This work is supported by the Faculty Research Fund of the Swarthmore College [KC] and the Robert Reynolds and Lucinda Lewis &#39;70 Summer Research Fellowship for BJ.

1. Fabrication of the heat block
<ol>
	<li>Wire the 120 V, 100 W strip heater to the rheostat (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Prepare the 20.3 cm x 15.2 cm x 5 cm (8 in x 5 in x 2 in) block of aluminum by drilling 60 holes in a 6 x 10 grid (see Table of Materials). Ensure that the holes are spaced 2 cm from center to center in both directions. Each should be 1.1 cm in diameter and 4.2 cm deep (Figure 1). 
	NOTE: Perform the drilling on a milling machine or drill press with high-speed steel drill bits. The heating element and cooling element were both chosen to cover as much of the contact surface of the 15.2 cm x 5 cm surfaces as possible.</li>
	<li>Drill two additional holes on one of the 20.3 cm x 5 cm surfaces between the 1st and 2nd column and the 9th and 10th column, matching the size of the temperature controller probes (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Construct a case from 1.2 cm (0.5 in) clear acrylic sheets (see Table of Materials) to both hold the elements in place and insulate the completed heat block. Use two layers of acrylic to insulate the back side of the heating element (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>In the final assembly, apply thermal paste (see Table of Materials) to maximize heat conductance from the heating element into the block and from the block to the cooling element.</li>
</ol>
2. Determination of thermal gradient settings
<ol>
	<li>Connect the water bath/aquarium chiller with Tygon tubing (see Table of Materials). Insulate the tubing with foam pipe insulation as needed.</li>
	<li>Insert the thermostat probe into the holes on the side of the aluminum block. Ensure that probe 1 is positioned near the heating element.</li>
	<li>Place microcentrifuge tubes filled to the brim (1.5 mL) with tap water in all the milled holes (60 tubes total).</li>
	<li>Turn on the temperature controller and set the stop heating temperature of probe 1 to 35-37 &#176;C and probe 2 to 21.5-22.5 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: The proposed thermostat has two outlets that operate independently; only probe 1 is used for regulating warm temperature in this particular use case. Therefore, set the temperature of probe 2 to that of the low-end temperature.</li>
	<li>Rotate the rheostat to turn on the heating element and set it to medium.</li>
	<li>Turn on the water bath/aquarium chiller and set the chiller temperature to 15 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Check that the block is warm on one end and cool on the other after 10 min. 
	CAUTION: The exposed ends of the heating element can be hot; do not touch them.</li>
	<li>Check the temperature inside each microcentrifuge tube using a thermocouple with a K-type electrode (see Table of Materials) every 10 min afterward. The temperature will stabilize after ~60 min and appear linear (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Adjust the values of the endpoints by changing the settings of the temperature controller and the water bath as needed.</li>
</ol>
3. Thermal exposure and live:dead enumeration
NOTE: Step 2 can be omitted once the desired settings for the temperature gradient are determined.
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the recirculating water bath and heater and set them to 15 &#176;C and 37 &#176;C, respectively, to generate a temperature gradient from 19.5 &#176;C to 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>To ensure the thermal gradient is linear, place microcentrifuge tubes filled to the brim (1.5 mL) with tap water in all the milled holes (60 tubes total).</li>
	<li>Let the heat block reach the set temperature by waiting 45-60 min. Check the temperature inside each microcentrifuge tube using a thermocouple with a K-type electrode to see if it has reached the expected temperature. Note these temperatures.</li>
	<li>If the study organisms are &#62;500 &#181;m in size and can be easily transferred from one container to another (e.g., a copepod), fill a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube with 750 &#181;L of 0.45 &#181;m filtered seawater. Alternatively, if the study organisms are small, fill a 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tube with 250 &#181;L of 0.45 &#181;m filtered seawater. 
	NOTE: For the representative data, larvae of the sand dollar Dendraster excentrics, which are 2 , 4, and 6 days post-fertilization, were used (see Table of Materials). The average (&#177; S.D., n = 15 for each age) size of these individuals was 152 &#177; 7 &#181;m, 260 &#177; 17 &#181;m, and 292 &#177; 14 &#181;m, respectively. Given these larvae can be easily concentrated (step 3.5), the microcentrifuge tubes were filled with 750 &#181;L of filtered seawater.</li>
	<li>Concentrate the study organisms&#39; culture with reverse filtering (i.e., place the mesh in the container holding the study organisms and remove water through the top of the mesh), so that the study organisms remain in the bottom of the beaker11. 
