Supported by: Royal Centre for Defence Medicine, Birmingham, United Kingdom, Royal British Legion Centre for Blast Injury Studies, Imperial College London, United Kingdom. Medical Research Council, London, United Kingdom (MC_PC_13064; MR/N027736/1). The Gas Safety Trust, London, United Kingdom. Rita Campos-Pires was the recipient of a doctoral training award from the Funda&#231;&#227;o para a Ci&#234;ncia e a Tecnologia, Lisbon, Portugal. Katie Harris was the recipient of a PhD studentship from the Westminster Medical School Research Trust, London, United Kingdom.
This model was developed with the support of the Royal British Legion Centre for Blast Injury Studies (RBLCBIS) at Imperial College. We would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Royal British Legion. Researchers interested in collaborations or further detail may contact the authors or RBLCBIS.
We thank Dr Amarjit Samra, Director of Research, Royal Centre for Defence Medicine, Birmingham, United Kingdom, for supporting this work, Scott Armstrong, Department of Surgery &#38; Cancer, Imperial College London, for assistance with preliminary experiments, Theofano Eftaxiopolou, Hari Arora &#38; Luz Ngoc Nguyen, Department of Bioengineering Imperial College London, &#38; William Proud, Department of Physics Imperial College London, for advice on the shock-tube, Raquel Yustos, research technician, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, for technical support, Paul Brown MBE, workshop manager and Steve Nelson, workshop technician, Department of Physics, Imperial College London, for making the metal rings, Neal Powell of the Department of Physics, Imperial College London, for artwork.

