We thank Katherine Clark for technical assistance. A.D.R.G. is funded in part by 5K01MH097957-03

Adulto (3-4 meses de idade) ratos machos em um C57BL / 6 fundo misto foram utilizados neste protocolo. Os animais foram mantidos em um ciclo claro / escuro de 12 horas de luz, e permitiu o livre acesso a comida e água. Todos os procedimentos realizados neste protocolo foram realizados de acordo com protocolos aprovados pela Comissão de Drexel University Institutional Animal Care e Use. 1. Preparar Área Cirúrgica <ol><li> Desinfetar mesa cirúrgica com etanol 70%, em seguida, cobrir toda a bancada cirúrgica com absorventes higiênicos e providenciar instrumentos cirúrgicos adjacente ao estereotáxica. </li><li> Configurar equipamento estereotáxico sem braço manipulador. Organizar a almofada de aquecimento na estereotáxico e ajustado para 37 ° C. Evitar o sobreaquecimento do animal, colocando um pequeno pedaço de papel toalha ou almofada cirúrgica entre o animal ea almofada de aquecimento. </li><li> Com uma tesoura autoclavados, cortar pequenos pedaços de gelfoam autoclavado em uma placa de Petri estéril contendo solução salina 0,9% estéril até ready para uso. Nota: Manter ambiente de trabalho estéril, utilizando instrumentos esterilizados e suprimentos cirúrgicos estéreis. Re-esterilizar instrumentos cirúrgicos durante o procedimento ou entre animais por meio de imersão em um esterilizador talão de 10-15 segundos, conforme necessário. Manter luvas limpas durante todo o procedimento, esfregando as mãos com álcool a 70%, conforme necessário, de desinfectar. </li></ol> 2. Prepping mouse para Cirurgia <ol><li> Remover rato de gaiola e pesar (g). </li><li> Colocar o mouse na câmara de indução isoflurano e definir oxigênio a 2 L / min e vaporizador isoflurano a 5 para induzir um plano cirúrgico de anestesia, cerca de 3-5 min. Monitore a respiração desacelerou e imobilização. Verifique se o mouse está totalmente sedado utilizando o reflexo toe pitada. </li><li> Quando o mouse está totalmente sedado, coloque no quadro estereotáxico, prenda o nariz no cone do nariz, que está ligado com a tubulação para o isoflurano. Insira barras de ouvido no canal do ouvido e aperte, garantindo a cabeça é estável. </li><li> Raspar a cabeça de orelha a orelha, e de entre os olhos para atrás das orelhas. </li><li> Esterilizar a pele com toalhetes alternados de álcool isopropílico e uma solução de betadine iodo, 3 vezes cada um. </li><li> Aplicar lágrimas artificiais para ambos os olhos para evitar que sequem durante o procedimento cirúrgico. </li></ol> 3. Procedimento Cirúrgico <ol><li> Monitore a profundidade da anestesia por beliscar a ponta ou cauda. O rato está localizado no plano cirúrgico apropriado quando não houver nenhuma resposta, e a respiração é lenta e uniforme. </li><li> Faça uma incisão na pele parasagittal de apenas atrás dos olhos para quase entre as orelhas em um único movimento, firme, usando uma lâmina de bisturi n ° 11. Mova pele de lado e clip lado direito com pinça hemostática. </li><li> Limpar crânio de membrana sobreposta usando o lado maçante do No. 11 bisturi e algodão derrubou aplicadores. Opcionalmente, limpe o crânio com algodão aplicador derrubado mergulhados em solução salina a 0,9%. Deixar secar completamente. </li><li> Nósção uma pequena régua, marcar a borda anterior da craniotomia a 1 mm caudal para a sutura coronária, e a borda esquerda da craniotomia em 1 mm lateral à sutura sagital (Figura 1), com um marcador permanente. Em seguida, marque a direita e fronteiras caudal da craniotomia a 4 mm das suturas sagital e coronal, respectivamente (Figura 1). </li><li> Usando uma broca de 0,5 mm, começar a fazer a craniotomia por perfuração lentamente seguindo o contorno marcador permanente. Tenha cuidado para não romper o crânio completamente. Pressione suavemente a parte isolada de osso parietal com No. 5 fórceps, áreas de fraqueza dará lugar à pressão. Quando o osso diluído é suficientemente fraca ao longo do perímetro, a peça óssea está pronta para remoção. NOTA: Se a dificuldade experiências investigador remoção do osso em uma única peça, isso sugere que o osso não estava suficientemente diluído durante a perfuração. Considere a perfuração do crânio ainda mais em animais subsequentes para Facilitate fácil remoção da peça óssea. </li><li> Usando uma seringa de 10 ml, equipado com uma agulha G 23, aplicam-se uma pequena quantidade de 0,9% de solução salina para absorver o osso isolado e área perfurada. </li><li> Prenda o braço manipulador ao equipamento estereotáxico. Anexar uma nova lâmina de bisturi n ° 11 para o titular da sonda com o lado afiado da lâmina virada para rostralmente. Nota: Embora os tecidos rostral e caudal experimentar as arestas vivas e sem corte da lâmina, respectivamente, a danos mecânicos induzida pela lesão penetrante é comparável em toda a extensão da lesão. Observamos há diferenças consideráveis ​​das principais características da gliose reativa incluindo upregulation de expressão ou a proliferação GFAP, entre as seções rostral e caudal. </li><li> Mantendo o braço manipulador fora do caminho, levante cuidadosamente o osso isolado usando 5/45 fórceps anguladas. Insira a ponta da pinça para o lado do osso isolada e elevador, usando alavanca para retirar o pedaço de osso deixado para trás em um full movimento. NOTA: Tenha cuidado para não apunhalar o cérebro ou perturbar a dura por baixo do crânio. </li><li> Pegue um pequeno pedaço da espuma gel absorvível embebida e coloque sobre o cérebro descoberto para evitar que ela seque e absorva todo o sangue que possa estar presente. </li><li> Uma vez que a espuma de gel está no lugar, balançar o braço manipulador no lugar e ajustar lâmina para o centro da craniotomia sobre a espuma gel. Remover a espuma de gel e reduzir a lâmina até que a ponta toca a dura-máter sem a perfuração da dura-máter. Mark dorsal / ventral coordenadas