	NOTE: A 30 &#181;m nylon mesh was used for the larval sand dollars studied (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Rinse the concentrated animal sample with filtered seawater (e.g., when culturing with algal food items or other chemicals). Repeat the reverse filtering once more to concentrate the animal sample.</li>
	<li>Place a known number of individual organisms into the half-filled microcentrifuge tubes. Count the small planktonic organisms under a dissecting microscope (see Table of Materials) and transfer them with glass Pasteur pipettes. 
	NOTE: The number of organisms to place is size dependent; for larval sand dollars that were ~200 &#181;m in size, 20 individuals per microcentrifuge tube was appropriate. 
	CAUTION: Glass pipettes are more desirable than plastic pipettes as some planktonic organisms are hydrophobic and will stick to plastic surfaces.</li>
	<li>Add 0.45 &#181;m filtered seawater to the microcentrifuge tubes containing animals until the final volume is 1 mL.</li>
	<li>To allow the organisms to gradually warm up to the desired experimental temperature, place the microcentrifuge tubes with animals, prepared in step 3.7, into the heat block starting from the cold end. Place pairs of microcentrifuge tubes on each row (12 tubes total).</li>
	<li>Wait 10 min.</li>
	<li>Move the pairs of microcentrifuge tubes inserted at step 3.9 to the adjacent drilled holes with warmer temperatures. Place additional pairs of microcentrifuge tubes in each row at the cold end. Each row will now have four tubes. Wait another 10 min.</li>
	<li>Continue to add microcentrifuge tubes with animals by shifting their positions from the colder end to the warmer end in pairs. Wait 10 min between each shift until the heat block is completely filled. 
	NOTE: Steps 3.9-3.12 are considered a ramping-up phase to increase the temperature experienced by the study organisms gradually.</li>
	<li>Let the animals incubate at the designated temperature for 2 h. This step is the constant temperature exposure phase of the experiment.
	<ol>
		<li>Check the temperature of the microcentrifuge tubes with a thermocouple every hour if the incubation period exceeds 2 h. 
		NOTE: Adjust the incubation time based on the experimental needs. If the incubation is longer than 2 h, check the temperature of the tubes at regular time intervals with a thermocouple in case of unforeseen equipment failure. To minimize disturbance to the study organisms, randomly place six or more microcentrifuge tubes filled only with filtered seawater into the block for temperature monitoring.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>At the end of the incubation period, measure the temperature inside each microcentrifuge tube using a thermocouple with a K-type electrode. Note these temperatures.</li>
	<li>Remove all 60 microcentrifuge tubes with animals and place them in pre-labeled holders.</li>
	<li>Incubate the tubes (step 3.14) at the predetermined temperature, such as the rearing temperature, for 1 h, which is the recovery period. 
	NOTE: The recovery period can be species-specific. For the larval sand dollar, the rearing temperature was 18 &#176;C, and thus the sample was placed in an environmental chamber. Consult relevant literature and/or conduct a trial experiment to ensure the live:dead count was not affected by the length of the recovery period. In the representative data, the number of animals alive after 1 h was the same as after 12 or 24 h of recovery.</li>
	<li>To enumerate the proportion of study organism that is alive after the thermal exposure, transfer the contents of an individual microcentrifuge tube onto a 35 mm Petri dish using a glass pipette.</li>
	<li>Observe and note the relative number of individuals that are still active (alive) and those that have seized swimming or dissolved (dead) under a dissecting microscope. Ensure that the total number of individuals observed equals the number of individuals placed into the tubes in step 3.7. Check the side of the microcentrifuge tubes and Petri dish for individuals if the numbers do not match.</li>
</ol>
4. Computation of LT50
<ol>
	<li>Generate a data table in CSV format with at least the following headers: grouping variable of interest, temperature of the tube in &#176;C, number of individuals alive, and number of individuals dead. 
	NOTE: For the representative data, the grouping variable of interest is replaced by age since the goal is to compare between age groups.</li>
	<li>To fit the data with logistic regression, use a generalized linear model with a binomial distribution. Supplementary Coding File 1 shows an example sample script using the open-source software R22.</li>
	<li>To determine the median upper thermal limit (LT50), compute the predictor value (i.e., temperature) at which 50% of the individuals survived. Supplementary Coding File 2 shows an example script using the function dose.p from the MASS23 in R22.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