The experiments described in this manuscript were done in compliance with the United Kingdom Animals (Scientific procedures) Act of 1986 and have been approved by the Animal Welfare &#38; Ethical Review Body of Imperial College London. Animal care was in compliance with the institutional guidelines of Imperial College London.
1. Hippocampal Organotypic Slice Preparation and Culture
NOTE: This protocol allows the production of organotypic hippocampal slices according to the interface method described by Stoppini and colleagues with minor modifications21,22,23. Ideally, no more than three animals should be euthanized and dissected in one session to ensure each step is done swiftly and to avoid compromising the quality of the slices. Use aseptic technique throughout.
<ol>
	<li>Ensure the following steps are taken before starting the dissection protocol.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare and filter sterilize all solutions in advance using a 0.22 &#181;m filter.</li>
		<li>Keep the solutions at 4 &#176;C during the storage and throughout the brain dissection and hippocampal slice preparation by keeping the storage containers and Petri dishes on a metal heat sink sitting on wet ice at all times.</li>
		<li>Autoclave all metal instruments, rings and paper tissues.</li>
		<li>Ensure all instruments and material to be used for each step of the protocol are ready to use, laid out in advance and sprayed with 70% ethanol. Ensure that they are allowed to cool down and dry.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Euthanize a 5&#8211;7 day-old C57BL/6N mouse pup by cervical dislocation and briefly wipe the whole skin surface with sterile paper tissue soaked in 70% ethanol. Pat the skin dry and decapitate the pup using Mayo scissors.</li>
	<li>Cut the scalp skin with iris scissors along the midline of the head starting in the occipital region and ending near the snout and retract it laterally.</li>
	<li>Insert the tip of Vannas scissors in the foramen magnum and make two small lateral cuts on the bone along the transverse sinuses, then cut the skull along the midline up to the olfactory bulb and make two small cuts perpendicularly to the midline in this region.</li>
	<li>Using fine point curved forceps, retract the flaps of bone laterally away from the midline, carefully remove the brain with a small spatula and transfer it to a 90 mm silicone elastomer-coated Petri dish containing &#34;dissection medium&#34;. 
	NOTE: Dissection medium is Gey&#39;s balanced salt solution (5 mg/mL D-glucose, 1% antibiotic-antimycotic solution, with 10,000 units/mL penicillin, 10 mg/mL streptomycin and 25 &#181;g/mL amphotericin B).</li>
	<li>Remove the cerebellum and separate the cerebral hemispheres along the midline using a razor blade. Use a spatula to transfer the cerebral hemispheres to a new 90 mm silicone elastomer-coated Petri dish filled with fresh ice-cold dissection medium. If more than one animal is to be used in one session, repeat Steps 1.2&#8211;1.6.</li>
	<li>Under a stereomicroscope, cut the olfactory bulb and the tip of the frontal cortex with a razor blade and separate the cerebral cortex from the rest of the cerebral tissue using fine tip forceps. This step leaves the hippocampus exposed on the medial surface of the cortical tissue. From this step onward, use a laminar flow tissue culture hood (ultraviolet sterilized and cleaned with 70% ethanol solution).</li>
	<li>Apply ice-cold dissection medium to a flat plastic chopping disk and, using a spatula, position the brain tissue on the disk such that the medial surface of the cortex is facing up and the axis of the hippocampus is perpendicular to the axis of the chopping blade.</li>
	<li>Remove as much as possible of the dissection medium from the chopping disk using a fine tip Pasteur pipette.</li>
	<li>Cut the brain into 400 &#181;m slices using a tissue chopper at a 50% chopping speed and force. 
	NOTE: It is very important that this step is done as quickly as possible as the brain tissue is not submerged in dissection medium.</li>
	<li>Replace the dissection medium in the silicone elastomer-coated Petri dish with fresh ice-cold medium.</li>
	<li>Once the tissue chopper is finished, carefully submerge the brain tissue in fresh dissection medium, and transfer the cut tissue back to the 90 mm silicone elastomer-coated Petri dish using a straight blade scalpel.</li>
	<li>Under a stereomicroscope, carefully separate the cortical slices using fine tip forceps. For each slice, inspect the hippocampus for morphology and potential tissue damage resulting from the dissection or slicing.</li>
	<li>Separate the hippocampi from the entorhinal cortex and from the fimbria using fine tip forceps and small Vannas scissors. Typically, around 6 to 8 hippocampal slices are generated per hemisphere.</li>
	<li>Transfer up to 6 hippocampal slices to a tissue culture insert using a cut Pasteur pipette and place it inside a 35 mm Petri dish. Ensure that the slices are spread a few millimeters apart (this will ensure each slice can be imaged individually).</li>
	<li>Immediately add ice-cold &#34;growth medium&#34; to the bottom of each Petri dish, under the tissue culture insert, just below the top of the tissue culture insert rim. 
	NOTE: Growth medium contains 50% Minimum essential medium Eagle, 25% Hanks&#39; balanced salt solution, 25% horse serum, 5 mg/mL D-glucose, 2 mmol/L L-glutamine, 1% antibiotic-antimycotic solution, and 10 mmol/L HEPES, titrated to pH 7.2 with sodium hydroxide.</li>
	<li>Change the growth medium the day after the dissection and then every 2 to 3 days thereafter (use growth medium at 37 &#176;C). Ensure that the growth medium is added in sufficient amount, but not so much that it overflows over the tissue culture insert membrane, which could compromise the viability of the tissue slices.</li>
	<li>Keep the tissue slices in a humidified incubator at 37 &#176;C with 5% carbon dioxide in air for 12 to 14 days prior to being used in experiments.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of the Hippocampal Organotypic Slices for the Experimental Blast TBI Protocol
NOTE: All the steps of this section, except imaging, take place in a laminar flow tissue culture hood.
<ol>
	<li>Insert the custom-made stainless-steel rings into a 6 well plate (one per well). 
	NOTES: The rings have a rim with a notch (which should sit in the 12 o&#39;clock position) and fit snugly inside the wells, while the tissue culture inserts fit easily in this rim. Ensure that the rings are washed with a bactericidal disinfectant, thoroughly rinsed with purified water, autoclaved and allowed to cool down in advance.</li>
	<li>Fill the well of the 6-well plate with pre-warmed (37 &#176;C) serum-free &#34;experimental medium&#34; with propidium iodide. 
	NOTE: Experimental medium with propidium iodide is: 75% Minimum essential medium Eagle, 25% Hanks&#39; balanced salt solution, 5 mg/mL D-glucose, 2 mmol/L L-glutamine, 1% antibiotic-antimycotic solution, 10 mmol/L HEPES and 4.5 &#181;mol/L propidium iodide, titrated pH to 7.2 with sodium hydroxide.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the level of the medium does not reach above the notch of the ring. Transfer the 6-well plate with the rings back to the incubator for 1 h to ensure that the medium is at 37 &#176;C immediately before the tissue culture inserts are transferred.</li>
	<li>Transfer the tissue culture inserts with the organotypic slices from the 35 mm Petri dishes into the 6-well plate with the rings and the experimental medium with forceps.</li>
	<li>Make a dot on the insert rim in the 3 o&#39;clock position with a permanent marker pen. 
	NOTE: The inserts are going to be removed from the 6-well plate during the experiment and this step facilitates returning the insert to its original position after the shock wave exposure and to easily keep track of each slice throughout the protocol.</li>
	<li>Label each 6-well plate with a unique name &#38; date and make a map of the wells of each plate, naming each well (e.g., A, B, C, etc.) and each slice in each well (e.g., 1, 2, 3, etc.), so that each slice has a unique identifier (e.g., A1, A2, A3, etc.).</li>
	<li>Transfer the 6-well plate to the incubator for 1 h to ensure the slices are at 37 &#176;C immediately before imaging. 
