이 연구는 감사 박사 교육 교부금을 통해 투자 공학 및 물리 과학 연구위원회 (EPSRC)의 지원으로 수행된다. 오픈 액세스 문서 처리 비용 (장갑차)은 영국 연구위원회 (R​​CUK)에 의해 투자되었다. 모든 데이터는 용지의 결과 섹션 전체에 설치되어있다. 대표 결과는 이전에 저자 (42)에 의해 발표되었다. 우리는 세포의 전기적 성능을 특징 짓는 그의 도움을 엑서 터 대학에서 박사 Senthilarasu 선데 람에게 감사의 말씀을 전합니다.

1. 잉크 배합 참고 : 잉크 제제는 종종 제조업체의 높은 지키고 비밀을 유지됩니다. 성공적인 공식 균형 분사 기능적인 성능과 함께 형성, 습윤 및 건조 동작을 놓습니다. 보통 기능성 물질이 용매에 분산되고 적어도 하나의 다른 구성 요소들을 만들기 위해 jettable. 이 섹션은 잉크젯 인쇄에서 사용하기위한 이산화 티탄 잉크의 개발 사항. 잉크의 작은 배치의 방법에 의해 제조 하였다. 주의 : 잉크 제조는 눈 보호 고글과 라텍스 장갑을 착용하는 동안, 흄 후드, 적절하게 배출 지역, 예를 들면 수행해야합니다. <ol><li> 약 4의 pH를 생성하기 위하여, 염산 (HCL)을 0.1㎜의 수용액을 준비한다. </li><li> (디메틸 포름 아미드 (DMF) 등), 물보다 비점이 낮은 표면 장력과 호환 가능한 용매 8g을 산 용액 32 g을 넣고. 공동 SOLV의 추가건조제 ENT 작용은 액적 (21)의 표면에 나노 입자의 균일 한 배치로 이어지는 잉크 증발 잉크 방울 내에서 순환 흐름을 유도한다. </li><li> 첨가제 (프로필렌 글리콜 및 물에 테트라 메틸 -5- 데신 -4,7- 디올 45 % 활성 용액) 1.5 g 분산을 추가한다. </li><li> 노즐에서 건조를 방지하기위한 습윤제로서, 에틸렌 글리콜 10 g을 넣고. </li><li> 현상에서 공기 방울을 방지하기 위해 잉크 소포제 (, 메 톡시에 아세틸렌 계 디올의 20 % 활성 용액) 0.5 g을 추가한다. </li><li> 밀폐 용기에 잉크의 분취 량을 고려하여 간단한 흔들림 테스트를 수행하고 60 초 동안 손으로 흔들어. 모든 거품이 관찰되는 경우 잉크에 소포제의 또 다른 0.5 g을 추가합니다. </li><li> RT에서 균질성을 확인하기 위해 자기 교반 막대를 사용하여 8 시간 동안 용액을 혼합한다. </li><li> 이산화 티탄 1.5 g 추가 (이산화 티탄)가 21 nm 인 일차 입자 크기와 표면적 나노 입자35-65m 2 / g. </li><li> 60 Hz의 주파수에서 15 분 동안 초음파 프로브를 사용하여 혼합물을 초음파 처리. </li><li> 들이 노즐 개구를 통해 용이하게 유동 할 수 있도록, 제조자의 프로토콜에 따라 동적 광산란 (DLS)으로 적절한 측정 기법을 사용하여 입자 크기를 측정한다. 동일한 조건에서 측정 (예., 동일한 용매의 pH, 분산제 농도) 잉크 내에 응집체의 형성에 영향을 미칠 수있는 각각의 구성 요소로서 상기 잉크에 사용되는 확인. 성공적인 분출 유체 내의 입자는 노즐 개구보다 100 배 작아야한다. </li><li> 잉크젯 인쇄는 2 내지 20 센티 포이즈 (cP 인)의 저점도 잉크를 필요로 프린트 헤드의 신뢰성 분사를 위해, 제조자의 프로토콜에 따라 이러한 회전 점도계로 적절한 측정 기술을 사용하여 잉크의 점도를 측정한다. additi를 통해 점도를 증가중합체 물질 또는 셀룰로오스 계 재료 일; 그러나이 인쇄 된 필름 (22) 내에서 염료 사이트를 무료로 증착 후 제거 될 필요가있다. </li><li> 신뢰성 분사를 위해, 제조자의 프로토콜에 따라 이러한 장력 등의 적당한 측정 기술을 이용하여, 잉크의 표면 장력을 측정한다. 잉크젯 프린터를위한 유체 제형 jettable 지침 안정적인 인쇄가 가능하도록 28, 33 MN / m 사이의 표면 장력을 제안한다. </li></ol> 2. 잉크젯 인쇄 <ol><li> 인쇄에 앞서, (수성 염기에서, 음이온 및 비 이온 계면 활성제의 혼합물을 제, 알칼리 비 포스페이트 세제 빌더 및 봉쇄 안정제) 세제 세척의 2 중량 % 용액에 유리 기판을 침지에 탈 이온수. 이들이 오염 세제 세정의 흔적을 제거하기 위해 세정 용액으로부터 제거 즉시 탈 이온수로 철저히 씻어 유리. </l난&gt; <li> 같은 제조사의 프로토콜에 따라 적절한 장력으로 측정 기술을 이용하여 기판의 표면 에너지를 측정한다. / m 15 MN - 밀착성 들어, 기판의 표면 에너지는 10 개 이상으로 유체의 표면 장력을 초과하지 않아야한다. 