This protocol provides an accessible and customizable approach to determine the thermal limits of small plankton organisms through acute thermal exposure. The 10-hole design and flexible temperature endpoints, controlled by the water bath at the lower end and the heater at the upper end, enable one to determine LT50 with precision. Using this approach, a difference in the thermal limit that is &lt;1 &#176;C could be detected (Figure 3). This approach provides a rapid determination...

Thermal tolerance is key to organisms&#39; survival and function1,2. As the planet continues to warm due to anthropogenic carbon emissions, increasing attention is being paid to the determination and application of thermal limits3. Various endpoints, such as mortality, failure to develop, and loss of mobility, have been used to determine both upper and lower thermal limits4. These thermal limits are often considered a proxy for an organism&#39;s thermal niche. This information is in turn used to identify species that are more vulnerable to global warming, as well as predict future species distribution and the resulting species interactions3,5,6,7. However, determining thermal limits, especially for small planktonic organisms, can be challenging.
For planktonic organisms, particularly the larval stages of marine invertebrates, the thermal limit can be determined through chronic exposure. Chronic exposure is achieved by rearing larvae at several temperatures over days to weeks and determining the temperature at which larval survivorship and/or developmental rate reduces8,9,10. However, this approach is rather time-consuming and requires large incubators and experience in larval husbandry (see reference11 for a good introduction to culturing marine invertebrate larvae).
Alternatively, acute exposure to thermal stress can be used to determine thermal limits. Often, this determination approach involves placing small vials with larvae in temperature-controlled dry baths12,13,14, leveraging thermal gradient functions in PCR thermal cyclers15,16, or putting glass vials/microcentrifuge tubes along a thermal gradient generated by applied heating and cooling on the ends of large aluminum blocks with holes in which the vials fit snuggly17,18,19. Typical dry baths generate a single temperature; hence, multiple units must be operated simultaneously to assess performance across a range of temperatures. Thermal cyclers generate a gradient but only accommodate a small sample volume (120 &#181;L) and require careful manipulations. Similar to thermal cyclers, large aluminum blocks create linear and stable temperature gradients. Both approaches can be coupled with logistic or probit regression to compute the lethal temperature for 50% percent of the population (LT50)12,20,21. However, the aluminum blocks used were ~100 cm long; this size demands a large lab space and access to specialized computer numerical control milling machines to drill the holes. Together with using two research-grade water baths to maintain the target temperature, the financial cost of assembling the setup is high.
Therefore, this work aims to develop an alternative means to generate a stable, linear temperature gradient with commercially available parts. Such a product must have a small footprint and should be able to be easily used for acute thermal stress exposure experiments for planktonic organisms. This protocol is developed with zooplankton that is &#60;1 mm in size as target organisms, and thus, it was optimized for the use of a 1.5 or 2 mL microcentrifuge tube. Larger study organisms will require containers larger than the 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes used and enlarged holes in the aluminum blocks.
In addition to making the experimental apparatus more accessible, this work&#160;aims&#160;to simplify the data processing pipeline. While commercial statistical software provides routines to compute LT50 using logistic or probit regression, the licensing cost is non-trivial. Therefore, an easy-to-use script that relies on the open-source statistical program R22 would make data analysis more accessible.
This protocol shows how a compact heat block can be fabricated with commercially available parts and be applied to exposing zooplankton (larvae of the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus) to acute heat stress to determine their upper thermal limit.