utilizando a escala vernier no braço vertical da estereotáxico. </li><li> Usando o braço manipulador, abaixe lentamente a lâmina precisamente três milímetros no cérebro. Isto é conseguido usando as marcas de escala vernier do braço manipulador. Permitir lâmina para ficar no lugar de 5-10 seg. Mova o braço estereotáxico com acessório lâmina rostral para caudal três vezes, permitindo que a lâmina para alcançar os limites rostral e caudal da craniotomia antes de passar para o opposite fim. NOTA: A dura-máter não é removido antes de inserir a lâmina. Em contraste com a dura-máter de rato, que é ~ 80 um de espessura 7, a dura-máter do rato é consideravelmente mais finas (apenas algumas camadas celulares de espessura) e não produz uma resistência apreciável para a lâmina de bisturi durante a inserção. Usar uma nova lâmina de bisturi para cada rato para assegurar que cada animal recebe uma lesão consistente. </li><li> Lentamente levantar o braço estereotáxico, retirando a lâmina do cérebro. Após a remoção da lâmina, coloque imediatamente um outro pedaço de gelfoam na superfície do cérebro para absorver qualquer excesso de sangue ou fluido. </li><li> Enquanto isso, retirar o braço estereotáxico e dispor da lâmina de bisturi n ° 11. Uma vez que o sangramento parou, remova o gelfoam. </li><li> Fechar a ferida por sutura da pele com sutura não absorvível, tal como ethilon ou prolene. As suturas devem ser removidos 9-10 dias após a cirurgia. </li><li> Devolver o mouse para sua gaiola, e permitir que o mouse para se recuperar lentamente em um heating pad eo monitor para detectar quaisquer sinais de angústia. A recuperação da anestesia induzida por isoflurano tipicamente ocorre dentro de 2-5 minutos após a remoção do isofluorano. Não deixe o animal sem supervisão até que ele recuperou recumbancy esternal. </li><li> Administrar 0,5-1 ml de solução de Ringer lactato subcutaneamente para garantir a hidratação. </li></ol> 4. Cuidados pós-cirúrgica <ol><li> Acompanhar de perto os animais no pós-operatório até a recuperação da anestesia, antes de voltar para a colônia. <ol><li> Para reduzir a dor e desconforto pós-operatório, administrar 0,05-0,1 mg / kg de buprenorfina por injecção ip imediatamente após o procedimento. </li><li> Observe os animais por 2-3 dias após a cirurgia para sinais severos de angústia, como movimentos restritos, a falta de preparação, ou perda de peso. Euthanize animais que demonstram algum destes sinais de sofrimento e retire do estudo. </li></ol></li><li> Para examinar histopatológico de tecidos lesados, eutanásia animais por stanperfusão intracardíaca dard. <ol><li> Resumidamente, anestesiar os animais com uma overdose de cetamina / xilazina e, em seguida perfundidos intracardial com 15-20 mL de NaCl a 0,9%, ou até que o fígado é limpa de sangue, seguido por 60 ml de paraformaldeído a 4% no final da experiência. </li></ol></li><li> Dissecar cérebros e pós-correção para 2-4 h em paraformaldeído a 4% antes da transferência para solução de sacarose 30%. Secção cérebros num crióstato a 40-60 uM, e processo por procedimentos histológicos ou imuno-histoquímicos convencionais, ou como descritos em Garcia 8,9. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Hamby, M. E., Sofroniew, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+astrocytes+as+therapeutic+targets+for+CNS+disorders.">Reactive astrocytes as therapeutic targets for CNS disorders.</a> Neurotherapeutics. 7 (4), 494-506 (2010).</li><li>Bush, T. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+infiltration,+neuronal+degeneration,+and+neurite+outgrowth+after+ablation+of+scar-forming,+reactive+astrocytes+in+adult+transgenic+mice.">Leukocyte infiltration, neuronal degeneration, and neurite outgrowth after ablation of scar-forming, reactive astrocytes in adult transgenic mice.</a> Neuron. 23 (2), 297-308 (1999).</li><li>Faulkner, J. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+astrocytes+protect+tissue+and+preserve+function+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Reactive astrocytes protect tissue and preserve function after spinal cord injury.</a> The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 24 (9), 2143-2155 (2004).</li><li>Okada, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conditional+ablation+of+Stat3+or+Socs3+discloses+a+dual+role+for+reactive+astrocytes+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Conditional ablation of Stat3 or Socs3 discloses a dual role for reactive astrocytes after spinal cord injury.</a> Nature Medicine. 12 (7), 829-834 (2006).</li><li>Voskuhl, R. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+Astrocytes+Form+Scar-Like+Perivascular+Barriers+to+Leukocytes+during+Adaptive+Immune+Inflammation+of+the+CNS.">Reactive Astrocytes Form Scar-Like Perivascular Barriers to Leukocytes during Adaptive Immune Inflammation of the CNS.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (37), 11511-11522 (2009).</li><li>Burda, J. E., Sofroniew, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+Gliosis+and+the+Multicellular+Response+to+CNS+Damage+and+Disease.">Reactive Gliosis and the Multicellular Response to CNS Damage and Disease.</a> Neuron. 81 (2), 229-248 (2014).</li><li>Maikos, J. T., Elias, R. A., Shreiber, D. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+of+dura+mater+from+the+rat+brain+and+spinal+cord.">Mechanical properties of dura mater from the rat brain and spinal cord.</a> Journal of neurotrauma. 25 (1), 38-51 (2008).</li><li>Garcia, A. D., Doan, N. B., Imura, T., Bush, T. G., Sofroniew, M. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GFAP-expressing+progenitors+are+the+principal+source+of+constitutive+neurogenesis+in+adult+mouse+forebrain.">GFAP-expressing progenitors are the principal source of constitutive neurogenesis in adult mouse forebrain.</a> Nat Neurosci. 7 (11), 1233-1241 (2004).