적합하지 않은 경우 코로나 처리 (23), 플라즈마 처리, 화학적 에칭 (24) (25) 방법을 이용하여 기판의 표면 에너지를 수정한다. </li><li> 제조 업체의 프로토콜에 따라 프린터에 기판을로드합니다. </li><li> 저장조 노즐 내의 공기 또는 세정 용액을 대체하는 헤드 측에 위치 된 포트를 통해 잉크를 프린트 헤드를 세척. </li><li> 프린터에 프린트 헤드를 삽입합니다. 헤드 성격 보드와 헤드를 연결합니다. </li><li> 단지 노즐을 방해 할 수있는 큰 입자 집계를 제거하기 위해 카트리지에로드하기 전에 올바른 크기의 필터를 통해 잉크를 필터링합니다. 그만큼프린트 헤드는 본 연구에 사용 된 40 ㎛의 직경을 갖는 노즐을 갖는 (예를 들어, 코니카 KM512입니다.); 따라서 잉크는 직경 400 개 이상의 나노로 입자를 포함 할 수 없습니다. 임의의 커다란 입자를 제거하기 위해 1.2 ㎛의 폴리 불화 비닐 리덴 (PVDF) 필터 뒤에이 5㎛를 통해 현탁액을 통과한다. </li><li> 상기 프린트 헤드에 잉크를 공급하는 프린트 헤드 위에있는 150 ㎖ 주사기로 잉크를로드. 주사기의 상단에 밀폐 캡을 부착하고 진공 펌프의 전원을 켭니다. </li><li> 진공 펌프에 위치한 &#39;퍼지&#39;버튼을 눌러 노즐을 통해 잉크를 제거. </li><li> 지리 정보 시스템 (GIS) 프린트 서버를 통해 셋업 파형 인쇄 파라미터. 그러나,이 잉크가 초당 0.3 미터의 인쇄 속도가 최적의 코팅을 제공하는 것으로 밝혀졌다 프린터가 초당 1.5 미터의 속도까지 인쇄 할 수 있습니다 </li><li> 오픈 GIS 사용자 인터페이스 소프트웨어는 소망의 패턴을로드. </li><li> 홍보제조 업체의 프로토콜에 따라로드 된 카트리지에서 int로. </li><li> 플래 튼으로부터 상기 기판을 제거하고 추가의 30 분 중, 핫 플레이트 나 오븐에서 250 ºC 다음 30 분 동안 150 ºC에서 인쇄 된 필름을 가열한다. </li></ol> 인쇄 된 필름 3. 분석 <ol><li> 인쇄 된 필름의 다공도를 분석하는 표면 형태를 분석하는 낮은 배율 (100X)에서 인쇄 된 필름의 표면 및 고배율 (35,000X) 살펴 광학 현미경 또는 주 사형 전자 현미경 (SEM)을 사용한다. 이미지가없는 균열 및 좋은 다공성과 균일 한 커버리지를 보여 있는지 확인합니다. SEM 동작에 대한 자세한 정보는 아래의 참고 문헌 26, 27에서 볼 수있다. </li><li> 같은 제조사의 프로토콜에 따라 표면 프로파일과 같은 적절한 측정 기술을 사용하여 인쇄 층의 막 두께를 측정한다. 산화 티타늄 2 층 위트의 두께 및 다공성힌으로 DSSC 따라서 상기 셀 (18)의 전체 전원 변환 효율에 영향을 나노 입자의 표면에 흡수 될 수있는 염료의 양에 영향을 미친다. 따라서 평가하는 중요한 매개 변수입니다. 인쇄 된 필름의 두께를 측정하는 표면 프로파일 (1 나노 미터의 정밀성)을 사용한다. </li><li> 이러한 많은 가시광 인쇄 된 필름을 통해 전송하는 방법을 결정하기 위해, 자외선 - 가시 광선 (UV-VIS) 분광 광도계로 측정 적절한 기술을 사용하여, 필름의 투과율을 측정한다. 제조 업체의 프로토콜을 사용합니다. </li></ol> 4. 셀 만들기 <ol><li> 8 시간 동안 자기 교반기를 사용하여 유리 비이커에 20 ㎖의 에탄올 및 루테늄 색소 2 mg을 혼합하여 염료 용액을 제조. </li><li> 색소는 이산화 티탄 입자의 표면에 흡수 할 수 있도록 24 시간 동안 실온에서 용액 (20-25 ℃)에서 이산화 티탄이 피복 된 유리를 담근다. </li><li> 산화 티타늄 2를 제거 </티슈 페이퍼 상에 솔루션과 장소에서 서브&gt; 코팅 유리 (오염을 방지하기 위해 위쪽으로 향 산화 티타늄 2) 초과 염료 용액을 흡수합니다. </li><li> 산화 티타늄이 코팅 주위에 전도성 유리 위에 미리 잘라 60 μm의 두께 열가소성 밀봉 스페이서를 놓습니다. </li><li> 양극과 음극의 활성 측면이 서로 대향되도록 프리 컷 60 μm의 두께의 열가소성 밀봉 스페이서의 상부에 백금 코팅 된 대향 전극을 배치했다. 전기 접점은 전도성 유리로 제조 될 수 있도록 유리의 두 개의 조각 사이에 충분한 오버랩을 허용한다. 이 전해질 나중에 작성 수 있도록 중앙에 사전 뚫고 구멍이 있어야합니다. </li><li> 밀봉 용 스페이서의 영역에 핀셋을 이용하여 110 ℃의 온도로 핫 플레이트상에서 가열하여 적용 저압. 30 초 후 전극을 함께 밀봉해야한다. </li><li> 요오드 / 요오드화 트리 전기로 두 전극 사이의 갭을 ​​채우기주사기를 사용하여 백금을 코팅 유리에 미리 드릴 된 구멍에 주입하여 50 mm의 농도로 아세토 니트릴 LYTE. </li></ol>