<table><tbody><tr><td>0.45 &amp;micro;m membrane filter</td><td>VWR</td><td>74300-042</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&amp;frac12;&amp;rdquo; Acrylic sheet</td><td>McMaster-Carr</td><td>8560K266</td><td>Used to construct a ridged case with sufficient insulation.</td></tr><tr><td>1 mL syringe</td><td>VWR</td><td>76290-420</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>2 Channel 7 Thermocouple Types Datalogger</td><td>Omega Engineering</td><td>HH506A</td><td>Can be replaced with any thermometer that will fit inside a microcentrifuge tube</td></tr><tr><td>Automatic pipette&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Ranin&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bolt- and Clamp-Mount Strip Heater&lt;br/&gt; with 430 Stainless Steel Sheath, 120V AC, 1-1/2&quot; Wide, 100W</td><td>McMaster-Carr</td><td>3619K32</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Crystal Sea Bioassay Mix</td><td>Pentair</td><td>CM2B</td><td>Use to make aritifical seawater&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;em&gt;Denraster excentricus&lt;/em&gt;</td><td>M-Rep&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td>Sand dollars from California&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Dissecting microscope&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Nikon&amp;nbsp;</td><td>SMZ645</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DIYhz Aluminum Water Cooling Block, Liquid Water Cooler Heat Sink System for PC Computer CPU Graphics Radiator Heatsink Endothermic Head Silver(40 mm x 120 mm x 12 mm)</td><td>Amazon</td><td></td><td>Connects to water bath and used to cool one end of the block.</td></tr><tr><td>Easy-to-Machine MIC6 Cast Aluminum Sheet 2&quot; thick 8&quot; x 8&quot;&amp;nbsp;</td><td>McMaster-Carr</td><td>86825K953</td><td>Machined to 2&quot; x 6&quot; x 8&quot; with 60 equally spaced holes (11 mm dia., 42 mm depth) with two addition holes drilled in one side for thermostat probes.</td></tr><tr><td>Economical Flexible Polyethylene Foam Pipe Insulation</td><td>McMaster-Carr</td><td>4530K121</td><td>Covers the plastic tubing between chiller and block to reduce heat loss. Can be omitted if temperature range is close to room temperature&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>EVERSECU 72w 110-240v Aquarium Water Chiller Warmer/Cooler Temperature Controller for Fish Shrimp Tank Marine Coral Reef Tank Below 20 L/30 L Aquarium Chiller</td><td>Amazon</td><td></td><td>Can be used in place of the lab-grade water bath&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Example with larval sand dollar&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>GENNEL 100 g Silver Silicone Thermal Conductive Compound Grease Paste For GPU CPU IC LED Ovens Cooling</td><td>Amazon</td><td></td><td>Improves the thermal conductance between the block and the heating and cooling elements.</td></tr><tr><td>Inkbird WiFi Reptile Thermostat Temperature Controller with 2 Probes and 2 Outlets, IPT-2CH Reptiles Heat Mat Thermostat (Max 250 W per Outlet)</td><td>Amazon</td><td></td><td>Monitors hot and cold ends. Maintains hot end in range</td></tr><tr><td>Lauda Ecoline Silver Air-Cooled Refrigerated Circulators</td><td>VWR</td><td>89202-386</td><td>Can be replaced with an aquarium chiller&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Microcentrifuge Tubes</td><td>VWR</td><td>76019-014</td><td>If larger animals are used, scanilation vials (VWR 66022-004) is a good alternative&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Nitex mesh filter</td><td>&amp;nbsp;Self made</td><td></td><td>Used hot glue to attached Nitex mesh to 1/2&quot; PVC tubing&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Pasteur pipette</td><td>VWR</td><td>14673-010</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Potassium Chloride (0.35 M)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Millpore-Sigma</td><td>P3911-500G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>R statistical software.&amp;nbsp;</td><td>The R Project for Statistical Computing</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Syringe needle</td><td>VWR</td><td>89219-346</td><td>Depending on size of target organism gague 14 and 16 can be used</td></tr><tr><td>Tygon Tubing&amp;nbsp;</td><td>McMaster-Carr</td><td>5233K65</td><td>Adjust to match the chiller and block used&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Zoo Med Repti Temp Rheostat</td><td>Chewy.com</td><td></td><td>Rated to 150 W and rewired to feed directly into the heating element. Used to control rate of heat output</td></tr></tbody></table>

thermal limits determination for zooplankton using a heat block

Thermal limits and breadth have been widely used to predict species distribution. As the global temperature continues to rise, understanding how thermal limit changes with acclimation and how it varies between life stages and populations are vital for determining the vulnerability of species to future warming. Most marine organisms have complex life cycles that include early planktonic stages. While quantifying the thermal limit of these small early developmental stages (tens to hundreds of microns) helps identify developmental bottlenecks, this process can be challenging due to the small size of target organisms, large bench space requirement, and high initial fabrication cost. Here, a setup that is geared toward small volumes (mL to tens of mL) is presented. This setup combines commercially available components to generate a stable and linear thermal gradient. Production specifications of the setup, as well as procedures to introduce and enumerate live versus dead individuals and compute lethal temperature, are also presented.