</li><li>Garcia, A. D., Petrova, R., Eng, L., Joyner, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sonic+hedgehog+regulates+discrete+populations+of+astrocytes+in+the+adult+mouse+forebrain.">Sonic hedgehog regulates discrete populations of astrocytes in the adult mouse forebrain.</a> J Neurosci. 30 (41), 13597-13608 (2010).</li><li>Amat, J. A., Ishiguro, H., Nakamura, K., Norton, W. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phenotypic+diversity+and+kinetics+of+proliferating+microglia+and+astrocytes+following+cortical+stab+wounds.">Phenotypic diversity and kinetics of proliferating microglia and astrocytes following cortical stab wounds.</a> Glia. 16 (4), 368-382 (1996).</li><li>Hozumi, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Administration+of+prosaposin+ameliorates+spatial+learning+disturbance+and+reduces+cavity+formation+following+stab+wounds+in+rat+brain.">Administration of prosaposin ameliorates spatial learning disturbance and reduces cavity formation following stab wounds in rat brain.</a> Neuroscience letters. 267 (1), 73-76 (1999).</li><li>Ness, R., David, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leptomeningeal+cells+modulate+the+neurite+growth+promoting+properties+of+astrocytes+in+vitro.">Leptomeningeal cells modulate the neurite growth promoting properties of astrocytes in vitro.</a> Glia. 19 (1), 47-57 (1997).</li><li>Byrnes, K. R., Fricke, S. T., Faden, A. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuropathological+differences+between+rats+and+mice+after+spinal+cord+injury.">Neuropathological differences between rats and mice after spinal cord injury.</a> Journal of magnetic resonance imaging : JMRI. 32 (4), 836-846 (2010).</li><li>Steward, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+approaches+to+neurotrauma+research:+opportunities+and+potential+pitfalls+of+murine+models.">Genetic approaches to neurotrauma research: opportunities and potential pitfalls of murine models.</a> Experimental neurology. 157 (1), 19-42 (1999).</li><li>Davalos, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ATP+mediates+rapid+microglial+response+to+local+brain+injury+in+vivo.">ATP mediates rapid microglial response to local brain injury in vivo.</a> Nature neuroscience. 8 (6), 752-758 (2005).</li><li>Hanisch, U. -. K., Kettenmann, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microglia:+active+sensor+and+versatile+effector+cells+in+the+normal+and+pathologic+brain.">Microglia: active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain.</a> Nature neuroscience. 10 (11), 1387-1394 (2007).</li><li>Neumann, H., Kotter, M. R., Franklin, R. J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Debris+clearance+by+microglia:+an+essential+link+between+degeneration+and+regeneration.">Debris clearance by microglia: an essential link between degeneration and regeneration.</a> Brain. 132 (2), 288-295 (2008).</li><li>Nimmerjahn, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resting+Microglial+Cells+Are+Highly+Dynamic+Surveillants+of+Brain+Parenchyma+in+Vivo.">Resting Microglial Cells Are Highly Dynamic Surveillants of Brain Parenchyma in Vivo.</a> Science. 308 (5726), 1314-1318 (2005).</li><li>Horn, K. P., Busch, S. A., Hawthorne, A. L., van Rooijen, N., Silver, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Another+Barrier+to+Regeneration+in+the+CNS:+Activated+Macrophages+Induce+Extensive+Retraction+of+Dystrophic+Axons+through+Direct+Physical+Interactions.">Another Barrier to Regeneration in the CNS: Activated Macrophages Induce Extensive Retraction of Dystrophic Axons through Direct Physical Interactions.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (38), 9330-9341 (2008).</li><li>Ip, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immune+Cells+Contribute+to+Myelin+Degeneration+and+Axonopathic+Changes+in+Mice+Overexpressing+Proteolipid+Protein+in+Oligodendrocytes.">Immune Cells Contribute to Myelin Degeneration and Axonopathic Changes in Mice Overexpressing Proteolipid Protein in Oligodendrocytes.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (31), 8206-8216 (2006).</li><li>Perry, V. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+systemic+inflammation+to+chronic+neurodegeneration.">Contribution of systemic inflammation to chronic neurodegeneration.</a> Acta neuropathologica. 120 (3), 277-286 (2010).</li><li>McKeon, R. J., Jurynec, M. J., Buck, C. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+chondroitin+sulfate+proteoglycans+neurocan+and+phosphacan+are+expressed+by+reactive+astrocytes+in+the+chronic+CNS+glial+scar.">The chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans neurocan and phosphacan are expressed by reactive astrocytes in the chronic CNS glial scar.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 19 (24), 10778-10788 (1999).</li><li>Silver, J., Miller, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regeneration+beyond+the+glial+scar.">Regeneration beyond the glial scar.</a> Nature reviews. Neuroscience. 5 (2), 146-156 (2004).</li><li>Zamanian, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+analysis+of+reactive+astrogliosis.">Genomic analysis of reactive astrogliosis.</a> J Neurosci. 32 (18), 6391-6410 (2012).</li><li>Buffo, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Origin+and+progeny+of+reactive+gliosis:+A+source+of+multipotent+cells+in+the+injured+brain.">Origin and progeny of reactive gliosis: A source of multipotent cells in the injured brain.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (9), 3581-3586 (2008).</li><li>Sirko, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactive+glia+in+the+injured+brain+acquire+stem+cell+properties+in+response+to+sonic+hedgehog.+[corrected].">Reactive glia in the injured brain acquire stem cell properties in response to sonic hedgehog. [corrected].</a> Cell stem cell. 12 (4), 426-439 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