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Res. 28, 480-487 (2013).</li><li>Li, J., Lemme, M. C., &#246;stling, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet+Printing+of+2D+Layered+Materials.">Inkjet Printing of 2D Layered Materials.</a> ChemPhysChem. 15, 3427-3434 (2014).</li><li>Rudyak, V. Y., Krasnolutskii, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dependence+of+the+viscosity+of+nanofluids+on+nanoparticle+size+and+material.">Dependence of the viscosity of nanofluids on nanoparticle size and material.</a> Phys. Lett. A. 378, 1845-1849 (2014).</li><li>Dispoto, G., Moroney, N., Hanson, E., Meyer, J. D., Allen, R. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Color Desktop Printer Technology Optical Science and Engineering. , 111-155 (2006).</li><li>Hsien-Hsueh, L., Kan-Sen, C., Kuo-Cheng, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet+printing+of+nanosized+silver+colloids.">Inkjet printing of nanosized silver colloids.</a> Nanotechnology. 16, 2436 (2005).</li><li>Singh, M., Haverinen, H. M., Dhagat, P., Jabbour, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet+Printing:+Inkjet+Printing-Process+and+Its+Applications.">Inkjet Printing: Inkjet Printing-Process and Its Applications.</a> Adv. Mater. 22, 673-685 (2010).</li><li>St&#252;we, D., Mager, D., Biro, D., Korvink, J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet+Technology+for+Crystalline+Silicon+Photovoltaics.">Inkjet Technology for Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaics.</a> Adv. Mater. 27, 599-626 (2015).</li><li>Perelaer, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Roll-to-Roll+Compatible+Sintering+of+Inkjet+Printed+Features+by+Photonic+and+Microwave+Exposure:+From+Non-Conductive+Ink+to+40%+Bulk+Silver+Conductivity+in+Less+Than+15+Seconds.">Roll-to-Roll Compatible Sintering of Inkjet Printed Features by Photonic and Microwave Exposure: From Non-Conductive Ink to 40% Bulk Silver Conductivity in Less Than 15 Seconds.</a> Adv. Mater. 24, 2620-2625 (2012).</li><li>Hwang, M. -. s., Jeong, B. -. y., Moon, J., Chun, S. -. K., Kim, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet-printing+of+indium+tin+oxide+(ITO)+films+for+transparent+conducting+electrodes.">Inkjet-printing of indium tin oxide (ITO) films for transparent conducting electrodes.</a> Mat. Sci. Eng. B. 176, 1128-1131 (2011).</li><li>Hara, K., Arakawa, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. , 663-700 (2003).</li><li>Ryu, J., Wakida, T., Takagishi, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+Corona+Discharge+on+the+Surface+of+Wool+and+Its+Application+to+Printing.">Effect of Corona Discharge on the Surface of Wool and Its Application to Printing.</a> Text. Res. J. 61, 595-601 (1991).</li><li>Yang, L., Chen, J., Guo, Y., Zhang, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surface+modification+of+a+biomedical+polyethylene+terephthalate+(PET)+by+air+plasma.">Surface modification of a biomedical polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by air plasma.</a> Appl. Surf. Sci. 255, 4446-4451 (2009).</li><li>Qian, B., Shen, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+of+Superhydrophobic+Surfaces+by+Dislocation-Selective+Chemical+Etching+on+Aluminum,+Copper,+and+Zinc+Substrates.">Fabrication of Superhydrophobic Surfaces by Dislocation-Selective Chemical Etching on Aluminum, Copper, and Zinc Substrates.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 21, 9007-9009 (2005).</li><li>Echlin, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of Sample Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis. , (2011).</li><li>Flegler, S. L., Heckman, J. W., Klomparens, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy: An Introduction. , (1993).</li><li>O'Donnell, M. Z. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+To+Minimize+Measurement+Errors+In+Solar+Cell+Testing.">How To Minimize Measurement Errors In Solar Cell Testing.</a> Solar Industry Magazine. , (2011).</li><li>Gr&#228;tzel, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dye-sensitized+solar+cells.">Dye-sensitized solar cells.</a> J. Photochem. Photobiol. C: Photochem. Rev. 4, 145-153 (2003).</li><li>Green, M. A., Emery, K., Hishikawa, Y., Warta, W., Dunlop, E. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Solar+cell+efficiency+tables+(version+46).">Solar cell efficiency tables (version 46).</a> Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 23, 805-812 (2015).</li><li>Shockley, W., Queisser, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Detailed+Balance+Limit+of+Efficiency+of+p-n+Junction+Solar+Cells.">Detailed Balance Limit of Efficiency of p-n Junction Solar Cells.</a> J. Appl. Phys. 32, 510-519 (1961).</li><li>Snaith, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Estimating+the+Maximum+Attainable+Efficiency+in+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Estimating the Maximum Attainable Efficiency in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Adv. Funct. Mater. 20, 13-19 (2010).</li><li>Jeng, M. -. J., Wung, Y. -. L., Chang, L. -. B., Chow, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Particle+Size+Effects+of+TiO2+Layers+on+the+Solar+Efficiency+of+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Particle Size Effects of TiO2 Layers on the Solar Efficiency of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Int. J. Photoenergy. 2013, 9 (2013).</li><li>Song-Yuan, D., Kong-Jia, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimum+Nanoporous+TiO2+Film+and+Its+Application+to+Dye-sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Optimum Nanoporous TiO2 Film and Its Application to Dye-sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Chin. Phys. Lett. 20, 953-955 (2002).</li><li>Baglio, V., Girolamo, M., Antonucci, V., Aric&#242;, A. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+TiO2+Film+Thickness+on+the+Electrochemical+Behaviour+of+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells.">Influence of TiO2 Film Thickness on the Electrochemical Behaviour of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.</a> Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 6, 3375-3384 (2011).</li><li>Ito, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-Efficiency+Organic-Dye-+Sensitized+Solar+Cells+Controlled+by+Nanocrystalline-TiO2+Electrode+Thickness.">High-Efficiency Organic-Dye- Sensitized Solar Cells Controlled by Nanocrystalline-TiO2 Electrode Thickness.</a> Adv. Mater. 18, 1202-1205 (2006).</li><li>Ito, S., Kalyanasundaram, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Dye sensitized solar cells. , 251-266 (2010).</li><li>Tsai, J., Hsu, W., Wu, T., Meen, T., Chong, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+compressed+TiO2+nanoparticle+thin+film+thickness+on+the+performance+of+dye-sensitized+solar+cells.">Effect of compressed TiO2 nanoparticle thin film thickness on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells.</a> Nanoscale Res Lett. 8, 1-6 (2013).</li><li>Shin, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+TiO2+thickness+effect+on+characteristic+of+a+dye-sensitized+solar+cell+by+using+electrochemical+impedance+spectroscopy.">Analysis of TiO2 thickness effect on characteristic of a dye-sensitized solar cell by using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.</a> Curr. Appl. Phys. 10, 422-424 (2010).</li><li>Brus, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electronic+wave+functions+in+semiconductor+clusters:+experiment+and+theory.">Electronic wave functions in semiconductor clusters: experiment and theory.</a> J. Phys. Chem. 90, 2555-2560 (1986).</li><li>Jung, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=All-Inkjet-Printed,+All-Air-Processed+Solar+Cells.">All-Inkjet-Printed, All-Air-Processed Solar Cells.</a> Adv Energy Mater. 4, 1-9 (2014).</li><li>Cherrington, R., Hughes, D. J., Senthilarasu, S., Goodship, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inkjet-Printed+TiO2+Nanoparticles+from+Aqueous+Solutions+for+Dye-Sensitized+Solar+Cells+(DSSCs).">Inkjet-Printed TiO2 Nanoparticles from Aqueous Solutions for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs).</a> Energy Technology. 3, (2015).</li></ol>