The goal of this protocol is to determine the upper thermal limit of zooplankton. To do so, a stable and linear thermal gradient is needed. The proposed setup was able to generate a thermal gradient ranging from 14 &#176;C to 40 &#176;C by setting the water bath temperature to 8 &#176;C and the heater to 39 &#176;C (Figure 2A). The temperature gradient can be narrowed and shifted by changing the endpoint values. A thermal gradient with a narrower range (19 &#176;C to 37 &#176;C) was also gen...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block at JoVE.com

Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block

The present protocol illustrates the use of commercially available components to generate a stable and linear thermal gradient. Such gradient can then be used to determine the upper thermal limit of planktonic organisms, particularly invertebrate larvae.

Thermal limits and breadth have been widely used to predict species distribution. As the global temperature continues to rise, understanding how thermal ...

thermal-limits-determination-for-zooplankton-using-a-heat-block

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

1.3K Views.  Swarthmore College. Naarmate de wereldwijde temperaturen blijven stijgen, zijn het kwantificeren van thermische limieten en de relatie met acclimatisatie en ontogenie van vitaal belang voor het bepalen van de kwetsbaarheid van soorten voor toekomstige opwarming. Voor mariene organismen met een complexe levensgeschiedenis kan het bepalen van thermische limieten logistiek een uitdaging zijn. Dit protocol introduceert een kleine voetafdruk, eenvoudig te bouwen methode om kritische temperaturen van kleine planktonor...

Video: Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block

Resurrection of Dormant Daphnia magna: Protocol and Applications

Long-term studies enable the identification of eco-evolutionary processes that occur over extended time periods. In addition, they provide key empirical data that may be used in predictive modelling to forecast evolutionary responses of natural ecosystems to future environmental changes. However, excluding a few exceptional cases, long-term studies are scarce because of logistic difficulties associated with accessing temporal samples. Temporal dynamics are frequently studied in the laboratory or in controlled mesocosm experiments with exceptional studies that reconstruct the evolution of natural populations in the wild.
Here, a standard operating procedure (SOP) is provided to revive or resurrect dormant Daphnia magna, a widespread zooplankton keystone species in aquatic ecosystems, to dramatically advance the state-of-the-art longitudinal data collection in natural systems. The field of Resurrection Ecology was defined in 1999 by Kerfoot and co-workers, even though the first attempts at hatching diapausing zooplankton eggs date back to the late 1980s. Since Kerfoot&#39;s seminal paper, the methodology of resurrecting zooplankton species has been increasingly frequently applied, though propagated among laboratories only via direct knowledge transfer. Here, an SOP is described that provides a step-by-step protocol on the practice of resurrecting dormant Daphnia magna eggs.
Two key studies are provided in which the fitness response of resurrected Daphnia magna populations to warming is measured, capitalizing on the ability to study historical and modern populations in the same settings. Finally, the application of next generation sequencing technologies to revived or still dormant stages is discussed. These technologies provide unprecedented power in dissecting the processes and mechanisms of evolution if applied to populations that have experienced changes in selection pressure over time.

Resurrection of Dormant Daphnia magna: Protocol and Applications

Long-term studies are essential to understanding the process of evolution and the mechanisms of adaptation. Generally, these studies require commitments beyond the life-time of researchers. Here, a powerful method is described that dramatically advances state-of-the-art data collection to generate longitudinal data in natural systems.

Long-term studies enable the identification of eco-evolutionary processes that occur over extended time periods. In addition, they provide key empirical ...