É fundamental que o crânio ou dura subjacente não sejam danificados durante a perfuração. Use uma leve pressão durante a perfuração para garantir o crânio não é perfurada. Além disso, deve ser tomado cuidado ao levantar o pedaço do crânio para garantir a dura não é levantado com o osso. A lesão forebrain facada descrito aqui modelos de uma lesão penetrante no SNC. Embora menos clinicamente traduzível do que os modelos de TBI como FPI ou ICC, o modelo de lesão forebrain fa...

A major challenge for developing successful therapies to treat the injured CNS is an incomplete understanding of the complex multicellular events that are triggered by the trauma. Reactive astrocytes are gaining increasing recognition as a promising target for novel therapies1. Though historically regarded as hostile to neural repair, reactive astrocytes are now recognized as critical components of a complex, multicellular neuroprotective response that includes attenuation of inflammatory processes and limiting secondary damage and neurodegeneration2-6. Although the neuropathological characteristics of reactive gliosis have long been well defined, the cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating reactive gliosis, and the diverse array of downstream consequences remain poorly understood. Understanding the mechanisms that drive reactive gliosis, as well as the subsequent cellular and molecular events, is an important step towards developing strategies aimed at promoting the neuroprotective properties of reactive gliosis, while attenuating the detrimental effects. 
Here we demonstrate a method to induce severe reactive astrogliosis in the forebrain of adult mice using a stab injury. In contrast to other traumatic brain injury (TBI) models, such as controlled cortical impact (CCI) or fluid percussion injury (FPI), which require specialized equipment to produce an injury, the forebrain stab requires only a stereotaxic device to stabilize the head and a No. 11 scalpel blade. Thus the forebrain stab lesion model is more broadly accessible to a wide range of laboratories that do not have access to the specialized devices necessary for creating an FPI or CCI injury. The method described here enables investigators to reliably and reproducibly trigger a robust gliosis response to investigate subsequent cellular and molecular events. Once recovered from surgery, animals that have received a forebrain stab injury can survive for prolonged periods without the need for specialized care and can be returned to the colony for acute, intermediate, or chronic studies. Though less clinically translatable than FPI or CCI models of TBI, a forebrain lesion produced by a stab injury serves as a simple yet useful experimental model to investigate basic biological mechanisms underlying reactive gliosis and other neuropathological events following trauma to the CNS.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotax</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>726049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High speed micro drill</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>724950</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stainless steel scalpel blade, #11</td>
			<td>MedVet</td>
			<td>JOR581S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5/45 angled forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11251-35</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gelfoam sponge 12cmx7mm</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>NC9841478</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibodies and other reagents</td>
			<td>Manufacturer</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Dilution (brightfield) 
			Dilution (fluorescence)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rb anti-GFAP</td>
			<td>DAKO</td>
			<td>&#160;Z033429-2</td>
			<td>1:20k 
			1:1k</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shp anti-BrdU</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab1893</td>
			<td>1:2k 
			1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated goat anti-rabbit</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>BA-1000&#160;</td>
			<td>1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated rabbit anti-sheep</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>BA-6000</td>
			<td>1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexafluor 488 goat anti-rabbit</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A-11008</td>
			<td>1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexafluor 568 donkey anti-sheep</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A-21099</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI Nucleic Acid Stain</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>D3571</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cresyl Violet Acetate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5042-10G</td>
			<td>1%</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