저자는 공개 아무것도 없어.

A particular challenge when formulating inks is the natural tendency for nanoparticles to cluster together. These are known as either aggregates or agglomerates, depending on the nature and strength of the bonds between the particles. The energy of simply stirring particles into water or binder is not great enough to overcome the particle attractive forces preventing the breakup of agglomerates. Ball milling, high shear mixing or ultrasonication are commonly used to break up agglomerated nanoparticles. Various anionic, nonionic, and cationic surfactants and polymers can also be used to provide long-term stabilization. By minimizing the number of these agglomerates, a good quality suspension can be achieved. The fluids should be filtered through the correct size filter just before loading into the cartridge to remove large particle aggregates which can clog the nozzles.
The particle size within the TiO2 layer also has been shown to influence the overall efficiency of DSSCs. The photocatalytic activity of titanium dioxide increases as particle sizes decrease due to an increase in the specific surface area40. A study comparing the efficiency of DSSCs incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles with 5 different sizes ranging from 400 nm to 14 nm and found that those with smaller particle sizes resulted in better electrical conversion efficiencies33.
Inkjet printing is a non-contact deposition technique capable of multi-pass printing. This presents the unique opportunity to rapidly fabricate multilayer devices in one operation on a wide range of substrates with minimal material waste. It also potentially provides a way to integrate other components (such as batteries) into the system through the printing of functional materials41. Although the representative results shown for the inkjet printed devices do not perform as well as the doctor-bladed devices, it demonstrates the potential for the deposition technique. With further ink optimization, it could perform on a comparable level to currently used methods and may provide further scope for cost-effective, environmentally friendly integration of photovoltaic cells onto a wide range of substrates. We hope to improve the efficiency of the inkjet printed devices by increasing the thickness of the printed layer closer to that of the doctor-bladed TiO2 and will continue to look at the printing of other materials and layers within DSSCs.

Conventional silicon solar cells are made from highly pure materials that require expensive and high-energy consuming specialist equipment. These conventional silicon cells incorporate a p-n junction that requires highly pure materials at the interface to generate electron-hole pairs. Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have a fundamentally different working principle, where charge generation takes place at the materials interface. This means that processing under vacuum, ultrahigh temperatures or the use of clean room facilities are not required1. Therefore they are seen as a potentially low cost alternative; however up-scaling from small laboratory test cells into large prototypes for industrial manufacturing involves overcoming several issues including the rapid patterning of substrates.
Electronics manufacturing generally requires a degree of patterning, which is either achieved by masking or selective removal of the material after deposition. These steps can be removed through the use of "additive" digital printing techniques such as inkjet printing or spray coating. Digital printing is a promising method for direct deposition of functional materials for electronic devices. The technique can be described as printing from a digital-based pattern directly to a variety of substrates2. They are non-contact methods, which will not damage or contaminate the substrate surface and deposit material only where it is required, resulting in little or no wastage3. These techniques have been highlighted as being ideally suited to being scaled up to high-volume production3. Since digital printing methods use liquid forms of materials dispersed in a solvent, it is critical to understand the deposition of ink to determine the applications of the technique. 
DSSCs have three main components: a porous layer of wide bandgap metal oxide material, a dye that covers the particles, and a "charge transporter" that infiltrates the pores within the porous layer of semiconductor. These are sandwiched in between a transparent conductive electrode and a counter electrode4. The counter electrode is coated with a catalytic material for electron transfer, which in most cases is platinum. Under illumination, the dye molecules will absorb energy in the form of photons. The dye molecules then become excited and charge separation occurs at the interface of the titanium dioxide and the dye. Electrons are ejected into the adjacent metal oxide particles and 'holes' are left behind on the dye molecule. The injected electrons travel through the metal oxide particles and reach the transparent conductive electrode. When a load is connected, the electrons move to the counter electrode through the external circuit and are finally reunited with their counter charges through the redox couple present in the electrolyte1. The nano-structured metal oxide layer within DSSCs plays a critical role in the overall performance of the cell, with material choice, processing methods and nature of the structure all having influencing factors5-10. One of the most important requirements for the photoanode is that it needs to have an extremely large surface area. This is achieved through the deposition of nanoparticle materials, commonly TiO21,11. This has been fabricated by countless different processes, however wet coating techniques such as screen-printing and doctor-blading, are still the most popular approach9,12,13. 
Inkjet technology is a potential manufacturing route for dye-sensitized solar cells. It uses the movement of a piezoelectric crystal to expel a fixed quantity of liquid through a nozzle onto the desired substrate. This deposition method allows material to be jetted very accurately but also at high frequency with a potentially high print speed or deposition rate. Inkjet technology is sensitive to the viscosity of the ink used and this was previously a barrier to the development of functional inks. Recent work in the development of solvents suitable for ink formulation has helped to alleviate this problem, and printing of electronic components using 2D layered materials such as graphene has been demonstrated14. The viscosity of nanoparticle suspensions such as these has been found to depend on the nanoparticle size and concentration15. High concentrations of nanoparticles result in higher viscosities, therefore particle loadings are usually around 10 wt% to avoid nozzle blockages16, however higher concentrations have been achieved17.
The key advantages of inkjet technology include it being non-contact, additive patterning and maskless18. The latter two attributes are due to the ability to position many nozzles together on one or more printheads, with each nozzle separately addressable by the control software. This allows highly complex, multi-layered patterns to be created very rapidly as the printheads move across the substrate. No masking between materials or layers is required as the position of each ink drop is accurately controlled, in some systems to an accuracy of ~1.5 &#181;m19. One of the key benefits is that inkjet technology is mature, with significant development carried out in the latter half of the twentieth century. The result is that the inkjet is a very scalable technology, with roll-to-roll systems capable of printing accurately onto flexible substrates at rates of many meters per second. Traditionally this was used for high volume production, e.g., newspapers. However, developments in technology have allowed the inkjet to be used in roll-to-roll production of electronic circuits using nanoparticulate silver inks20. The inkjet is therefore an attractive process for the potential production of dye-sensitized solar cells by digital printing.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Titanium dioxide</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>718467</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized water&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Supplied from a filter in the laboratory</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid, 2M(2N)&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>J/4250/17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylformamide (DMF)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>D/3840/08</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>VWR Chemicals</td>
			<td>20721.33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dispersing additive&#160;</td>
			<td>Air Products</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Defoaming agent</td>
			<td>Air Products</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylene glycol</td>
			<td>Fluka</td>
			<td>107-21-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) syringe filter</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cleaning detergent&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10335650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) glass, 8 &#937;/sq</td>
			<td>Pilkington</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ruthenizer dye</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>21613</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pre-cut 60 &#181;m thick thermoplastic sealing film&#160;</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>74301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mM iodide/tri-iodide electrolyte&#160; in acetonitrile</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>31111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum coated FTO glass&#160;</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>74201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vac&#39;n&#39;Fill Syringe</td>
			<td>Solaronix</td>
			<td>65209</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyimide tape (6.35 mm)</td>
			<td>Onecall Farnell</td>
			<td>1676087</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