Environment

An Ultra-clean Multilayer Apparatus for Collecting Size Fractionated Marine Plankton and Suspended Particles

The distributions of many trace elements in the ocean are strongly associated with the growth, death, and re-mineralization of marine plankton and those of suspended/sinking particles. Here, we present an all plastic (Polypropylene and Polycarbonate), multi-layer filtration system for collection of suspended particulate matter (SPM) at sea. This ultra-clean sampling device has been designed and developed specifically for trace element studies. Meticulous selection of all non-metallic materials and utilization of an in-line flow-through procedure minimizes any possible metal contamination during sampling. This system has been successfully tested and tweaked for determining trace metals (e.g., Fe, Al, Mn, Cd, Cu, Ni) on particles of varying size in coastal and open ocean waters. Results from the South China Sea at the South East Asia Time-Series (SEATS) station indicate that diurnal variations and spatial distribution of plankton in the euphotic zone can be easily resolved and recognized. Chemical analysis of size-fractionated particles in surface waters of the Taiwan Strait suggests that the larger particles (&#62;153 &#181;m) were mostly biologically derived, while the smaller particles (10 - 63 &#181;m) were mostly composed of inorganic matter. Apart from Cd, the concentrations of metals (Fe, Al, Mn, Cu, Ni) decreased with increasing size.

Plankton and suspended particles play a major role in the biogeochemical cycles in the ocean. Here, we provide an ultra-clean, low stress method for the collection of various sizes of particles and plankton at sea with the capability of handling large volumes of seawater.

The distributions of many trace elements in the ocean are strongly associated with the growth, death, and re-mineralization of marine plankton and those ...

Protocol for Acute and Chronic Ecotoxicity Testing of the Turquoise Killifish Nothobranchius furzeri

The killifish Nothobranchius furzeri is an emerging model organism in the field of ecotoxicology and its applicability in acute and chronic ecotoxicity testing has been demonstrated. Overall, the sensitivity of the species to toxic compounds is in the range with, or higher than, that of other model species.
This work describes protocols for acute, chronic, and multigenerational bioassays of single and combined stressor effects on N. furzeri. Due to its short maturation time and life-cycle, this vertebrate model allows the study of endpoints such as maturation time and fecundity within four months. Transgenerational full life-cycle exposure trials can be performed in as little as 8 months. Since this species produces eggs that are drought-resistant and remain viable for years, the on-site culture of the species is not needed but individuals can be recruited when required. The protocols are designed to measure life-history traits (mortality, growth, fecundity, weight) and critical thermal maximum.

Protocol for Acute and Chronic Ecotoxicity Testing of the Turquoise Killifish Nothobranchius furzeri

In this work, we describe an acute, chronic and multigenerational bioassay to study the effects of single and combined stressors on the Turquoise killifish Nothobranchius furzeri. This protocol is designed to study life-history traits (mortality, growth, fecundity, weight) and critical thermal maximum.

The killifish Nothobranchius furzeri is an emerging model organism in the field of ecotoxicology and its applicability in acute and chronic ecotoxicity ...

Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of thermal nociceptors1,2 while the second involves a wholesale (global) activation of most or all such neurons3. Together, these techniques allow visualization and quantification of the behavioral functions of Drosophila nociceptive sensory neurons.
The Drosophila larva is an established model system to study thermal nociception, a sensory response to potentially harmful temperatures that is evolutionarily conserved across species1,2. The advantages of Drosophila for such studies are the relative simplicity of its nervous system and the sophistication of the genetic techniques that can be used to dissect the molecular basis of the underlying biology4-6 In Drosophila, as in all metazoans, the response to noxious thermal stimuli generally involves a "nocifensive" aversive withdrawal to the presented stimulus7. Such stimuli are detected through free nerve endings or nociceptors and the amplitude of the organismal response depends on the number of nociceptors receiving the noxious stimulus8. In Drosophila, it is the class IV dendritic arborization sensory neurons that detect noxious thermal and mechanical stimuli9 in addition to their recently discovered role as photoreceptors10. These neurons, which have been very well studied at the developmental level, arborize over the barrier epidermal sheet and make contacts with nearly all epidermal cells11,12. The single axon of each class IV neuron projects into the ventral nerve cord of the central nervous system11 where they may connect to second-order neurons that project to the brain.
Under baseline conditions, nociceptive sensory neurons will not fire until a relatively high threshold is reached. The assays described here allow the investigator to quantify baseline behavioral responses or, presumably, the sensitization that ensues following tissue damage. Each assay provokes distinct but related locomotory behavioral responses to noxious thermal stimuli and permits the researcher to visualize and quantify various aspects of thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. The assays can be applied to larvae of desired genotypes or to larvae raised under different environmental conditions that might impact nociception. Since thermal nociception is conserved across species, the findings gleaned from genetic dissection in Drosophila will likely inform our understanding of thermal nociception in other species, including vertebrates.

Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of thermal nociceptors1,2 while the second involves a wholesale (global) activation of most or all such neurons3. Together, these techniques allow visualization and quantification of the behavioral functions of Drosophila nociceptive sensory neurons.

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of ...

Neuroscience

Impedance Pneumography for Minimally Invasive Measurement of Heart Rate in Late Stage Invertebrates

Temperatures in oceans are increasing rapidly as a consequence of widespread changes in world climates. As organismal physiology is heavily influenced by environmental temperature, this has the potential to alter thermal physiological performance in a variety of marine organisms. Using the American lobster (Homarus americanus) as a model organism, this protocol describes the use of impedance pneumography to understand how cardiac performance in late stage invertebrates changes under acute thermal stress. The protocol presents a minimally invasive technique that allows for real-time collection of heart rate during a temperature ramping experiment. Data are easily manipulated to generate an Arrhenius plot that is used to calculate Arrhenius break temperature (ABT), the temperature at which heart rate begins to decline with increasing temperatures. This technique can be used in a variety of late stage invertebrates (i.e., crabs, mussels, or shrimps). Although the protocol focuses solely on the impact of temperature on cardiac performance, it can be modified to understand the potential for additional stressors (e.g., hypoxia or hypercapnia) to interact with temperature to influence physiological performance. Thus, the method has potential for wide-ranging applications to further understand how marine invertebrates respond to acute changes in the environment.

Measuring heart rate during a thermal challenge provides insight into physiological responses of organisms as a consequence of acute environmental change. Using the American lobster (Homarus americanus) as a model organism, this protocol describes the use of impedance pneumography as a relatively noninvasive and nonlethal approach to measure heart rate in late stage invertebrates.

Temperatures in oceans are increasing rapidly as a consequence of widespread changes in world climates. As organismal physiology is heavily influenced by ...

A Temperature Gradient Assay to Determine Thermal Preferences of Drosophila Larvae

Many animals, including the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, are capable of discriminating minute differences in&#160;environmental temperature, which enables them to seek out their preferred thermal landscape. To define the temperature preferences of larvae over a defined linear range, we developed an assay using a temperature gradient. To establish a single-directional gradient, two aluminum blocks are connected to independent water baths, each of which controls the temperature of individual blocks. The two blocks set the lower and upper limits of the gradient. The temperature gradient is established by placing an agarose-coated aluminum plate over the two water-controlled blocks so that the plate spans the distance between them. The ends of the aluminum plate that is set on the top of the water blocks defines the minimum and maximum temperatures, and the regions in-between the two blocks form a linear temperature gradient. The gradient assay can be applied to&#160;larvae of different ages and can be used to identify mutants that exhibit phenotypes, such as those with mutations affecting genes encoding TRP channels and opsins, which are required for temperature discrimination.

A Temperature Gradient Assay to Determine Thermal Preferences of Drosophila Larvae

Here, we present a protocol to determine the preferred environmental temperature of Drosophila larvae using a continuous thermal gradient.

Many animals, including the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, are capable of discriminating minute differences in&#160;environmental temperature, which ...

High-Throughput Assays of Critical Thermal Limits in Insects

Upper and lower thermal limits of plants and animals are important predictors of their performance, survival, and geographic distributions, and are essential for predicting responses to climate change. This work describes two high-throughput protocols for measuring insect thermal limits: one for assessing critical thermal minima (CTmin), and the other for assessing heat knock down time (KDT) in response to a static heat stressor. In the CTmin assay, individuals are placed in an acrylic-jacketed column, subjected to a decreasing temperature ramp, and counted as they fall from their perches using an infrared sensor. In the heat KDT assay, individuals are contained in a 96 well plate, placed in an incubator set to a stressful, hot temperature, and video recorded to determine the time at which they can no longer remain upright and move. These protocols offer advantages over commonly used techniques. Both assays are low cost and can be completed relatively quickly (~2 h). The CTmin assay reduces experimenter error and can measure a large number of individuals at once. The heat KDT protocol generates a video record of each assay and thus removes experimenter bias and the need to continuously monitor individuals in real time.