triggering reactive gliosis in vivo by a forebrain stab injury

Following injury to the CNS, astrocytes undergo a broad range of biochemical, morphological, and molecular changes collectively referred to as reactive astrogliosis. Reactive astrocytes exert both inflammatory and protective effects that inhibit and promote, respectively, neural repair. The mechanisms underlying the diverse functional properties of reactive astrogliosis are not well understood. Achieving a greater understanding of these mechanisms is critical to developing therapeutic strategies to treat the injured CNS. Here we demonstrate a method to trigger reactive astrogliosis in the adult mouse forebrain using a forebrain stab lesion. This lesion model is simple, reliable, and requires only a stereotaxic device and a scalpel blade to produce the injury. The use of stab lesions as an injury model in the forebrain is well established and amenable to studies addressing a broad range of neuropathological outcomes, such as neuronal degeneration, neuroinflammation, and disruptions in the blood brain barrier (BBB). Thus, the forebrain stab injury model serves as a powerful tool that can be applied for a broad range of studies on the CNS response to trauma.

Porque os animais submetidos a esse procedimento não requerem períodos de sobrevivência especializados cuidados pós-operatórios, curtos ou de tempo de longo prazo são facilmente incorporados no estudo, dependendo da necessidade de investigar patologia aguda ou crônica após a lesão. Principais recursos de gliose reativa, como regulação alta de GFAP e hipertrofia de soma, pode ser observado logo em 2-3 dias após a lesão. A fase de pico da proliferação de astrócitos reativos é durante os dias 3-5 após les...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury at JoVE.com

Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury

This article describes a detailed protocol to produce a forebrain stab injury in adult mice. The stab injury induces severe reactive gliosis and glial scar formation which can be subsequently examined by standard immunohistochemistry methods.

Disparo Reactive Gliose<em&gt; In Vivo</em&gt; Por um Stab Lesão Encéfalo anterior

Following injury to the CNS, astrocytes undergo a broad range of biochemical, morphological, and molecular changes collectively referred to as reactive ...

triggering-reactive-gliosis-in-vivo-by-a-forebrain-stab-injury

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury

10.4K visualizações.  Drexel University. This article describes a detailed protocol to produce a forebrain stab injury in adult mice. The stab injury induces severe reactive gliosis and glial scar formation which can be subsequently examined by standard immunohistochemistry methods. 

Vídeo: Triggering Reactive Gliosis In Vivo by a Forebrain Stab Injury

An in vivo Rodent Model of Contraction-induced Injury and Non-invasive Monitoring of Recovery

Muscle strains are one of the most common complaints treated by physicians. A muscle injury is typically diagnosed from the patient history and physical exam alone, however the clinical presentation can vary greatly depending on the extent of injury, the patient's pain tolerance, etc. In patients with muscle injury or muscle disease, assessment of muscle damage is typically limited to clinical signs, such as tenderness, strength, range of motion, and more recently, imaging studies. Biological markers, such as serum creatine kinase levels, are typically elevated with muscle injury, but their levels do not always correlate with the loss of force production. This is even true of histological findings from animals, which provide a "direct measure" of damage, but do not account for all the loss of function. Some have argued that the most comprehensive measure of the overall health of the muscle in contractile force. Because muscle injury is a random event that occurs under a variety of biomechanical conditions, it is difficult to study. Here, we describe an in vivo animal model to measure torque and to produce a reliable muscle injury. We also describe our model for measurement of force from an isolated muscle in situ. Furthermore, we describe our small animal MRI procedure.

An in vivo Rodent Model of Contraction-induced Injury and Non-invasive Monitoring of Recovery

An in vivo animal model of injury is described. The method takes advantage of the subcutaneous position of the fibular nerve. Velocity, timing of muscle activation, and arc of motion are all pre-determined and synchronized using commercial software. Post injury changes are monitored in vivo using MR imaging/spectroscopy.

Um In vivo Modelo de Contração de roedores induzida por lesões e não-invasivos acompanhamento da recuperação

Muscle strains are one of the most  common complaints treated by physicians. A muscle injury is typically diagnosed from the patient history and  physical ...

