Name: thermal limits determination for zooplankton using a heat block
Uploaded: 2022-11-18T14:50:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block at JoVE.com

This work is supported by the Faculty Research Fund of the Swarthmore College [KC] and the Robert Reynolds and Lucinda Lewis &#39;70 Summer Research Fellowship for BJ.

1. Fabrication of the heat block
<ol>
	<li>Wire the 120 V, 100 W strip heater to the rheostat (see Table of Materials).</li>
	<li>Prepare the 20.3 cm x 15.2 cm x 5 cm (8 in x 5 in x 2 in) block of aluminum by drilling 60 holes in a 6 x 10 grid (see Table of Materials). Ensure that the holes are spaced 2 cm from center to center in both directions. Each should be 1.1 cm in diameter and 4.2 cm deep (Figure 1). 
	NOTE: Perform the drilli...

<ol>
	<li>Dowd, W. W., King, F. A., Denny, M. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+variation,+thermal+extremes+and+the+physiological+performance+of+individuals.">Thermal variation, thermal extremes and the physiological performance of individuals.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 218 (12), 1956-1967 (2015).</li><li>Garc&#237;a, F. C., Bestion, E., Warfield, R., Yvon-Durocher, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Changes+in+temperature+alter+the+relationship+between+biodiversity+and+ecosystem+functioning.">Changes in temperature alter the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (43), 10989-10994 (2018).</li><li>Sinclair, B. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+we+predict+ectotherm+responses+to+climate+change+using+thermal+performance+curves+and+body+temperatures.">Can we predict ectotherm responses to climate change using thermal performance curves and body temperatures.</a> Ecology Letters. 19 (11), 1372-1385 (2016).</li><li>Lutterschmidt, W. I., Hutchison, V. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+critical+thermal+maximum:+history+and+critique.">The critical thermal maximum: history and critique.</a> Canadian Journal of Zoology. 75 (10), 1561-1574 (1997).</li><li>Bennett, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+evolution+of+critical+thermal+limits+of+life+on+Earth.">The evolution of critical thermal limits of life on Earth.</a> Nature Communications. 12 (1), 1198 (2021).</li><li>Sunday, J. M., Bates, A. E., Dulvy, N. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+tolerance+and+the+global+redistribution+of+animals.">Thermal tolerance and the global redistribution of animals.</a> Nature Climate Change. 2 (9), 686-690 (2012).</li><li>Deutsch, C. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impacts+of+climate+warming+on+terrestrial+ectotherms+across+latitude.">Impacts of climate warming on terrestrial ectotherms across latitude.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (18), 6668-6672 (2008).</li><li>Collin, R., Chan, K. Y. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+sea+urchin+Lytechinus+variegatus+lives+close+to+the+upper+thermal+limit+for+early+development+in+a+tropical+lagoon.">The sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus lives close to the upper thermal limit for early development in a tropical lagoon.</a> Ecology and Evolution. 6 (16), 5623-5634 (2016).</li><li>Wang, W., Ding, M. -. w., Li, X. -. x., Wang, J., Dong, Y. -. w. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Divergent+thermal+sensitivities+among+different+life+stages+of+the+pulmonate+limpet+Siphonaria+japonica.">Divergent thermal sensitivities among different life stages of the pulmonate limpet Siphonaria japonica.</a> Marine Biology. 164 (6), 1-10 (2017).</li><li>Mak, K. K. -. Y., Chan, K. Y. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interactive+effects+of+temperature+and+salinity+on+early+life+stages+of+the+sea+urchin+Heliocidaris+crassispina.">Interactive effects of temperature and salinity on early life stages of the sea urchin Heliocidaris crassispina.</a> Marine Biology. 165 (3), 1-11 (2018).</li><li>Strathmann, R. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Culturing+larva+of+marine+invertebrates.">Culturing larva of marine invertebrates.</a> Developmental Biology of the Sea Urchin and Other Marine Invertebrates. , 1-25 (2014).</li><li>Stillman, J. H., Somero, G. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparative+analysis+of+the+upper+thermal+tolerance+limits+of+Eastern+Pacific+porcelain+crabs,+Genus+Petrolisthes:+Influences+of+latitude,+vertical+Zonation,+acclimation,+and+phylogeny.">A comparative analysis of the upper thermal tolerance limits of Eastern Pacific porcelain crabs, Genus Petrolisthes: Influences of latitude, vertical Zonation, acclimation, and phylogeny.</a> Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. 73 (2), 200-208 (2000).</li><li>Sasaki, M. C., Dam, H. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrating+patterns+of+thermal+tolerance+and+phenotypic+plasticity+with+population+genetics+to+improve+understanding+of+vulnerability+to+warming+in+a+widespread+copepod.">Integrating patterns of thermal tolerance and phenotypic plasticity with population genetics to improve understanding of vulnerability to warming in a widespread copepod.</a> Global Change Biology. 25 (12), 4147-4164 (2019).</li><li>Sasaki, M. C., Dam, H. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+differentiation+underlies+seasonal+variation+in+thermal+tolerance,+body+size,+and+plasticity+in+a+short-lived+copepod.">Genetic differentiation underlies seasonal variation in thermal tolerance, body size, and plasticity in a short-lived copepod.