digital printing of titanium dioxide for dye sensitized solar cells

Silicon solar cell manufacturing is an expensive and high energy consuming process. In contrast, dye sensitized solar cell production is less environmentally damaging with lower processing temperatures presenting a viable and low cost alternative to conventional production. This paper further enhances these environmental credentials by evaluating the digital printing and therefore additive production route for these cells. This is achieved here by investigating the formation and performance of a metal oxide photoelectrode using nanoparticle sized titanium dioxide. An ink-jettable material was formulated, characterized and printed with a piezoelectric inkjet head to produce a 2.6 &#181;m thick layer. The resultant printed layer was fabricated into a functioning cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and a power conversion efficiency of 3.5%. The binder-free formulation resulted in a reduced processing temperature of 250 &#176;C, compatible with flexible polyamide substrates which are stable up to temperatures of 350 &#730;C. The authors are continuing to develop this process route by investigating inkjet printing of other layers within dye sensitized solar cells.

이산화 티탄 잉크는 설명 된 절차에 따라 공식화했다. 잉크 내에 현탁 된 입자의 크기는 동적 광산란 (DLS) 및 관찰 80 나노 미터의 평균 입자 크기를 측정 하였다. 이 연구에서의 잉크의 점도는 작은 샘플 어댑터 회전 점도계 및 스핀들 18mm 직경 측정 3 cP 인 것으로 밝혀졌다. 표면 장력은 표면 장력을 이용하여 측정 및 / m 26 MN의 평균값으로 계산 하였다. FTO 유리의 표면 에너지는 접촉각 및 표면 자유 에너지를 측정함으로써 고체 표면의 습윤성을 판정하기위한 유럽 표준 EN 828에 따라 계산 하였다. 세 가지 액체 (물, 에틸렌 글리콜 및 디 요오도 메탄)의 텐 방울 평면 시험편의 표면에 분배 하였다. 각 강하 좌우 접촉각 지표 성과 있었다에디션. 표면 장력과 결합 된 각각의 액의 평균 접촉각에서 시험편의 표면 자유 에너지를 산출한다. Fowkes 방법은 분산 상호 작용 (γd) 및 γnon - 분산 상호 작용 (γp)에서 기부금의 합계에서 총 표면 에너지 (γ)를 계산한다. 이 방법은 코팅 된 FTO 유리 26.45 MN / m의 표면 자유 에너지 결과. 인쇄가 절차에 따라 상기 5mm 사각를 제작했다. 유리에 인쇄 층의 두께는 표면 프로파일 러를 사용하여 측정 하였다. 인쇄 층의 중앙에서의 최대 두께는 2.6 μm의 수를 측정 하였다. 피복 유리의 투과율은 UV-VIS 스펙트로 미터를 이용하여 측정 하였다. 700 nm의 파장에서 60 %의 투과율은 FTO 유리에 대한 78 %와 비교하여 산화 티타늄이 인쇄 된 필름에 대해 측정 하였다. (28)를 비교하는 데 사용되는 다섯 전기적 성능 매개 변수가있다. 단락 전류 (I의 SC) 및 개방 전압 (V OC는)의 값은 전류 - 전압 (IV) 곡선으로부터 유도 될 수있다. 이 후, 충진 계수 (FF) 및 전력 변환 효율 (η)을 결정하는데 사용될 수있다. 빨리 감기는 개방 회로 전압, 단락 회로 전류 (29)의 제품의 세포의 비율이 실제 최대 전력 출력을 제공한다. 이 태양 전지의 성능을 평가하는 중요한 매개 변수이다. 낮은 FF는 개선의 여지가 나타내는 반면, 높은 FF는, 낮은 전기 손실을 의미한다. 몇몇 요인은 셀 내의 층의 품질 및 인터페이스를 포함하는 FF에 영향을 미치는 것으로 알려져있다. DSSCS는 11.9 %의 보고서의 레코드 효율성과 요오드 / 트리 요오드의 산화 환원 부부는 0.71 (30)의 요소를 작성하여 통합. 이들 모든 파라미터는 장치의 온도가 25 ℃가 된 광의 분광 방사 조도 분포가 1.5의 기단을 갖고 표준 시험 조건 하에서 측정 될 필요가 총 조사량은, 태양 전지에서 (E의 m) 100 mW의 / cm이다 측정 2. 단일 pn 접합 전지의 변환 효율에 대한 이론적 인 최대 널리 단으로 DSSC를위한 그것의 최대 효율은 920 나노 미터 (32)에서 흡수 발병 15.1 % 가까이가 있음을보고 한, 37.7 % (31)로보고되었다. 출력 전류 및 전압이 세포를 1.5의 공기 질량 분광 방사 조도 분포와 일치하는 필터가 장착 된 100 mW의 / cm 2 광원으로 조명 하였다 동안 소스 미터를 사용하여 측정 하였다. 그 결과는 셀에 비교했다아나타제 형 입자가 20 nm 내지 450 nm의 블렌드를 갖는 시판 페이스트를 이용하여 닥터 블레이드 이산화 티탄 층을 사용하여 제조. 인쇄 층은 0.25 cm 2의 영역 및 표면 프로파일 러를 사용하여 측정 된 18 μm의 평균 두께를 갖는다. 두 장치 사이의 광전 성능의 비교는도 1 및 표 1에 나타낸다. 몇몇 연구는 이산화 티탄 층의 두께으로 DSSC 내의 변환 효율의 관계를 조사 하였다. 결과는 이산화 티탄 층과 인쇄 효율의 두께를 설명 어딘가에 33-39 ㎛] 9.5 내지 20. 표 1에서보고 된 최적의 막 두께가 크게 변화한다. 이산화 티탄 인쇄, 잉크젯의 두께는 결과 이산화 티탄 닥터 블레이 딩보다 상당히 작다낮은 효율이다. 향후 연구는 잉크젯 인쇄 층의 두께를 증가시키는 잉크 조성물 내의 유기 결합제의 사용을 조사한다. <img alt="그림 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/53963/53963fig1.jpg" /> 이산화 티탄 층과 의사 블레이드 이산화 티탄 층을 인쇄 잉크젯 통합으로 DSSC를위한 잉크젯 인쇄 및 의사 칼날 이산화 티탄 층으로으로 DSSC 그림 1. 성능 곡선. 전류 밀도 / 전압 곡선. 티오 인쇄 잉크젯와 장치의 단락 전류 밀도는 2 층은 전반적으로 낮은 변환 효율의 결과로 의사 블레이드 이산화 티탄 층 장치보다 훨씬 낮습니다. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53963/53963fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">이 그림의 더 큰 버전을 보려면 여기를 클릭하십시오.</a> <table><tbody><tr><tdROWSPAN = &quot;3&quot;&gt; </td><td> 단락 전류 </td><td> 개방 회로 전압 </td><td rowspan="3"> 요소 채우기 </td><td> 능률 </td><td> 두께 </td></tr><tr><td> (mA / cm 2) </td><td> (MV) </td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td> (%) </td><td> (μm의) </td></tr><tr><td> 잉크젯 인쇄 </td><td> 9.42 </td><td> (760) </td><td> 0.49 </td><td> 3.5 </td><td> 2.6 </td></tr><tr><td> 닥터 블레이 딩 </td><td> (11) </td><td> 756 </td><td> 0.58 </td><td> 4.8 </td><td> (18) </td></tr></tbody></table> 도 1이 표는 특정 조명에서 효율 (η)을 결정 개방 회로 전압 (V OC는), 단락 전류 (I의 SC)을 포함하는 태양 전지의 주요 파라미터를 비교의 셀 표 1. 중요한 성능 특성 상태가되게됩니다. 매개 변수 오닥터 - 블레이드 이산화 티탄 층을 사용하여 제조 FA 전지는 비교를 위해 포함되었다. 두 장치의 충전 인자 (FF)은 일반적으로 세포 내에서 높은 내부 저항에 기인하는 매우 낮다.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells at JoVE.com

Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells

This paper investigates the suitability of inkjet printing for the manufacturing of dye-sensitized solar cells. A binder-free TiO2 nanoparticle ink was formulated and printed onto a FTO glass substrate. The printed layer was fabricated into a cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and an efficiency of 3.5%.

염료 감응 형 태양 전지에 대한 이산화 티타늄의 디지털 인쇄

Silicon solar cell manufacturing is an expensive and high energy consuming process. In contrast, dye sensitized solar cell production is less ...

digital-printing-of-titanium-dioxide-for-dye-sensitized-solar-cells

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JoVE Journal

Engineering

12.7K 조회수.  University of Warwick. This paper investigates the suitability of inkjet printing for the manufacturing of dye-sensitized solar cells. A binder-free TiO2 nanoparticle ink was formulated and printed onto a FTO glass substrate. The printed layer was fabricated into a cell with an active area of 0.25 cm2 and an efficiency of 3.5%.

비디오: Digital Printing of Titanium Dioxide for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells

Micro 3D Printing Using a Digital Projector and its Application in the Study of Soft Materials Mechanics

Buckling is a classical topic in mechanics. While buckling has long been studied as one of the major structural failure modes1, it has recently drawn new attention as a unique mechanism for pattern transformation. Nature is full of such examples where a wealth of exotic patterns are formed through mechanical instability2-5. Inspired by this elegant mechanism, many studies have demonstrated creation and transformation of patterns using soft materials such as elastomers and hydrogels6-11. Swelling gels are of particular interest because they can spontaneously trigger mechanical instability to create various patterns without the need of external force6-10. Recently, we have reported demonstration of full control over buckling pattern of micro-scaled tubular gels using projection micro-stereolithography (P&mu;SL), a three-dimensional (3D) manufacturing technology capable of rapidly converting computer generated 3D models into physical objects at high resolution12,13. Here we present a simple method to build up a simplified P&mu;SL system using a commercially available digital data projector to study swelling-induced buckling instability for controlled pattern transformation.
A simple desktop 3D printer is built using an off-the-shelf digital data projector and simple optical components such as a convex lens and a mirror14. Cross-sectional images extracted from a 3D solid model is projected on the photosensitive resin surface in sequence, polymerizing liquid resin into a desired 3D solid structure in a layer-by-layer fashion. Even with this simple configuration and easy process, arbitrary 3D objects can be readily fabricated with sub-100 &mu;m resolution.
This desktop 3D printer holds potential in the study of soft material mechanics by offering a great opportunity to explore various 3D geometries. We use this system to fabricate tubular shaped hydrogel structure with different dimensions. Fixed on the bottom to the substrate, the tubular gel develops inhomogeneous stress during swelling, which gives rise to buckling instability. Various wavy patterns appear along the circumference of the tube when the gel structures undergo buckling. Experiment shows that circumferential buckling of desired mode can be created in a controlled manner. Pattern transformation of three-dimensionally structured tubular gels has significant implication not only in mechanics and material science, but also in many other emerging fields such as tunable matamaterials.

We demonstrate controlled pattern transformation of swelling gel tubes by elastic instability. A simple projection micro stereo-lithography setup is built using an off-the-shelf digital data projector to fabricate three-dimensional polymeric structures in a layer-by-layer fashion. Swelling hydrogel tubes under mechanical constraint display various circumferential buckling modes depending on dimension.

소프트 재료 역학의 연구에서 디지털 프로젝터와 응용 프로그램을 사용하여 마이크로 3D 인쇄

Buckling is a classical topic in mechanics. While buckling has long been studied as one of the major structural failure modes1, it has recently drawn new ...

연구

공학

Integrating a Triplet-triplet Annihilation Up-conversion System to Enhance Dye-sensitized Solar Cell Response to Sub-bandgap Light

The poor response of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) to red and infrared light is a significant impediment to the realization of higher photocurrents and hence higher efficiencies. Photon up-conversion by way of triplet-triplet annihilation (TTA-UC) is an attractive technique for using these otherwise wasted low energy photons to produce photocurrent, while not interfering with the photoanodic performance in a deleterious manner. Further to this, TTA-UC has a number of features, distinct from other reported photon up-conversion technologies, which renders it particularly suitable for coupling with DSC technology. In this work, a proven high performance TTA-UC system, comprising a palladium porphyrin sensitizer and rubrene emitter, is combined with a high performance DSC (utilizing the organic dye D149) in an integrated device. The device shows an enhanced response to sub-bandgap light over the absorption range of the TTA-UC sub-unit resulting in the highest figure of merit for up-conversion assisted DSC performance to date.