Medicina

Implantation of a Carotid Cuff for Triggering Shear-stress Induced Atherosclerosis in Mice

It is widely accepted that alterations in vascular shear stress trigger the expression of inflammatory genes in endothelial cells and thereby induce atherosclerosis (reviewed in 1 and 2). The role of shear stress has been extensively studied in vitro investigating the influence of flow dynamics on cultured endothelial cells 1,3,4 and in vivo in larger animals and humans 1,5,6,7,8. However, highly reproducible small animal models allowing systematic investigation of the influence of shear stress on plaque development are rare. Recently, Nam et al. 9 introduced a mouse model in which the ligation of branches of the carotid artery creates a region of low and oscillatory flow. Although this model causes endothelial dysfunction and rapid formation of atherosclerotic lesions in hyperlipidemic mice, it cannot be excluded that the observed inflammatory response is, at least in part, a consequence of endothelial and/or vessel damage due to ligation.
In order to avoid such limitations, a shear stress modifying cuff has been developed based upon calculated fluid dynamics, whose cone shaped inner lumen was selected to create defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress within the common carotid artery 10. By applying this model in Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout mice fed a high cholesterol western type diet, vascular lesions develop upstream and downstream from the cuff. Their phenotype is correlated with the regional flow dynamics 11 as confirmed by in vivo Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 12: Low and laminar shear stress upstream of the cuff causes the formation of extensive plaques of a more vulnerable phenotype, whereas oscillatory shear stress downstream of the cuff induces stable atherosclerotic lesions 11. In those regions of high shear stress and high laminar flow within the cuff, typically no atherosclerotic plaques are observed.
 
In conclusion, the shear stress-modifying cuff procedure is a reliable surgical approach to produce phenotypically different atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-deficient mice.

The constricting cuff presented in this article is designed to induce atherosclerosis in the murine common carotid artery. Due to the conical shape of its inner lumen the implanted cuff generates well-defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress triggering the development of atherosclerotic lesions of different inflammatory phenotypes.

Implantação de um Cuff Carotid para Triggering Shear-estresse aterosclerose induzida em camundongos

It is widely accepted that alterations in vascular shear stress trigger the expression of inflammatory genes in endothelial cells and thereby induce ...

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. Here, we describe a general protocol for cell labeling, imaging, and image processing. The technique is applicable to various cell types and animal models, although here we focus on a typical mouse model for tracking murine immune cells. The most important issues for cell labeling are described, as these are relevant to all models. Similarly, key imaging parameters are listed, although the details will vary depending on the MRI system and the individual setup. Finally, we include an image processing protocol for quantification. Variations for this, and other parts of the protocol, are assessed in the Discussion section. Based on the detailed procedure described here, the user will need to adapt the protocol for each specific cell type, cell label, animal model, and imaging setup. Note that the protocol can also be adapted for human use, as long as clinical restrictions are met.

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

We describe a general protocol for in vivo cell tracking using MRI in a mouse model with ex vivo labeled cells. A typical protocol for cell labeling, image acquisition processing and quantification is included.

In vivo 19 F MRI para Rastreamento celular

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. ...

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. Despite the discovery of key regulators of uterine contractility, this process is still not fully understood. Transgenic mice provide an ideal model in which to study parturition. Previously, the only method to study uterine contractility in the mouse was ex vivo isometric tension recordings, which are suboptimal for several reasons. The uterus must be removed from its physiological environment, a limited time course of investigation is possible, and the mice must be sacrificed. The recent development of radiometric telemetry has allowed for longitudinal, real-time measurements of in vivo intrauterine pressure in mice. Here, the implantation of an intrauterine telemeter to measure pressure changes in the mouse uterus from mid-pregnancy until delivery is described. By comparing differences in pressures between wild type and transgenic mice, the physiological impact of a gene of interest can be elucidated. This technique should expedite the development of therapeutics used to treat myometrial disorders during pregnancy, including preterm labor.

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

This manuscript provides a protocol for implanting telemeters in the mouse for the purpose of measuring intrauterine pressures during pregnancy.

Telemetria Intrauterine medir Rato contrátil Pressão<em&gt; In Vivo</em

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. ...

Detecting Anastasis In Vivo by CaspaseTracker Biosensor

Anastasis (Greek for &#8220;rising to life&#8221;) is a recently discovered cell recovery phenomenon whereby dying cells can reverse late-stage cell death processes that are generally assumed to be intrinsically irreversible. Promoting anastasis could in principle rescue or preserve injured cells that are difficult to replace such as cardiomyocytes or neurons, thereby facilitating tissue recovery. Conversely, suppressing anastasis in cancer cells, undergoing apoptosis after anti-cancer therapies, may ensure cancer cell death and reduce the chances of recurrence. However, these studies have been hampered by the lack of tools for tracking the fate of cells that undergo anastasis in live animals. The challenge is to identify the cells that have reversed the cell death process despite their morphologically normal appearance after recovery. To overcome this difficulty, we have developed Drosophila and mammalian CaspaseTracker biosensor systems that can identify and permanently track the anastatic cells in vitro or in vivo. Here, we present in vivo protocols for the generation and use of the CaspaseTracker dual biosensor system to detect and track anastasis in Drosophila melanogaster after transient exposure to cell death stimuli. While conventional biosensors and protocols can label cells actively undergoing apoptotic cell death, the CaspaseTracker biosensor can permanently label cells that have recovered after caspase activation - a hallmark of late-stage apoptosis, and simultaneously identify active apoptotic processes. This biosensor can also track the recovery of the cells that attempted other forms of cell death that directly or indirectly involved caspase activity. Therefore, this protocol enables us to continuously track the fate of these cells and their progeny, facilitating future studies of the biological functions, molecular mechanisms, physiological and pathological consequences, and therapeutic implications of anastasis. We also discuss the appropriate controls to distinguish cells that undergo anastasis from those that display non-apoptotic caspase activity in vivo.

