correlated with the regional flow dynamics 11 as confirmed by in vivo Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 12: Low and laminar shear stress upstream of the cuff causes the formation of extensive plaques of a more vulnerable phenotype, whereas oscillatory shear stress downstream of the cuff induces stable atherosclerotic lesions 11. In those regions of high shear stress and high laminar flow within the cuff, typically no atherosclerotic plaques are observed.
 
In conclusion, the shear stress-modifying cuff procedure is a reliable surgical approach to produce phenotypically different atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-deficient mice.

The constricting cuff presented in this article is designed to induce atherosclerosis in the murine common carotid artery. Due to the conical shape of its inner lumen the implanted cuff generates well-defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress triggering the development of atherosclerotic lesions of different inflammatory phenotypes.

마우스의 전단 응력 유발 죽상 경화증을 실행을위한 경동맥 혈압계의 주입

It is widely accepted that alterations in vascular shear stress trigger the expression of inflammatory genes in endothelial cells and thereby induce ...

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. Here, we describe a general protocol for cell labeling, imaging, and image processing. The technique is applicable to various cell types and animal models, although here we focus on a typical mouse model for tracking murine immune cells. The most important issues for cell labeling are described, as these are relevant to all models. Similarly, key imaging parameters are listed, although the details will vary depending on the MRI system and the individual setup. Finally, we include an image processing protocol for quantification. Variations for this, and other parts of the protocol, are assessed in the Discussion section. Based on the detailed procedure described here, the user will need to adapt the protocol for each specific cell type, cell label, animal model, and imaging setup. Note that the protocol can also be adapted for human use, as long as clinical restrictions are met.

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

We describe a general protocol for in vivo cell tracking using MRI in a mouse model with ex vivo labeled cells. A typical protocol for cell labeling, image acquisition processing and quantification is included.

세포 추적을위한 생체 19 F MRI에서

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. ...

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. Despite the discovery of key regulators of uterine contractility, this process is still not fully understood. Transgenic mice provide an ideal model in which to study parturition. Previously, the only method to study uterine contractility in the mouse was ex vivo isometric tension recordings, which are suboptimal for several reasons. The uterus must be removed from its physiological environment, a limited time course of investigation is possible, and the mice must be sacrificed. The recent development of radiometric telemetry has allowed for longitudinal, real-time measurements of in vivo intrauterine pressure in mice. Here, the implantation of an intrauterine telemeter to measure pressure changes in the mouse uterus from mid-pregnancy until delivery is described. By comparing differences in pressures between wild type and transgenic mice, the physiological impact of a gene of interest can be elucidated. This technique should expedite the development of therapeutics used to treat myometrial disorders during pregnancy, including preterm labor.

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

This manuscript provides a protocol for implanting telemeters in the mouse for the purpose of measuring intrauterine pressures during pregnancy.

자궁 원격 측정은 마우스 수축 압력을 측정하는<em&gt; 생체</em

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. ...

Detecting Anastasis In Vivo by CaspaseTracker Biosensor

Anastasis (Greek for &#8220;rising to life&#8221;) is a recently discovered cell recovery phenomenon whereby dying cells can reverse late-stage cell death processes that are generally assumed to be intrinsically irreversible. Promoting anastasis could in principle rescue or preserve injured cells that are difficult to replace such as cardiomyocytes or neurons, thereby facilitating tissue recovery. Conversely, suppressing anastasis in cancer cells, undergoing apoptosis after anti-cancer therapies, may ensure cancer cell death and reduce the chances of recurrence. However, these studies have been hampered by the lack of tools for tracking the fate of cells that undergo anastasis in live animals. The challenge is to identify the cells that have reversed the cell death process despite their morphologically normal appearance after recovery. To overcome this difficulty, we have developed Drosophila and mammalian CaspaseTracker biosensor systems that can identify and permanently track the anastatic cells in vitro or in vivo. Here, we present in vivo protocols for the generation and use of the CaspaseTracker dual biosensor system to detect and track anastasis in Drosophila melanogaster after transient exposure to cell death stimuli. While conventional biosensors and protocols can label cells actively undergoing apoptotic cell death, the CaspaseTracker biosensor can permanently label cells that have recovered after caspase activation - a hallmark of late-stage apoptosis, and simultaneously identify active apoptotic processes. This biosensor can also track the recovery of the cells that attempted other forms of cell death that directly or indirectly involved caspase activity. Therefore, this protocol enables us to continuously track the fate of these cells and their progeny, facilitating future studies of the biological functions, molecular mechanisms, physiological and pathological consequences, and therapeutic implications of anastasis. We also discuss the appropriate controls to distinguish cells that undergo anastasis from those that display non-apoptotic caspase activity in vivo.