An integrated device, incorporating a dye-sensitized solar cell and triplet-triplet annihilation up-conversion unit was produced, affording enhanced light harvesting, from a wider section of the solar spectrum. Under modest irradiation levels a significantly enhanced response to low energy photons was demonstrated, yielding a record figure of merit for dye-sensitized solar cells.

삼중 항 - 삼중 종말 최대 변환 시스템을 통합하면 하위 밴드 갭 빛에 염료 감응 형 태양 전지의 응답을 향상시키기 위해

The poor response of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) to red and infrared light is a significant impediment to the realization of higher photocurrents ...

Ambient Method for the Production of an Ionically Gated Carbon Nanotube Common Cathode in Tandem Organic Solar Cells

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two solution-processed polymeric cells connected in parallel by a transparent carbon nanotubes (CNT) interlayer. This structure includes improvements in fabrication techniques for tandem OPV devices. First the need for ambient-processed cathodes is considered. The CNT anode in the tandem device is tuned via ionic gating to become a common cathode. Ionic gating employs electric double layer charging to lower the work function of the CNT electrode. Secondly, the difficulty of sequentially stacking tandem layers by solution-processing is addressed. The devices are fabricated via solution and dry-lamination in ambient conditions with parallel processing steps. The method of fabricating the individual polymeric cells, the steps needed to laminate them together with a common CNT cathode, and then provide some representative results are described. These results demonstrate ionic gating of the CNT electrode to create a common cathode and addition of current and efficiency as a result of the lamination procedure.

A method of fabricating, in ambient conditions, organic photovoltaic tandem devices in a parallel configuration is presented. These devices feature an air-processed, semi-transparent, carbon nanotube common cathode.

탠덤 유기 태양 전지의 이온 정문 탄소 나노 튜브의 공통 음극의 생산을 위해 주위 방법

A method of fabricating organic photovoltaic (OPV) tandems that requires no vacuum processing is presented. These devices are comprised of two ...

Integration of Light Trapping Silver Nanostructures in Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon Solar Cells by Transfer Printing

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly known as plasmonic effects, play an important role. Research in this field has, however, been impeded owing to the difficulty of fabricating devices containing the desired functional metal nanostructures. In order to provide a viable strategy to this issue, we herein show a transfer printing-based approach that allows the quick and low-cost integration of designed metal nanostructures with a variety of device architectures, including solar cells. Nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamps were fabricated from a commercially available nanohole plastic film as a master mold. On this nanopatterned PDMS stamps, Ag films were deposited, which were then transfer-printed onto block copolymer (binding layer)-coated hydrogenated microcrystalline Si (&#181;c-Si:H) surface to afford ordered Ag nanodisk structures. It was confirmed that the resulting Ag nanodisk-incorporated &#181;c-Si:H solar cells show higher performances compared to a cell without the transfer-printed Ag nanodisks, thanks to plasmonic light trapping effect derived from the Ag nanodisks. Because of the simplicity and versatility, further device application would also be feasible thorough this approach.

A viable transfer printing-based methodology to introduce plasmonic metal nanostructures in solar cells is described. Using nanopillar poly(dimethylsiloxane) stamps, an Ag-based ordered nanodisk array was integrated with standard hydrogenated microcrystalline Si solar cells, which led to improved device performances due to plasmonic light trapping.

전송 인쇄하여 수소 첨가 미세 결정 실리콘 태양 전지에 빛 트래핑 실버 나노 구조의 통합

One of the potential applications of metal nanostructures is light trapping in solar cells, where unique optical properties of nanosized metals, commonly ...

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices have used devices prepared by spin coating, a process that is not amenable to large-scale fabrication. This mismatch in device fabrication makes it difficult to translate quantitative results obtained in the laboratory to the commercial level, making optimization difficult. Using a mini-slot die coater, this mismatch can be resolved by translating the commercial process to the laboratory and characterizing the structure formation in the active layer of the device in real time and in situ as films are coated onto a substrate. The evolution of the morphology was characterized under different conditions, allowing us to propose a mechanism by which the structures form and grow. This mini-slot die coater offers a simple, convenient, material efficient route by which the morphology in the active layer can be optimized under industrially relevant conditions. The goal of this protocol is to show experimental details of how a solar cell device is fabricated using a mini-slot die coater and technical details of running in situ structure characterization using the mini-slot die coater.

Printing Fabrication of Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells and In Situ Morphology Characterization

Here, we present a protocol to fabricate organic thin film solar cells using a mini-slot die coater and related in-line structure characterizations using synchrotron scattering techniques.

벌크 이종 접합 태양 전지의 인쇄 제작 및<em&gt; 현장에서</em&gt; 형태학 특성

Polymer-based materials hold promise as low-cost, flexible efficient photovoltaic devices. Most laboratory efforts to achieve high performance devices ...

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical properties. The possibility of doping was investigated by adding monovalent cation halides with similar ionic radii to Pb2+, including Cu+, Na+, and Ag+. A shift in the Fermi level and a remarkable decrease of sub-bandgap optical absorption, along with a lower energetic disorder in the perovskite, was achieved. An order-of-magnitude enhancement in the bulk hole mobility and a significant reduction of transport activation energy within an additive-based perovskite device was attained. The confluence of the aforementioned improved properties in the presence of these cations led to an enhancement in the photovoltaic parameters of the perovskite solar cell. An increase of 70 mV in open circuit voltage for AgI and a 2 mA/cm2 improvement in photocurrent density for NaI- and CuBr-based solar cells were achieved compared to the pristine device. Our work paves the way for further improvements in the optoelectronic quality of CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite and subsequent devices. It highlights a new avenue for investigations on the role of dopant impurities in crystallization and controls the electronic defect density in perovskite structures.

Monovalent Cation Doping of CH3NH3PbI3 for Efficient Perovskite Solar Cells

Here, we present a protocol to adjust the properties of solution-processed CH3NH3PbI3 through the incorporation of monovalent cation additives in order to achieve highly efficient perovskite solar cells.

CH의 일가 양이온 도핑<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; NH<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; PBI<sub&gt; 3</sub&gt; 효율적인 페 로브 스카이 트 태양 전지에 대한

Here, we demonstrate the incorporation of monovalent cation additives into CH3NH3PbI3 perovskite in order to adjust the optical, excitonic, and electrical ...