Detecting Anastasis In Vivo by CaspaseTracker Biosensor

Anastasis is technically challenging to detect in vivo because the cells that have reversed the cell death process can be morphologically indistinguishable from normal healthy cells. Here we describe protocols for detecting and tracking cells that undergo anastasis in live animals by using our newly developed in vivo CaspaseTracker biosensor system.

Detecção de Anastasis na Vivo por CaspaseTracker Biosensor

Anastasis (Greek for &#8220;rising to life&#8221;) is a recently discovered cell recovery phenomenon whereby dying cells can reverse late-stage cell death ...

Depletion of Mouse Cells from Human Tumor Xenografts Significantly Improves Downstream Analysis of Target Cells

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic patient tumors in different assays1. Human tumor xenografts represent the gold standard with respect to tumor biology, drug discovery, and metastasis research 2-4. Tumor xenografts can be derived from different types of material like tumor cell lines, tumor tissue from primary patient tumors4 or serially transplanted tumors. When propagated in vivo, xenografted tissue is infiltrated and vascularized by cells of mouse origin. Multiple factors such as the tumor entity, the origin of xenografted material, growth rate and region of transplantation influence the composition and the amount of mouse cells present in tumor xenografts. However, even when these factors are kept constant, the degree of mouse cell contamination is highly variable.
Contaminating mouse cells significantly impair downstream analyses of human tumor xenografts. As mouse fibroblasts show high plating efficacies and proliferation rates, they tend to overgrow cultures of human tumor cells, especially slowly proliferating subpopulations. Mouse cell derived DNA, mRNA, and protein components can bias downstream gene expression analysis, next-generation sequencing, as well as proteome analysis 5. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a fast and easy method to isolate untouched human tumor cells from xenografted tumor tissue. This procedure is based on the comprehensive depletion of cells of mouse origin by combining automated tissue dissociation with the benchtop tissue dissociator and magnetic cell sorting. Here, we demonstrate that human target cells can be can be obtained with purities higher than 96% within less than 20 min independent of the tumor type.

Human tumor xenografts are vascularized and infiltrated by cells of mouse origin during the growth phase in vivo. To circumvent the bias caused by these contaminating cells during downstream analysis, we developed a method allowing for comprehensive depletion of all mouse cells by magnetic cell sorting.

Depleção de células do rato de xenoenxertos de tumor humano Melhora Significativamente Análise Downstream de células alvo

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic ...

Open Tracheostomy Gastric Acid Aspiration Murine Model of Acute Lung Injury Results in Maximal Acute Nonlethal Lung Injury

Acid pneumonitis is a major cause of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) in humans. Acid pneumonitis spans the clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), characterized by neutrophilic alveolitis, and injury to both alveolar epithelium and vascular endothelium. Clinically, ARDS is defined by acute onset of hypoxemia, bilateral patchy pulmonary infiltrates and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Human studies have provided us with valuable information about the physiological and inflammatory changes in the lung caused by ARDS, which has led to various hypotheses about the underling mechanisms. Unfortunately, difficulties determining the etiology of ARDS, as well as a wide range of pathophysiology have resulted in a lack of critical information that could be useful in developing therapeutic strategies.
Translational animal models are valuable when their pathogenesis and pathophysiology accurately reproduce a concept proven in both in vitro and clinical settings. Although large animal models (e.g., sheep) share characteristics of the anatomy of human trachea-bronchial tree, murine models provide a host of other advantages including: low cost; short reproductive cycle lending itself to greater data acquisition; a well understood immunologic system; and a well characterized genome leading to the availability of a variety of gene deletion and transgenic strains. A robust model of low pH induced ARDS requires a murine ALI that targets mainly the alveolar epithelium, secondarily the vascular endothelium, as well as the small airways leading to the alveoli. Furthermore, a reproducible injury with wide differences between different injurious and non-injurious insults is important.
The murine gastric acid aspiration model presented here using hydrochloric acid employs an open tracheostomy and recreates a pathogenic scenario that reproduces the low pH pneumonitis injury in humans. Additionally, this model can be used to examine interaction of a low pH insult with other pulmonary injurious entities (e.g., food particles, pathogenic bacteria).

This protocol induces acute lung injury in a mouse that has close fidelity to the pathogenesis of acid pneumonitis observed in humans. We generate a maximal acute nonlethal low pH lung injury and account for differences in rodent-human anatomic respiratory structure using an open tracheostomy coupled with circumferential pressure release.

Abrir traqueostomia ácido gástrico aspiração Modelo murino de lesão pulmonar aguda Resultados em Maximal aguda não-letal Lung Injury

Acid pneumonitis is a major cause of sterile acute lung injury (ALI) in humans. Acid pneumonitis spans the clinical spectrum from asymptomatic to acute ...