	NOTE: Avoid overflow of medium or any bubbles of air underneath the tissue culture insert membrane, which could compromise the viability of the slices.</li>
	<li>1 h after transferring to experimental medium, image each slice individually using a fluorescence microscope (2X objective, NA 0.06) fitted with an appropriate excitation (BP 535/50 nm) and emission (LP 610 nm) filter to assess slice health before the injury protocol is carried out. 
	NOTES: The slices that exhibit areas of dense red staining at this stage should be considered to present compromised viability and should be excluded from further analysis (these typically represent less than 10% of the total number of slices generated). Ensure that imaging is performed in a sequential manner and as swiftly as possible to minimize the time that the slices are outside the incubator (typically 6 wells should take just under 30 min to image).</li>
	<li>Keep the lid of the 6-well plate on at all times. Some condensation may build up on the inside of the lid. If this happens, briefly use a hairdryer on the low setting.</li>
	<li>Ensure that all imaging conditions are identical on different days and between experiments. 
	NOTE: The aim of imaging is to quantify the tissue fluorescence, hence this step is important to ensure the reproducibility of the results and allow the comparison of the data obtained.</li>
</ol>
3. Submersion and Transport of the Tissue Culture Inserts with the Hippocampal Organotypic Slices
<ol>
	<li>Immediately after imaging, in a laminar flow hood, take one tissue culture insert out of the 6-well plate using forceps.</li>
	<li>Carefully transfer the insert to a sterile polyethylene bag (3&#34; x 5&#34;) pre-filled with 20 mL of warm (37 &#176;C) experimental medium freshly bubbled with 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide. 
	NOTE: Ensure that the oxygen and carbon dioxide enriched experimental medium was bubbled for at least 40 min with 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide using a scintered-glass bubbler inside a Dreschel bottle and transferred into the sterile polyethylene bags inside a laminar flow tissue culture hood using a 20 mL syringe with a bacterial filter and a sterile filling tube (127 mm) attached. Seal the bags immediately and transfer them&#160;to a 37 &#176;C incubator for at least 1 h before the tissue culture insert transfer.</li>
	<li>Ensure that each sterile bag is correctly labelled (with the plate and well identification). Repeat this step for each tissue culture insert. Exclude the air bubbles carefully upon sealing the sterile bags (done securely by twisting the top of the bags and by applying a plastic clamp).</li>
	<li>Return the sterile bags with the tissue culture inserts and the 6-well plates with experimental medium into the 37 &#176;C incubator.</li>
	<li>After 1 h, carefully pack the sterile bags with the tissue culture inserts in plastic boxes inside a thermo-regulated box filled with de-ionized water at 37 &#176;C in order to keep the organotypic slices at physiologic temperature throughout the shock wave exposure protocol.</li>
</ol>
4. Preparation of the Shock Tube and Hippocampal Organotypic Slice Shock Wave Exposure
<ol>
	<li>Wear steel-toe protective boots, a laboratory coat and gloves during the preparation of the shock tube and the shock wave exposure.</li>
	<li>Bolt the sterile bag holder frame to the shock tube distal flange, ensuring that the central hole is aligned with the shock tube outlet (using a blanking rod).</li>
	<li>Mount two pressure transducers radially: sensor 1, in the middle part of the driven section and sensor 2 in the distal flange of the shock tube (Figure 1A). Connect the pressure transducers to an oscilloscope through a current source power unit.</li>
	<li>Ensure that all shock tube release valves and flow controls are closed.</li>
	<li>Open the external compressed air line and charge the solenoid valve to 2.5 bar.</li>
	<li>Open the compressed air cylinder safety valve and slowly open the pressure regulator to increase the pressure to approximately 5 bar. 
	NOTE: The pressure set for this regulator should be slightly above the highest diaphragm bursting pressure.</li>
	<li>Prepare the diaphragms by cutting 23 &#181;m-thick polyester sheets into 10 x 10 cm2 squares. Prepare the handles using autoclave tape and sticking them to the top and bottom of each diaphragm.</li>
	<li>Position one diaphragm (single slot of the double breech - single diaphragm configuration) or two diaphragms (both slots of the double breech - double diaphragm configuration) in the breech (Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Center the diaphragms, and clamp them using four M24 bolts and nuts, fastening them sequentially in a diagonally symmetric way, and ensuring that the diaphragms are wrinkle-free.</li>
	<li>Clamp each sterile bag individually in vertical position on the holder frame, ensuring that the surface of the tissue culture inserts with the organotypic hippocampal slices is facing the shock tube outlet and the tissue culture insert is centered inside the sterile bag (Figure 1C). Make sure that the sterile bag is securely clamped all around to ensure firm and even immobilization.</li>
	<li>Wear ear defenders and safety spectacles when pressuring the shock tube. Switch on the current source power unit and oscilloscope to acquire the shock wave data (acquisition rate of 50 mega-samples/s, record length 20 ms, 1 million points) and close solenoid valve.</li>
	<li>Using the flow control knob on the shock tube control panel, slowly pressurize the driver volume section of the shock tube for single diaphragm configuration or both the driver volume section and the double breech section of the shock tube for double diaphragm configuration. 
	NOTE: For single diaphragm configuration, the burst pressure will depend only on the diaphragm material and thickness and the diaphragm will rupture spontaneously once the material bursting pressure is reached. For double diaphragm configuration, the bursting pressure will also depend on the gas pressure differential in both the driver and the double breech chambers and, for the diaphragms to burst in a controlled way, the double breech safety valve is opened manually once the target pressures are reached.</li>
	<li>As soon as the diaphragm ruptures (producing a loud noise), quickly close the compressed air flow using the flow knob and open the solenoid valve. 
	NOTE: The total volume of the driver section can be modified by the insertion of blanking segments, allowing a wider range of shock wave peak overpressure and durations to be obtained. The ideal combination of shock wave parameters should be enough to cause tissue injury but not so high that it causes tissue culture insert or sterile bag distortion or rupture.</li>
	<li>Expose each sterile bag with a tissue culture insert to a single shock tube wave and return it immediately to the thermo-regulated box before a new sterile bag is taken from the box and clamped on the holder frame. Ensure that Steps 4.10&#8211;4.14 are performed as smoothly and swiftly as possible (within a few minutes) to prevent the experimental medium cooling down, as temperatures below 37 &#176;C may interfere with injury development.</li>
	<li>Once all tissue culture inserts have been exposed to a shock wave (or sham protocol), return the tissue culture inserts to the original 6-well plate and to their respective well (inside a laminar flow tissue culture hood) and return to the incubator.</li>
	<li>Keep the 6-well plate in the incubator with 5% carbon dioxide in air at 37 &#176;C until further imaging.</li>
	<li>Include sham controls for each experiment, together with the slice shock wave exposure. 
	NOTE: Sham slices are treated identically to the slices exposed to a shock wave (sealed in the sterile bags with experimental medium, transported to the shock tube laboratory in the same thermo-regulated box and suspended on the metal frame for an equivalent period of time) but the shock tube is not fired.</li>
</ol>
5. Hippocampal Organotypic Slice Injury Quantification
<ol>
	<li>At 24 h, 48 h and 72 h, image the slices as described in Steps 2.8 and 2.9.</li>
	<li>After imaging at 72 h post shock wave exposure, discard the tissue following local biological waste protocols and disinfect and autoclave the metal rings.</li>
</ol>