Detecting Anastasis In Vivo by CaspaseTracker Biosensor

Anastasis is technically challenging to detect in vivo because the cells that have reversed the cell death process can be morphologically indistinguishable from normal healthy cells. Here we describe protocols for detecting and tracking cells that undergo anastasis in live animals by using our newly developed in vivo CaspaseTracker biosensor system.

Anastasis에서 Vivo에서 CaspaseTracker 바이오 센서에 의해 감지

Anastasis (Greek for &#8220;rising to life&#8221;) is a recently discovered cell recovery phenomenon whereby dying cells can reverse late-stage cell death ...

Depletion of Mouse Cells from Human Tumor Xenografts Significantly Improves Downstream Analysis of Target Cells

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic patient tumors in different assays1. Human tumor xenografts represent the gold standard with respect to tumor biology, drug discovery, and metastasis research 2-4. Tumor xenografts can be derived from different types of material like tumor cell lines, tumor tissue from primary patient tumors4 or serially transplanted tumors. When propagated in vivo, xenografted tissue is infiltrated and vascularized by cells of mouse origin. Multiple factors such as the tumor entity, the origin of xenografted material, growth rate and region of transplantation influence the composition and the amount of mouse cells present in tumor xenografts. However, even when these factors are kept constant, the degree of mouse cell contamination is highly variable.
Contaminating mouse cells significantly impair downstream analyses of human tumor xenografts. As mouse fibroblasts show high plating efficacies and proliferation rates, they tend to overgrow cultures of human tumor cells, especially slowly proliferating subpopulations. Mouse cell derived DNA, mRNA, and protein components can bias downstream gene expression analysis, next-generation sequencing, as well as proteome analysis 5. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a fast and easy method to isolate untouched human tumor cells from xenografted tumor tissue. This procedure is based on the comprehensive depletion of cells of mouse origin by combining automated tissue dissociation with the benchtop tissue dissociator and magnetic cell sorting. Here, we demonstrate that human target cells can be can be obtained with purities higher than 96% within less than 20 min independent of the tumor type.

Human tumor xenografts are vascularized and infiltrated by cells of mouse origin during the growth phase in vivo. To circumvent the bias caused by these contaminating cells during downstream analysis, we developed a method allowing for comprehensive depletion of all mouse cells by magnetic cell sorting.

인간 종양 이종 이식에서 마우스 세포의 고갈은 크게 대상 세포의 다운 스트림 분석을 향상

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic ...

A Repetitive Concussive Head Injury Model in Mice

Despite the concussion/ mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) being the most frequent occurrence of traumatic brain injury, there is still a lack of knowledge on the injury and its effects. To develop a better understanding of concussions, animals are often used because they provide a controlled, rigorous, and efficient model. Studies have adapted traditional animal models to perform mTBI to stimulate mild injury severity by changing the injury parameters. These models have been used because they can produce morphologically similar brain injuries to the clinical condition and provide a spectrum of injury severities. However, they are limited in their ability to present the identical features of injuries in patients. Using a traditional impact system, a repetitive concussive injury (rCHI) model can induce mild to moderate human-like concussion. The injury degree can be determined by measuring the period of loss of consciousness (LOC) with a sign of a transient termination of breathing. The rCHI model is beneficial to use for its accuracy and simplicity in determining mTBI effects and potential treatments.

Concussion presents the most common type of traumatic brain injury. Therefore, a repetitive concussive animal model, which replicates the important features of an injury in patients, may provide a means to study concussion in a rigorous, controlled, and efficient manner.

마우스에 반복적 인 충격 포 헤드 손상 모델

Despite the concussion/ mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) being the most frequent occurrence of traumatic brain injury, there is still a lack of ...

Open Tracheostomy Gastric Acid Aspiration Murine Model of Acute Lung Injury Results in Maximal Acute Nonlethal Lung Injury

Acid pneumonitis is a major cause of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) in humans. Acid pneumonitis spans the clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), characterized by neutrophilic alveolitis, and injury to both alveolar epithelium and vascular endothelium. Clinically, ARDS is defined by acute onset of hypoxemia, bilateral patchy pulmonary infiltrates and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Human studies have provided us with valuable information about the physiological and inflammatory changes in the lung caused by ARDS, which has led to various hypotheses about the underling mechanisms. Unfortunately, difficulties determining the etiology of ARDS, as well as a wide range of pathophysiology have resulted in a lack of critical information that could be useful in developing therapeutic strategies.
Translational animal models are valuable when their pathogenesis and pathophysiology accurately reproduce a concept proven in both in vitro and clinical settings. Although large animal models (e.g., sheep) share characteristics of the anatomy of human trachea-bronchial tree, murine models provide a host of other advantages including: low cost; short reproductive cycle lending itself to greater data acquisition; a well understood immunologic system; and a well characterized genome leading to the availability of a variety of gene deletion and transgenic strains. A robust model of low pH induced ARDS requires a murine ALI that targets mainly the alveolar epithelium, secondarily the vascular endothelium, as well as the small airways leading to the alveoli. Furthermore, a reproducible injury with wide differences between different injurious and non-injurious insults is important.
The murine gastric acid aspiration model presented here using hydrochloric acid employs an open tracheostomy and recreates a pathogenic scenario that reproduces the low pH pneumonitis injury in humans. Additionally, this model can be used to examine interaction of a low pH insult with other pulmonary injurious entities (e.g., food particles, pathogenic bacteria).