Reproducible Arterial Denudation Injury by Infrarenal Abdominal Aortic Clamping in a Murine Model

Percutaneous vascular interventions uniformly result in arterial denudation injuries that subsequently lead to thrombosis and restenosis. These complications can be attributed to impairments in re-endothelialization within the wound margins. Yet, the cellular and molecular mechanisms of re-endothelialization remain to be defined. While several animal models to study re-endothelialization after arterial denudation are available, few are performed in the mouse because of surgical limitations. This undermines the opportunity to exploit transgenic mouse lines and investigate the contribution of specific genes to the process of re-endothelialization. Here, we present a step-by-step protocol for creating a highly reproducible murine model of arterial denudation injury in the infrarenal abdominal aorta using external vascular clamping. Immunocytochemical staining of injured aortas for fibrinogen and &#946;-catenin demonstrate the exposure of a pro-thrombotic surface and the border of intact endothelium, respectively. The method presented here has the advantages of speed, excellent overall survival rate, and relative technical ease, creating a uniquely practical tool for imposing arterial denudation injury in transgenic mouse models. Using this method, investigators may elucidate the mechanisms of re-endothelialization under normal or pathological conditions.

Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms of re-endothelialization following arterial denudation injury is of paramount importance in preventing thrombosis and restenosis of arteries. Here we describe a protocol for reproducible arterial denudation injury of the infrarenal abdominal aorta. The procedure was developed to investigate the underlying mechanisms that regulate endothelial regeneration using mouse models.

Reprodutível Arterial Desnudamento Lesão por aorta abdominal infrarrenal fixação num modelo murino

Percutaneous vascular interventions uniformly result in arterial denudation injuries that subsequently lead to thrombosis and restenosis. These ...

A Drosophila In Vivo Injury Model for Studying Neuroregeneration in the Peripheral and Central Nervous System

The regrowth capacity of damaged neurons governs neuroregeneration and functional recovery after nervous system trauma. Over the past few decades, various intrinsic and extrinsic inhibitory factors involved in the restriction of axon regeneration have been identified. However, simply removing these inhibitory cues is insufficient for successful regeneration, indicating the existence of additional regulatory machinery. Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, shares evolutionarily conserved genes and signaling pathways with vertebrates, including humans. Combining the powerful genetic toolbox of flies with two-photon laser axotomy/dendriotomy, we describe here the Drosophila sensory neuron &#8211; dendritic arborization (da) neuron injury model as a platform for systematically screening for novel regeneration regulators. Briefly, this paradigm includes a) the preparation of larvae, b) lesion induction to dendrite(s) or axon(s) using a two-photon laser, c) live confocal imaging post-injury and d) data analysis. Our model enables highly reproducible injury of single labeled neurons, axons, and dendrites of well-defined neuronal subtypes, in both the peripheral and central nervous system.

A Drosophila In Vivo Injury Model for Studying Neuroregeneration in the Peripheral and Central Nervous System

Here, we present a protocol using the Drosophila sensory neuron - dendritic arborization (da) neuron injury model, which combines in vivo live imaging, two-photon laser axotomy/dendriotomy, and the powerful fly genetic toolbox, as a platform for screening potential promoters and inhibitors of neuroregeneration.

Um modelo de lesão in vivo em Drosophila para estudar a neuroregeneração do sistema nervoso periférico e central

The regrowth capacity of damaged neurons governs neuroregeneration and functional recovery after nervous system trauma. Over the past few decades, various ...

Inducing Acute Lung Injury in Mice by Direct Intratracheal Lipopolysaccharide Instillation

Airway administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a common way to study pulmonary inflammation and acute lung injury (ALI) in small animal models. Various approaches have been described, such as the inhalation of aerosolized LPS as well as nasal or intratracheal instillation. The presented protocol describes a detailed step-by-step procedure to induce ALI in mice by direct intratracheal LPS instillation and perform FACS analysis of blood samples, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, and lung tissue. After intraperitoneal sedation, the trachea is exposed and LPS is administered via a 22 G venous catheter. A robust and reproducible inflammatory reaction with leukocyte invasion, upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines, and disruption of the alveolo-capillary barrier is induced within hours to days, depending on the LPS dosage used. Collection of blood samples, BAL fluid, and lung harvesting, as well as the processing for FACS analysis, are described in detail in the protocol. Although the use of the sterile LPS is not suitable to study pharmacologic interventions in infectious diseases, the described approach offers minimal invasiveness, simple handling, and good reproducibility to answer mechanistic immunological questions. Furthermore, dose titration as well as the use of alternative LPS preparations or mouse strains allow modulation of the clinical effects, which can exhibit different degrees of ALI severity or early vs. late onset of disease symptoms.

Presented here is a step-by-step procedure to induce acute lung injury in mice by direct intratracheal lipopolysaccharide instillation and to perform FACS analysis of blood samples, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and lung tissue. Minimal invasiveness, simple handling, good reproducibility, and titration of disease severity are advantages of this approach.

Induzindo lesão pulmonar aguda em camundongos por instilação de lipopolissacárido intratraqueal direto

Airway administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a common way to study pulmonary inflammation and acute lung injury (ALI) in small animal models. ...