The authors have no competing financial interests.

Among all the mechanisms of injury associated with blast TBI (primary, secondary and tertiary blast injury mechanisms), primary blast injury is unique to blast trauma and it is the least understood of the blast-associated mechanisms1,2. The novel protocol described here was developed to study primary blast TBI using an open-ended shock tube to expose in vitro mouse hippocampal slice cultures to a single shock wave using a simple and rapid protocol that allows the creation of a reproducible primary blast TBI with a high throughput.
The first in vitro primary blast TBI models applied hydrostatic pressure waves to cells26,27. However, the pressure output did not model the Friedlander function as the duration of a hydrostatic pressure pulse was much longer than airborne blast overpressure waves13. The characteristic Friedlander function can be easily modelled in the laboratory using a shock tube1,8. The shock tube can produce shock waves that simulate real-life open field explosions in a conventional laboratory environment, while allowing the precise control of wave parameters, such as peak overpressure, positive wave duration and impulse, by varying the diaphragm material and thickness, and the driver volume8,28,29.
Simple in vitro models such as cell cultures usually lack the heterogeneity of cell types and synaptic connectivity30. Recently, the effect of blast on in vitro brain cell &#39;spheroids&#39; incorporating different cell types has been investigated31. Further investigation of these interesting preparations is merited; however, it is not clear how their cellular organization and connectivity mirrors the intact brain. OHSC are a well-established in vitro experimental model23,32, are easy to culture and their three-dimensional tissue cytoarchitecture, cell differentiation and synaptic connectivity are well preserved and very similar to that in vivo33,34,35,36. OHSCs represent an intermediate level of complexity between cell culture and an in vivo model23,32. OHSCs have been demonstrated to reproduce in vitro pathological neurodegenerative cascades seen in in vivo models and have been very useful in the screening of potential neuroprotective drugs and in understanding their mechanisms of action17,21,22,37,38. Finally, the anatomic area studied, the hippocampus, is highly relevant in translational TBI studies, as this region is frequently damaged in TBI patients39,40,41.OHSC have been used to model blast TBI28,42,43,44, however, our model is relatively simple and can be adapted to existing shock-tubes in either horizontal or vertical configurations without complex adaptations.
OHSC can be kept in culture for many days, which facilitates the investigation of biological processes over time34. In this model, the tissue injury that resulted from shock wave exposure was measured daily over three days, following the blast exposure using propidium iodide, a well-established marker of cell damage. Propidium iodide is a nontoxic highly polar dye that penetrates the cells with compromised cellular membranes, where it binds to nucleic acids and exhibits a characteristic bright red fluorescence24,25,45. The fluorescence measured with propidium iodide has been shown to have&#160;a good correlation with injured cell count using Nissl staining46,47.
Given that the injury produced in this model was diffuse (Figure 2C), the fluorescence of the whole slice was measured when performing the analysis, similar to previously published work in other brain injury paradigms21,22, instead of using specific regions, as has been done in other in vitro blast TBI models28,43,44,48. The global approach used in the model described in this article also eliminates the potential variability that is introduced when outlining defined regions of interest and provides a more comprehensive picture of the blast-related injury. Both shock wave peak overpressures, 50 kPa and 55 kPa, produced significant (p&#160;&#60;0.05 and p&#160;&#60;0.0001, respectively) injury when compared to sham slices (Figure 2B). As anticipated, the shock wave with the highest peak overpressure, 55 kPa, produced more injury than the 50 kPa wave. In an in vitro model with isolated brain tissue directly exposed to a shockwave, how to accurately scale to the whole organism or a human being is not straightforward. Nevertheless, the shockwaves we used are within the range of peak overpressures observed in the field, typically 50&#8211;1,000 kPa8,49.
In order to maintain the OHSC exposed to physiologic temperature and levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide, while ensuring that they were free from contamination throughout the shock wave exposure protocol, the tissue culture inserts were sealed into sterile polyethylene bags following an aseptic technique, submerged in experimental medium warmed to 37 &#176;C and freshly bubbled with 95% oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide, similarly to previously published work28,43,44,48. Contrary to these models where complex devices were used to hold the sterile bags during shock wave exposure, in this protocol, a simple and rapid method was used to suspend the OHSC tissue culture inserts in front of the shock tube outlet (Figure 1A, C). The model described in this paper allows rapid processing and high throughput, while minimizing the risk of hypothermia. These aspects are particularly relevant for neuroprotection studies given that some therapeutic interventions may have a very limited time window of potential application after TBI. This novel shock wave exposure protocol allows 6 to 9 tissue culture inserts (typically 36 to 54 hippocampal organotypic tissue slices) to be exposed to a shock wave in a short interval of time (approximately 1 h).
The OHSCs require good aseptic technique throughout. It is important to use an aseptic laminar flow hood throughout the culturing and when transferring to the sterile bags for blast. In order to carry out the slice imaging under aseptic conditions with the lids of the 6-well plates in place, we use custom-made metal rings to raise the cell culture inserts to the focal plane of the microscope. An important part of our protocol is that we include uninjured sham slices in every experiment. Sham slices are treated identically to blast slices with the exception that the shock-tube is not fired; another important step is that all slices are imaged 1 h before injury or sham treatment, to ensure that the health of the population of slices used are identical (Figure 2B).
In addition to quantifying cell injury in the slices over time, the tissue can be fixed at the end of the experiment for conventional immunohistochemistry50. We developed and evaluated the method using mouse hippocampal slices. However, our technique could be easily adapted to use other tissue that can be grown in culture, such as spinal cord, retina, lung or epithelial tissue. In this paper and our previous work with the model, we investigated only the effect of exposure to a single blast. However, the model would be well suited to investigate the effects of repeated low-level blasts on brain or other tissue. OHSCs can be kept in culture for many weeks or even months, allowing chronic effects to be investigated.
In vitro models, being simpler than in vivo models, have a higher throughput, are less expensive and experiments can usually be completed on a shorter time scale17. However, the results obtained using in vitro models need to be validated in animal models as in vitro cultured tissues are kept in an artificial environment and may respond to injury differently from what they would in vivo17. Nonetheless, in vitro models have been extremely valuable in increasing our understanding of brain injury cascades and in screening neuroprotective drugs before the use of more complex in vivo models17,22,51,52. Despite the many advantages offered by this model, it is important to note that in vitro models lack the key features of TBI present in animals and in vivo models, such as the effects on vascular system, increased intracranial pressure, systemic immune response and functional behavioral impairment, which highlights the need to validate the results found in in vitro models in the whole animal. Nevertheless, in vitro models such as the model described in this paper are extremely useful translationally relevant scientific tools.
In conclusion, this work describes a simple and straightforward novel method where mouse organotypic hippocampal tissue cultures are exposed to tightly controlled and reproducible real-life relevant shock waves using a laboratory shock tube. The resulting global injury, which was quantified using propidium iodide, a well-established marker of cell damage, is very reproducible and is proportional to the peak overpressure of the shock waves applied.

Blast traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complex type of brain injury that results from the detonation of explosive devices1,2. Blast TBI has emerged as a major health issue in the last 15 years with the recent military conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan2,3. Overall, it is estimated that between 4.4% and 22.8% of soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan have suffered mild TBI, a large proportion of these being blast-related, with a higher reported rate of blast TBI in the US forces compared with the UK forces4,5.
The use of improvised explosive devices has been responsible for most of the blast-associated trauma, including blast TBI, endured by the military forces6. The detonation of an explosive charge results in a very rapid&#160;&#8212;&#160;but transient&#160;&#8212; increase in pressure, occurring in milliseconds. The resulting overpressure wave from a real-life free-field explosion is modelled by the Friedlander function, with a sudden rise to the peak overpressure followed by an exponential decay7,8. The range of extreme forces and their rapid time course seen in a blast event are usually not experienced in non-blast traumas1,9. The peak overpressure, which is the maximum pressure of the waveform, and the duration of the positive wave are believed to be important contributors to blast brain injury and these depend on the explosive charge and the distance from the detonation10,11.
The trauma that results from an explosive blast is classified as four discrete components, designated as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary blast injury10,12,13,14. Each of these components is associated with specific mechanisms of injury. Primary blast injury results from the direct action of the overpressure wave on organs and tissues2,13. Secondary blast injury results from the impact of projectile fragments, causing penetrating and non-penetrating wounds2,15. Tertiary blast injury occurs when the victim&#39;s body is displaced against the ground or surrounding objects and is associated with acceleration/deceleration forces1,10,13. Quaternary blast injury describes a heterogeneous group of injuries directly related to the explosion not covered by the first three injury mechanisms described12,13. It includes (but is not limited to) thermal injury, smoke inhalation, radiation, electromagnetic waves, and adverse psychological effects13,15. Most blast-associated TBI results directly from the first three mechanisms of injury, while the quaternary mechanisms of blast injury are usually associated with systemic injury13. The effects of acceleration/deceleration forces (e.g., whiplash), blunt and penetrating traumatic brain injury have been extensively studied in relation to other types of TBI (e.g., motor vehicle crashes, falls, ballistic injury). However, the primary blast overpressure wave is unique to blast injury and its effects on brain tissue are much less well understood16. The primary blast injury mechanisms, associated with an overpressure wave, are the first of the mechanical forces to interact with the brain.
Numerous preclinical TBI models have been developed over the last decades that have been invaluable to understand blast TBI mechanisms of injury and pathophysiology and investigate potential new treatments, which would otherwise be impossible to do exclusively in the clinical setting17,18,19. Although no single preclinical model can reproduce the complexity of clinical blast brain trauma, typically different preclinical TBI models replicate distinct aspects of human TBI. The damaging action of the forces associated with a blast explosion can be studied in isolation or in combination in both in vitro and in vivo blast TBI models. In vitro models have the advantage of allowing a tight control of the experimental environment (tissue physiologic conditions and injury biomechanics), which reduces biological variability and improves reproducibility, permitting the study of specific molecular cascades without the confounders present in animal models20. Our goal was to develop&#160;an in vitro model to investigate the effects of primary blast on brain tissue. We aimed to develop a model with a supersonic shockwave with a Friedlander waveform representative of a free-field explosion such as that produced by an improvised explosive device (IED).