Electrospinning of Photocatalytic Electrodes for Dye-sensitized Solar Cells

This work demonstrates a protocol to fabricate a fiber-based photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells, consisting of a light-scattering layer made of electrospun titanium dioxide nanofibers (TiO2-NFs) on top of a blocking layer made of commercially available titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2-NPs). This is achieved by first electrospinning a solution of titanium (IV) butoxide, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and glacial acetic acid in ethanol to obtain composite PVP/TiO2 nanofibers. These are then calcined at 500 &#176;C to remove the PVP and to obtain pure anatase-phase titania nanofibers. This material is characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and powder X-ray diffraction (XRD). The photoanode is prepared by first creating a blocking layer through the deposition of a TiO2-NPs/terpineol slurry on a fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass slide using doctor blading techniques. A subsequent thermal treatment is performed at 500 &#176;C. Then, the light-scattering layer is formed by depositing a TiO2-NFs/terpineol slurry on the same slide, using the same technique, and calcinating again at 500 &#176;C. The performance of the photoanode is tested by fabricating a dye-sensitized solar cell and measuring its efficiency through J-V curves under a range of incident light densities, from 0.25-1 Sun.

The overall goal of this project was to use electrospinning to fabricate a photoanode with improved performance for dye-sensitized solar cells.

염료 감응 태양 전지용 광촉매 전극의 전기 방사

This work demonstrates a protocol to fabricate a fiber-based photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cells, consisting of a light-scattering layer made of ...

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Solar Cells

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction of degradation mechanisms and prevention of module field failure can consequently decrease investment risks as well as increase the electricity yield. An improved knowledge level can for these reasons significantly decrease the total costs of PV electricity. 
In order to better understand and minimize the degradation of PV modules, the occurring degradation mechanisms and conditions should be identified. This should preferably happen under combined stresses, since modules in the field are also simultaneously exposed to multiple stress factors. Therefore, two 'Combined Stress test with in situ measurement' setups have been designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, illumination, and electrical biases as independently controlled stress factors on solar cells and minimodules. The setups also allow real-time monitoring of the electrical properties of these samples. This protocol presents these setups and describes the experimental possibilities. Moreover, results obtained with these setups are also presented: various examples about the influence of both deposition and degradation conditions on the stability of thin film Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGS) as well as Cu2ZnSnSe4 (CZTS) solar cells are described. Results on the temperature dependency of CIGS solar cells are also presented.

In Situ Monitoring of the Accelerated Performance Degradation of Solar Cells and Modules: A Case Study for CuIn,GaSe2 Solar Cells

Two &#39;Combined Stress test with in situ measurement&#39; setups, which allow real-time monitoring of accelerated degradation of solar cells and modules, were designed and constructed. These setups allow the simultaneous use of humidity, temperature, electrical biases, and illumination as independently controlled stress factors. The setups and various experiments executed are presented.

제자리에서 태양 전지 및 모듈의 가속된 성능 저하의 모니터링: Cu (In, Ga) Se2 태양 전지에 대 한 사례 연구

The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of photovoltaic (PV) systems is determined by, among other factors, the PV module reliability. Better prediction ...

Indoor Experimental Assessment of the Efficiency and Irradiance Spot of the Achromatic Doublet on Glass (ADG) Fresnel Lens for Concentrating Photovoltaics

We present a method to characterize achromatic Fresnel lenses for photovoltaic applications. The achromatic doublet on glass (ADG) Fresnel lens is composed of two materials, a plastic and an elastomer, whose dispersion characteristics (refractive index variation with wavelength) are different. We first designed the lens geometry and then used ray-tracing simulation, based on the Monte Carlo method, to analyze its performance from the point of view of both optical efficiency and the maximum attainable concentration. Afterwards, ADG Fresnel lens prototypes were manufactured using a simple and reliable method. It consists of a prior injection of plastic parts and a consecutive lamination, together with the elastomer and a glass substrate to fabricate the parquet of ADG Fresnel lenses. The accuracy of the manufactured lens profile is examined using an optical microscope while its optical performance is evaluated using a solar simulator for concentrator photovoltaic systems. The simulator is composed of a xenon flash lamp whose emitted light is reflected by a parabolic mirror. The collimated light has a spectral distribution and an angular aperture similar to the real Sun. We were able to assess the optical performance of the ADG Fresnel lenses by taking photographs of the irradiance spot cast by the lens using a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera and measuring the photocurrent generated by several types of multi junction (MJ) solar cells, which have been previously characterized at a solar simulator for concentrator solar cells. These measurements have demonstrated the achromatic behavior of ADG Fresnel lenses and, as a consequence, the suitability of the modelling and manufacturing methods.

Indoor Experimental Assessment of the Efficiency and Irradiance Spot of the Achromatic Doublet on Glass ADG Fresnel Lens for Concentrating Photovoltaics

The achromatic doublet on glass (ADG) Fresnel lens makes use of two materials with differing dispersion to reduce chromatic aberration and increase attainable concentration. In this paper, a protocol for the complete characterization of the ADG Fresnel lens is presented.

실내 실험 평가의 효율성과 집중 태양광 발전에 대 한 유리 (ADG) 프레넬 렌즈에 무색 남자 용 상의의 Irradiance 자리

We present a method to characterize achromatic Fresnel lenses for photovoltaic applications. The achromatic doublet on glass (ADG) Fresnel lens is ...

Developing High Performance GaP/Si Heterojunction Solar Cells

To improve the efficiency of Si-based solar cells beyond their Shockley-Queisser limit, the optimal path is to integrate them with III-V-based solar cells. In this work, we present high performance GaP/Si heterojunction solar cells with a high Si minority-carrier lifetime and high crystal quality of epitaxial GaP layers. It is shown that by applying phosphorus (P)-diffusion layers into the Si substrate and a SiNx layer, the Si minority-carrier lifetime can be well-maintained during the GaP growth in the molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). By controlling the growth conditions, the high crystal quality of GaP was grown on the P-rich Si surface. The film quality is characterized by atomic force microscopy and high-resolution x-ray diffraction. In addition, MoOx was implemented as a hole-selective contact that led to a significant increase in the short-circuit current density. The achieved high device performance of the GaP/Si heterojunction solar cells establishes a path for further enhancement of the performance of Si-based photovoltaic devices.

Here, we present a protocol to develop high-performance GaP/Si heterojunction solar cells with a high Si minority-carrier lifetime.

높은 성능 격차/Si Heterojunction 태양 전지 개발

To improve the efficiency of Si-based solar cells beyond their Shockley-Queisser limit, the optimal path is to integrate them with III-V-based solar ...