Thermal limits can predict the environments organisms tolerate, which is valuable information in the face of rapid climate change. Described here are high-throughput protocols to assess critical thermal minima and heat knockdown time in insects. Both protocols maximize the throughput and minimize the cost of the assays.

Upper and lower thermal limits of plants and animals are important predictors of their performance, survival, and geographic distributions, and are ...

Field-Based Thermal Physiology Assay: Cold Shock Recovery under Ambient Conditions

Ecological physiology, particularly of ectotherms, is increasingly important in this changing world as it uses measures of species and environmental traits to explore the interactions between organisms and their surroundings to better understand their survival and fitness. Traditional thermal assays are costly in terms of time, money, and equipment and are therefore often limited to small sample sizes and few species. Presented here is a novel protocol that generates detailed data on individual behavior and physiology of large, volant, terrestrial insects, using the example of butterflies. This paper describes the methods of a cold shock recovery assay that can be performed in the field under ambient environmental conditions and does not require costly laboratory equipment. This method has been used to understand the response and recovery strategy to cold shock of tropical butterflies, generating individual level data across entire butterfly communities. These methods can be employed in both remote field settings and classrooms and can be used to generate ecologically relevant physiological data and as a teaching tool.

Here, a low-cost, accessible protocol is described to evaluate cold shock recovery of butterflies under ambient environmental conditions.

Ecological physiology, particularly of ectotherms, is increasingly important in this changing world as it uses measures of species and environmental ...

Determining Temperature Preference of Mosquitoes and Other Ectotherms

Most insects and other ectotherms have a relatively narrow optimal temperature window, and deviation from their optima can have significant effects on their fitness, as well as other characteristics. Consequently, many such ectotherms seek out their optimal temperature range. Although temperature preferences of mosquitoes and other insects have been well studied, the traditional experimental setup is performed using a temperature gradient on an aluminum surface in a highly enclosed space. In some cases, this equipment restricts many natural behaviors, such as flying, which may be important in preference selection.
The objective of this study is to observe insect preference for air temperature by using a two-chamber apparatus with sufficient room for flight. The two chambers consist of independent temperature-controlled incubators, each with a large aperture. The incubators are connected by these apertures using a short acrylic bridge. Inside the incubators are two netted cages, linked via the apertures and bridge, allowing the insects to freely fly between the different conditions. The acrylic bridge also acts as a temperature gradient between the two incubators.
Due to the spacious area in the cage and easy construction, this method can be used to study any small ectotherm and/or any manipulation which may alter temperature preference including sensory organ manipulation, diet, gut flora, and endosymbiont presence at biosafety levels 1 or 2 (BSL 1 or 2). Additionally, the apparatus can be used for the study of pathogen infection using further containment (e.g., inside of a biosafety cabinet) at BSL 3.

Insects have an optimal environmental temperature range which they seek to remain within, and many external and internal factors can alter this preference. Here, we describe a cost-effective and simple method to study temperature choice, which allows insects to freely exhibit their natural behaviors.

Most insects and other ectotherms have a relatively narrow optimal temperature window, and deviation from their optima can have significant effects on ...

Local Heat Probe Assay: A Method to Assess Nociception of High Temperatures in Drosophila Larvae

Source: Chattopadhyay, A., et al. <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/3837/" target="_blank">Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae</a>. J. Vis. Exp. (2012).
Drosophila larvae have dedicated sensory neurons&#8211;nociceptors&#8211;whose response to potentially harmful thermal stimuli triggers aversive&#8211;or so-called &#34;nocifensive&#34;&#8211;behaviors in the animal. This video describes a method to assess thermal nociception by recording larval behavior in response to local application of a heat probe onto the cuticle. This method is, therefore, called the local heat probe assay.

Source: Chattopadhyay, A., et al. Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae. J. Vis. Exp. (2012).
Drosophila larvae ...

Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block

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