<table><tbody><tr><td>Geys balanced salt solution</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>G9779</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>D-glucose</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>G8270</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Antibiotic/antimycotic</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>A5955</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Minimum essential medium Eagle</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>M4655</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hanks balanced salt solution</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>H9269</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Horse serum</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>H1138</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>L-glutamine</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>G7513</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES</td><td>VWR Prolabo, Belgium</td><td>441476L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sodium hydroxide</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>S-0945</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue culture inserts</td><td>Millicell CM 30 mm low height Millipore</td><td>PICM ORG 50</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6-well plates</td><td>NUNC, Denmark</td><td>140675</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Propidium iodide</td><td>Sigma UK</td><td>P4864</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Sterile polyethylene bags - Twirl&#039;em sterile sample bags</td><td>Fisherbrand</td><td>01-002-30</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Portex Avon Kwill Filling Tube 5&quot; (127 mm)</td><td>Smiths Medical Supplies</td><td>E910</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Epifluorescence microscope</td><td>NIKON Eclipse 80i, UK</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope objective</td><td>Nikon Plan UW magn. 2x, NA 0.06, WC 7.5 mm</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microscope filter</td><td>Nikon G-2B (longpass emission)</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mylar electrical insulating film, 304 mm x 200 mm x 0.023 mm</td><td>RS Components UK</td><td>785-0782</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pressure transducer</td><td>Dytran Instruments Inc.</td><td>2300V1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tissue chopper</td><td>Mickle Laboratory Engineering Co., Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom.</td><td>Mcllwain tissue chopper</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silicone elastomer</td><td>Dow Corning, USA</td><td>Sylgard 184</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Graphing &amp;amp; statistics software</td><td>GraphPad Software, USA</td><td>Prism 7.0</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

a novel in vitro model of blast traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of death and disability in military and civilian populations. Blast traumatic brain injury results from the detonation of explosive devices, however, the mechanisms that underlie the brain damage resulting from blast overpressure exposure are not entirely understood and are believed to be unique to this type of brain injury. Preclinical models are crucial tools that contribute to better understand blast-induced brain injury. A novel in vitro blast TBI model was developed using an open-ended shock tube to simulate real-life open-field blast waves modelled by the Friedlander waveform. C57BL/6N mouse organotypic hippocampal slice cultures were exposed to single shock waves and the development of injury was characterized up to 72 h using propidium iodide, a well-established fluorescent marker of cell damage that only penetrates cells with compromised cellular membranes. Propidium iodide fluorescence was significantly higher in the slices exposed to a blast wave when compared with sham slices throughout the duration of the protocol. The brain tissue injury is very reproducible and proportional to the peak overpressure of the shock wave applied.

The shock tube used in this method allows the generation of overpressure transients that simulate real-life open field explosions modelled by the Friedlander function7,8. Supersonic shockwaves with a velocity of 440 m/s (Mach 1.3) were obtained (Figure 2A). The waveform data reported is from sensor 2, positioned radially at the end of the driven section of the shock tube.
Using the protocol described above, organotypic hippocampal slice cultures exposed to a single shock wave (Figure 2A) develop significant injury quantified using propidium iodide, a highly polar fluorescent dye that only penetrates the cells with compromised cellular membranes24,25 (Figure 2B, C).
Even under optimal conditions, and consistent to other OHSC published models21,22, there is a low level of background propidium iodide fluorescence due, in part, to minor damage resulting from the inherent tissue manipulations (such as media changes during the culture period or removal from the incubator for imaging). This blast TBI protocol involves substantial manipulation that includes the submersion of the slices in medium inside sterile bags and a considerable degree of handling during the shock wave exposure protocol (e.g., clamping the sterile bags to the holder frame). However, if all steps are performed carefully, this additional manipulation does not have an impact on the underlying health of the OHSC as no significant differences were seen between a control group of slices kept in the 6-well plates at all times (i.e., the inserts were not submerged or handled) and the sham group, which included slices that were submerged inside sterile bags clamped to the shock tube (Figure 2B).
The two shock waves chosen, at 50 kPa and 55 kPa peak overpressure, produced significant (p&#160;&#60;0.05 and p&#160;&#60;0.0001, respectively) and reproducible injury when compared to the uninjured sham slices at all time-points after the blast exposure protocol (Figure 2B) without causing any damage to the tissue culture inserts or the sterile bags. In order to determine the sensitivity of the model to small differences in peak-overpressure, we decided to select values that were different by ~10 %. These results also show that, as expected, the injury resulting from 55 kPa is higher than that after a 50 kPa shock wave.
The data are expressed as mean &#177; standard error of the mean. Significance was assessed using a 2-way repeated measures analysis of variance using Holm-Sidak post hoc test. Factor 1 was group (control, sham, blast) and factor 2 was time after the injury (-1 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h), where factor 1 was the repeated factor. The adjustment of p value for multiple comparisons was used. P values of less than 0.05 were taken to indicate a significant difference between groups. Statistical tests were implemented using a graphing and statistics software package.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58400/58400fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Schematic of the shock tube device with the sterile bag holder frame. (A). The shock tube is a 3.8 m long stainless-steel tube, made of three 1.22 m long sections, connected by gaskets and flanges, with an internal diameter of 59 mm. (B) Inset shows the double breech assembly. One or two Mylar diaphragms can be clamped in the assembly with seal provided by rubber o-rings. (C) Sterile bag holder frame. The body of the frame consists of two metal plates with a centered circular hole (59 mm diameter) that aligns with the shock tube outlet. Two thin (4 mm) sheets of silicone elastomer are fitted between the two metal plates. The purpose of these sheets is to provide an even and non-slippery surface to clamp the sterile bags. The distance between the bag and the outlet of the shock tube is 7 cm. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58400/58400fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58400/58400fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Typical shockwave and resulting injury in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. (A) Representative example of shock wave obtained using 23 &#181;m-thick polyester film, 2.16 bar burst pressure, 55 kPa peak overpressure, 0.4 ms positive wave duration, 10.1 kPa&#183;ms impulse. Waveform data were obtained from&#160;sensor 2 radially mounted on the distal flange of the shock tube driven section. The shock wave velocity was 440 m/s (Mach 1.3). (B) The development of injury is proportional to the intensity of the shock wave. Both 50 kPa and 55 kPa peak overpressure shock waves caused significant injury that developed throughout the 72 h protocol when compared with the sham group. The injury resulting from a 55 kPa peak overpressure wave exposure was significantly higher than after 50 kPa at 48 h and 72 h. Sham slices were treated identically to blast slices but shock tube was not fired. Control slices were maintained in 6 well plates in an incubator without any manipulation. Bars represent mean values and error bars are standard errors (n = 7, controls; n = 48, sham; n = 30, blast 50 kPa; n = 51, blast 55 kPa; n = number of slices, from 6 separate experiments). *p&#160;&#60;0.05, ****p&#160;&#60;0.0001 compared with sham. #p&#160;&#60;0.05, ##p&#160;&#60;0.01 compared with blast 55 kPa. (C) Representative propidium iodide fluorescence images of organotypic slices from (i) sham, (ii) blast 50 kPa and (iii) blast 55 kPa groups at 72 h after injury. The sham slice shows low levels of fluorescence, i.e., injury, and the blast exposed slices show high levels of diffuse injury, more pronounced on the 55 kPa peak overpressure exposed slice (Scale bar = 500 &#181;m). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58400/58400fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury at JoVE.com