This protocol induces acute lung injury in a mouse that has close fidelity to the pathogenesis of acid pneumonitis observed in humans. We generate a maximal acute nonlethal low pH lung injury and account for differences in rodent-human anatomic respiratory structure using an open tracheostomy coupled with circumferential pressure release.

급성 폐 손상의 열기 기관 절개 위산 흡인 쥐 모델은 최대한 급성 치명적 폐 손상의 결과

Acid pneumonitis is a major cause of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) in humans. Acid pneumonitis spans the clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to acute ...

Reproducible Arterial Denudation Injury by Infrarenal Abdominal Aortic Clamping in a Murine Model

Percutaneous vascular interventions uniformly result in arterial denudation injuries that subsequently lead to thrombosis and restenosis. These complications can be attributed to impairments in re-endothelialization within the wound margins. Yet, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of re-endothelialization remain to be defined. While several animal models to study re-endothelialization after arterial denudation are available, few are performed in the mouse because of surgical limitations. This undermines the opportunity to exploit transgenic mouse lines and investigate the contribution of specific genes to the process of re-endothelialization. Here, we present a step-by-step protocol for creating a highly reproducible murine model of arterial denudation injury in the infrarenal abdominal aorta using external vascular clamping. Immunocytochemical staining of injured aortas for fibrinogen and &#946;-catenin demonstrate the exposure of a pro-thrombotic surface and the border of intact endothelium, respectively. The method presented here has the advantages of speed, excellent overall survival rate, and relative technical ease, creating a uniquely practical tool for imposing arterial denudation injury in transgenic mouse models. Using this method, investigators may elucidate the mechanisms of re-endothelialization under normal or pathological conditions.

Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of re-endothelialization following arterial denudation injury is of paramount importance in preventing thrombosis and restenosis of arteries. Here we describe a protocol for reproducible arterial denudation injury of the infrarenal abdominal aorta. The procedure was developed to investigate the underlying mechanisms that regulate endothelial regeneration using mouse models.

쥐 모델에서 Infrarenal 복부 대동맥 클램핑에 의해 재현 동맥 발가 벗김 부상

Percutaneous vascular interventions uniformly result in arterial denudation injuries that subsequently lead to thrombosis and restenosis. These ...

A Drosophila In Vivo Injury Model for Studying Neuroregeneration in the Peripheral and Central Nervous System

The regrowth capacity of damaged neurons governs neuroregeneration and functional recovery after nervous system trauma. Over the past few decades, various intrinsic and extrinsic inhibitory factors involved in the restriction of axon regeneration have been identified. However, simply removing these inhibitory cues is insufficient for successful regeneration, indicating the existence of additional regulatory machinery. Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, shares evolutionarily conserved genes and signaling pathways with vertebrates, including humans. Combining the powerful genetic toolbox of flies with two-photon laser axotomy/dendriotomy, we describe here the Drosophila sensory neuron &#8211; dendritic arborization (da) neuron injury model as a platform for systematically screening for novel regeneration regulators. Briefly, this paradigm includes a) the preparation of larvae, b) lesion induction to dendrite(s) or axon(s) using a two-photon laser, c) live confocal imaging post-injury and d) data analysis. Our model enables highly reproducible injury of single labeled neurons, axons, and dendrites of well-defined neuronal subtypes, in both the peripheral and central nervous system.

A Drosophila In Vivo Injury Model for Studying Neuroregeneration in the Peripheral and Central Nervous System

Here, we present a protocol using the Drosophila sensory neuron - dendritic arborization (da) neuron injury model, which combines in vivo live imaging, two-photon laser axotomy/dendriotomy, and the powerful fly genetic toolbox, as a platform for screening potential promoters and inhibitors of neuroregeneration.

주변에 Neuroregeneration 중앙 신 경계를 연구 하 고 대 한 Vivo에서 초파리 부상 모델

The regrowth capacity of damaged neurons governs neuroregeneration and functional recovery after nervous system trauma. Over the past few decades, various ...