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

This paper describes a novel model of primary blast traumatic brain injury. A compressed-air driven shock tube is used to expose in vitro mouse hippocampal slice cultures to a single shock wave. This is a simple and rapid protocol generating a reproducible brain tissue injury with a high throughput.

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of death and disability in military and civilian populations. Blast traumatic brain injury results from the ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

10.6K Views.  Imperial College London. Deze methode kan helpen bij het beantwoorden van belangrijke vragen op het gebied van blast schadelijke traumatisch hersenletsel en kan worden gebruikt om neuroprotectieve drugs scherm voor het gebruik van meer complexe in Vivo modellen. Het belangrijkste voordeel van deze techniek is dat het gebruik maakt van een laboratoriuminstrument om in Vitro massa hersenweefsel bloot te stellen aan een schokgolf met behulp van een eenvoudige en hoge doorvoer protocol dat het mogelijk maakt het creëren...

Video: A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

Lateral Fluid Percussion: Model of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has attained renewed momentum due to the increasing awareness of head injuries, which result in morbidity and mortality. Based on the nature of primary injury following TBI, complex and heterogeneous secondary consequences result, which are followed by regenerative processes 1,2. Primary injury can be induced by a direct contusion to the brain from skull fracture or from shearing and stretching of tissue causing displacement of brain due to movement 3,4. The resulting hematomas and lacerations cause a vascular response 3,5, and the morphological and functional damage of the white matter leads to diffuse axonal injury 6-8. Additional secondary changes commonly seen in the brain are edema and increased intracranial pressure 9. Following TBI there are microscopic alterations in biochemical and physiological pathways involving the release of excitotoxic neurotransmitters, immune mediators and oxygen radicals 10-12, which ultimately result in long-term neurological disabilities 13,14. Thus choosing appropriate animal models of TBI that present similar cellular and molecular events in human and rodent TBI is critical for studying the mechanisms underlying injury and repair.
Various experimental models of TBI have been developed to reproduce aspects of TBI observed in humans, among them three specific models are widely adapted for rodents: fluid percussion, cortical impact and weight drop/impact acceleration 1. The fluid percussion device produces an injury through a craniectomy by applying a brief fluid pressure pulse on to the intact dura. The pulse is created by a pendulum striking the piston of a reservoir of fluid. The percussion produces brief displacement and deformation of neural tissue 1,15. Conversely, cortical impact injury delivers mechanical energy to the intact dura via a rigid impactor under pneumatic pressure 16,17. The weight drop/impact model is characterized by the fall of a rod with a specific mass on the closed skull 18. Among the TBI models, LFP is the most established and commonly used model to evaluate mixed focal and diffuse brain injury 19. It is reproducible and is standardized to allow for the manipulation of injury parameters. LFP recapitulates injuries observed in humans, thus rendering it clinically relevant, and allows for exploration of novel therapeutics for clinical translation 20.
We describe the detailed protocol to perform LFP procedure in mice. The injury inflicted is mild to moderate, with brain regions such as cortex, hippocampus and corpus callosum being most vulnerable. Hippocampal and motor learning tasks are explored following LFP.

Lateral fluid percussion (LFP), an established model of traumatic brain injury in mice, is demonstrated. LFP fulfills three major criteria for animal models: validity, reliability and clinical relevance. The procedure, consisting of surgical craniotomy, fixation of hub followed by induction of injury, resulting in focal and diffuse injuries, is described.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has attained renewed momentum due to the increasing awareness of head injuries, which result in morbidity and ...

Stretch in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells (cEND) as an In Vitro Traumatic Brain Injury Model of the Blood Brain Barrier

Due to the high mortality incident brought about by traumatic brain injury (TBI), methods that would enable one to better understand the underlying mechanisms involved in it are useful for treatment. There are both in vivo and in vitro methods available for this purpose. In vivo models can mimic actual head injury as it occurs during TBI. However, in vivo techniques may not be exploited for studies at the cell physiology level. Hence, in vitro methods are more advantageous for this purpose since they provide easier access to the cells and the extracellular environment for manipulation.
Our protocol presents an in vitro model of TBI using stretch injury in brain microvascular endothelial cells. It utilizes pressure applied to the cells cultured in flexible-bottomed wells. The pressure applied may easily be controlled and can produce injury that ranges from low to severe. The murine brain microvascular endothelial cells (cEND) generated in our laboratory is a well-suited model for the blood brain barrier (BBB) thus providing an advantage to other systems that employ a similar technique. In addition, due to the simplicity of the method, experimental set-ups are easily duplicated. Thus, this model can be used in studying the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in TBI at the BBB.

Stretch in Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells cEND as an In Vitro Traumatic Brain Injury Model of the Blood Brain Barrier

In vitro traumatic brain injury models are being developed to reproduce in vivo brain deformation. Stretch-induced injury has been employed for astrocytes, neurons, glial cells, aortic, and brain endothelial cells. However, our system uses a blood brain barrier (BBB) model that possesses properties constituting a legitimate model of the BBB to establish an in vitro&#160;TBI model.

Due to the high mortality incident brought about by traumatic brain injury (TBI), methods that would enable one to better understand the underlying ...

Medicine

Controlled Cortical Impact Model for Traumatic Brain Injury

Every year over a million Americans suffer a traumatic brain injury (TBI). Combined with the incidence of TBIs worldwide, the physical, emotional, social, and economical effects are staggering. Therefore, further research into the effects of TBI and effective treatments is necessary. The controlled cortical impact (CCI) model induces traumatic brain injuries ranging from mild to severe. This method uses a rigid impactor to deliver mechanical energy to an intact dura exposed following a craniectomy. Impact is made under precise parameters at a set velocity to achieve a pre-determined deformation depth. Although other TBI models, such as weight drop and fluid percussion, exist, CCI is more accurate, easier to control, and most importantly, produces traumatic brain injuries similar to those seen in humans. However, no TBI model is currently able to reproduce pathological changes identical to those seen in human patients. The CCI model allows investigation into the short-term and long-term effects of TBI, such as neuronal death, memory deficits, and cerebral edema, as well as potential therapeutic treatments for TBI.

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) remain a serious health problem. Using the controlled cortical impact surgery model, research on the effects of TBI and possible treatment methods may be performed.

Every year over a million Americans suffer a traumatic brain injury (TBI).  Combined with the incidence of TBIs worldwide, the physical, emotional, ...

A Novel Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury for Juvenile Rats

Despite growing evidence that childhood represents a major risk period for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) from sports-related concussions, motor vehicle accidents, and falls, a reliable animal model of mTBI had previously not been developed for this important aspect of development. The modified weight-drop technique employs a glancing impact to the head of a freely moving rodent transmitting acceleration, deceleration, and rotational forces upon the brain. When applied to juvenile rats, this modified weight-drop technique induced clinically relevant behavioural outcomes that were representative of post-concussion symptomology. The technique is a rapidly applied procedure with an extremely low mortality rate, rendering it ideal for high-throughput studies of therapeutics. In addition, because the procedure involves a mild injury to a closed head, it can easily be used for studies of repetitive brain injury. Owing to the simplistic nature of this technique, and the clinically relevant biomechanics of the injury pathophysiology, the modified weight-drop technique provides researchers with a reliable model of mTBI that can be used in a wide variety of behavioural, molecular, and genetic studies.

The modified weight-drop technique is an easy, cost-effective procedure used for the induction of mild traumatic brain injury in juvenile rats. This novel technique produces clinically relevant symptomology that will advance the study of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and concussion.

Despite growing evidence that childhood represents a major risk period for mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) from sports-related concussions, motor ...

A Mouse Model of Single and Repetitive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) can result in the acute loss of brain function, including a period of confusion, a loss of consciousness (LOC), focal neurological deficits and even amnesia. Athletes participating in contact sports are at high risk of exposure to large number of mTBIs. In terms of the level of injury in a sporting athlete, a mTBI is defined as a mild injury that does not cause gross pathological changes, but does cause short-term neurological deficits that are spontaneously resolved. Despite previous attempts to model mTBI in mice and rats, many have reported gross adverse effects including skull fractures, intracerebral bleeding, axonal injury and neuronal cell death. Herein, we describe our highly reproducible animal model of mTBI that reproduces clinically relevant symptoms. This model uses a custom made pneumatic impactor device to deliver a closed-head trauma. This impact is made under precise velocity and deformation parameters, creating a reliable and reproducible model to examine the mechanisms that contribute to effects of single or repetitive concussive mTBI.

Athletes absorb several hundred mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI)/concussions every year; however, the consequence of these on the brain is poorly understood. Therefore, an animal model of single and repetitive mTBI that consistently replicates clinically relevant symptoms provides the means to advance the study of mTBI and concussion.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI) can result in the acute loss of brain function, including a period of confusion, a loss of consciousness (LOC), focal ...

A Novel and Translational Rat Model of Concussion Combining Force and Rotation with In Vivo Cerebral Microdialysis

Persistent cognitive and motor symptoms are known consequences of concussions/mild traumatic brain injury (mTBIs) that can be partly attributable to altered neurotransmission. Indeed, cerebral microdialysis studies in rodents have demonstrated an excessive extracellular glutamate release in the hippocampus within the first 10 min following trauma. Microdialysis offers the clear advantage of in vivo neurotransmitter continuous sampling while not having to sacrifice the animal. In addition to the aforementioned technique, a closed head injury model that exerts rapid acceleration and deceleration of the head and torso is needed, as such a factor is not available in many other animal models. The Wayne State weight-drop model mimics this essential component of human craniocerebral trauma, allowing the induction of an impact on the head of an unrestrained rodent with a falling weight. Our novel and translational rat model combines cerebral microdialysis with the Wayne State weight-drop model to study, in lightly anesthetized and unrestrained adult rats, the acute changes in extracellular neurotransmitter levels following concussion. In this protocol, the microdialysis probe was inserted inside the hippocampus as region of interest, and was left inserted in the brain at impact. There is a high density of terminals and receptors in the hippocampus, making it a relevant region to document altered neurotransmission following concussion. When applied to adult Sprague-Dawley rats, our combined model induced increases in hippocampal extracellular glutamate concentrations within the first 10 min, consistent with the previously reported post-concussion symptomology. This combined weight-drop model provides a reliable tool for researchers to study early therapeutic responses to concussions in addition to repetitive brain injury, since this protocol induces a closed-head mild trauma.

Neurotransmitter alteration is a mechanism of neural dysfunction that occurs after concussion and contributes to the sometimes-catastrophic long-term consequences. This rat model combines microdialysis, allowing in vivo neurotransmitter quantification, with a weight-drop technique exerting rapid acceleration and deceleration of the head and torso, an important factor of human craniocerebral trauma.

Persistent cognitive and motor symptoms are known consequences of concussions/mild traumatic brain injury (mTBIs) that can be partly attributable to ...

Murine Model of Controlled Cortical Impact for the Induction of Traumatic Brain Injury

The Centers for Disease Control and Injury Prevention estimate that almost 2 million people sustain a traumatic brain injury (TBI) every year in the United States. In fact, TBI is a contributing factor to over a third of all injury-related mortality. Nonetheless, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of TBI are poorly understood. Thus, preclinical models of TBI capable of replicating the injury mechanisms pertinent to TBI in human patients are a critical research need. The controlled cortical impact (CCI) model of TBI utilizes a mechanical device to directly impact the exposed cortex. While no model can full recapitulate the disparate injury patterns and heterogeneous nature of TBI in human patients, CCI is capable of inducing a wide range of clinically applicable TBI. Furthermore, CCI is easily standardized allowing investigators to compare results across experiments as well as across investigative groups. The following protocol is a detailed description of applying a severe CCI with a commercially available impacting device in a murine model of TBI.

Here we describe a protocol for the induction of murine traumatic brain injury via an open-head controlled cortical impact.

The Centers for Disease Control and Injury Prevention estimate that almost 2 million people sustain a traumatic brain injury (TBI) every year in the ...

Low-intensity Blast Wave Model for Preclinical Assessment of Closed-head Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Rodents

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a large-scale public health problem. Mild TBI is the most prevalent form of neurotrauma and accounts for a large number of medical visits in the United States. There are currently no FDA-approved treatments available for TBI. The increased incidence of military-related, blast-induced TBI further accentuates the urgent need for effective TBI treatments. Therefore, new preclinical TBI animal models that recapitulate aspects of human blast-related TBI will greatly advance the research efforts into the neurobiological and pathophysiological processes underlying mild to moderate TBI as well as the development of novel therapeutic strategies for TBI.
Here we present a reliable, reproducible model for the investigation of the molecular, cellular, and behavioral effects of mild to moderate blast-induced TBI. We describe a step-by-step protocol for closed-head, blast-induced mild TBI in rodents using a bench-top setup consisting of a gas-driven shock tube equipped with piezoelectric pressure sensors to ensure consistent test conditions. The benefits of the setup that we have established are its relative low-cost, ease of installation, ease of use and high-throughput capacity. Further advantages of this non-invasive TBI model include the scalability of the blast peak overpressure and the generation of controlled reproducible outcomes. The reproducibility and relevance of this TBI model has been evaluated in a number of downstream applications, including neurobiological, neuropathological, neurophysiological and behavioral analyses, supporting the use of this model for the characterization of processes underlying the etiology of mild to moderate TBI.

We present here a protocol of a blast wave model for rodents to investigate neurobiological and pathophysiological effects of mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. We established a gas-driven, bench-top setup equipped with pressure sensors allowing for reliable and reproducible generation of blast-induced mild to moderate traumatic brain injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a large-scale public health problem. Mild TBI is the most prevalent form of neurotrauma and accounts for a large number of ...

Custom Overpressure Air System for Inducing CNS Injuries in Murine Models

System for Focal, Closed-System Central Nervous System Injury

The prevalence of closed-system central nervous system (CNS) injuries underscores the need for an enhanced understanding of these traumas to improve protective and therapeutic interventions. Crucial to this research are animal models that replicate closed-system CNS injuries. In this context, a custom overpressure air system was engineered to reproduce a range of closed-system CNS injuries in murine models, including ocular, brain, and spinal cord trauma. To date, the system has been used to administer eye-, head-, or spine-directed overpressure air to model anteroposterior pole injury in the eye, indirect traumatic optic neuropathy (ITON), focal traumatic brain injury, and spinal cord injury. This paper provides a detailed protocol outlining the system&#39;s design and operation and shares representative results demonstrating its effectiveness. The robust framework presented here provides a strong foundation for ongoing research in CNS trauma. By leveraging the system&#8217;s flexible attributes, investigators can modify and carefully control the location, severity, and timing of injuries. This allows for comprehensive comparisons of molecular mechanisms and therapeutic efficacy across multiple closed-system CNS injuries.

Author Spotlight: Developing Precise and Clinically Relevant Models for Studying Secondary Degeneration in Traumatic Optic Neuropathy

This protocol describes a custom overpressure air system designed to induce closed-system central nervous system (CNS) injuries in mice, including ocular, brain, and spinal cord traumas. The goal of this protocol is to provide a framework for researchers to easily adapt and expand the system for their unique CNS trauma studies.

The prevalence of closed-system central nervous system (CNS) injuries underscores the need for an enhanced understanding of these traumas to improve ...

Stab-Wound Mouse Model for Studying Hemorrhage and Inflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results from physical damage, often caused by accidents or sports-related incidents. The causes of TBI are diverse, including concussions, brain contusions, hematomas, and skull fractures. To replicate these different causes, various TBI mouse models have been developed using distinct protocols. Physical brain injury leads to both primary and secondary brain injuries, which exacerbate neuronal loss. Primary injury occurs immediately after the damage, often due to hemorrhage, and subsequently triggers secondary injuries, including inflammation around the lesion. Developing a TBI model suitable for assessing hemorrhage extension and inflammatory severity is therefore crucial. This protocol introduces a method for mimicking penetrating brain injury, referred to as the stab-wound TBI mouse model, to study mechanisms of hemorrhage, inflammation, and neuronal loss associated with TBI pathology. This model is created by puncturing the skull and brain with needles and is simple to execute without the need for specialized experimental equipment. Additionally, the minor injury inflicted on the mouse cerebral cortex using a needle does not affect the animal's behavior post-surgery. This feature allows researchers to study the localized effects of brain injury without concerns about broader behavioral consequences. Sample data from stab-wounded mouse cerebral cortices demonstrate the model's effectiveness in assessing blood leakage into the parenchyma, glial activation, and inflammatory cytokine production. Furthermore, this protocol facilitates the evaluation of blood coagulants and anti-inflammatory compounds, aiding in the development of therapeutic agents for TBI.

Simplified traumatic brain injury (TBI) models have facilitated the development of therapeutic approaches. This protocol outlines the creation of a stab-wound mouse cortex using needles, enabling the analysis of hemorrhage and inflammation. The stab-wound TBI mouse model offers the advantage of being performed without requiring specialized equipment.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results from physical damage, often caused by accidents or sports-related incidents. The causes of TBI are diverse, including ...

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

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