</a> Ecology and Evolution. 10 (21), 12200-12210 (2020).</li><li>Kelly, M. W., Sanford, E., Grosberg, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Limited+potential+for+adaptation+to+climate+change+in+a+broadly+distributed+marine+crustacean.">Limited potential for adaptation to climate change in a broadly distributed marine crustacean.</a> Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1727), 349-356 (2012).</li><li>Rivera, H. E., Chen, C. -. Y., Gibson, M. C., Tarrant, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasticity+in+parental+effects+confers+rapid+larval+thermal+tolerance+in+the+estuarine+anemone+Nematostella+vectensis.">Plasticity in parental effects confers rapid larval thermal tolerance in the estuarine anemone Nematostella vectensis.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 224 (5), 236745 (2021).</li><li>Sewell, M. A., Young, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temperature+limits+to+fertilization+and+early+development+in+the+tropical+sea+urchin+Echinometra+lucunter.">Temperature limits to fertilization and early development in the tropical sea urchin Echinometra lucunter.</a> Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 236 (2), 291-305 (1999).</li><li>Walther, K., Crickenberger, S. E., Marchant, S., Marko, P. B., Moran, A. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+tolerance+of+larvae+of+Pollicipes+elegans,+a+marine+species+with+an+antitropical+distribution.">Thermal tolerance of larvae of Pollicipes elegans, a marine species with an antitropical distribution.</a> Marine Biology. 160 (10), 2723-2732 (2013).</li><li>Byrne, M., Gall, M. L., Campbell, H., Lamare, M. D., Holmes, S. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Staying+in+place+and+moving+in+space:+contrasting+larval+thermal+sensitivity+explains+distributional+changes+of+sympatric+sea+urchin+species+to+habitat+warming.">Staying in place and moving in space: contrasting larval thermal sensitivity explains distributional changes of sympatric sea urchin species to habitat warming.</a> Global Change Biology. 28 (9), 3040-3053 (2022).</li><li>Zippay, M. L., Hofmann, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+tolerances+across+latitudes:+thermal+sensitivity+of+larval+marine+snails+(Nucella+spp).">Physiological tolerances across latitudes: thermal sensitivity of larval marine snails (Nucella spp).</a> Marine Biology. 157 (4), 707-714 (2010).</li><li>Collin, R., Rebolledo, A. P., Smith, E., Chan, K. Y. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+tolerance+of+early+development+predicts+the+realized+thermal+niche+in+marine+ectotherms.">Thermal tolerance of early development predicts the realized thermal niche in marine ectotherms.</a> Functional Ecology. 35 (8), 1679-1692 (2021).</li><li>R Core Team. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=R:+A+language+and+environment+for+statistical+computing.">R: A language and environment for statistical computing.</a> R Foundation for Statistical Computing. , (2021).</li><li>Venables, W. N., Ripley, B. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Modern Applied Statistics with S-PLUS. Fourth edn. , (2002).</li><li>Fumo, J. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contextualizing+marine+heatwaves+in+the+southern+California+bight+under+anthropogenic+climate+change.">Contextualizing marine heatwaves in the southern California bight under anthropogenic climate change.</a> Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. 125 (5), (2020).</li><li>Wheeler, M. W., Park, R. M., Bailer, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparing+median+lethal+concentration+values+using+confidence+interval+overlap+or+ratio+tests.">Comparing median lethal concentration values using confidence interval overlap or ratio tests.</a> Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry: An International Journal. 25 (5), 1441-1444 (2006).</li><li>Kingsolver, J. G., MacLean, H. J., Goddin, S. B., Augustine, K. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plasticity+of+upper+thermal+limits+to+acute+and+chronic+temperature+variation+in+Manduca+sexta+larvae.">Plasticity of upper thermal limits to acute and chronic temperature variation in Manduca sexta larvae.</a> Journal of Experimental Biology. 219 (9), 1290-1294 (2016).</li><li>Kuo, E. S. L., Sanford, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Geographic+variation+in+the+upper+thermal+limits+of+an+intertidal+snail:+implications+for+climate+envelope+models.">Geographic variation in the upper thermal limits of an intertidal snail: implications for climate envelope models.</a> Marine Ecology Progress Series. 388, 137-146 (2009).</li><li>Hammond, L. M., Hofmann, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+tolerance+of+Strongylocentrotus+purpuratus+early+life+history+stages:+mortality,+stress-induced+gene+expression+and+biogeographic+patterns.">Thermal tolerance of Strongylocentrotus purpuratus early life history stages: mortality, stress-induced gene expression and biogeographic patterns.</a> Marine biology. 157 (12), 2677-2687 (2010).</li><li>Sasaki, M., Dam, H. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Global+patterns+in+copepod+thermal+tolerance.">Global patterns in copepod thermal tolerance.</a> Journal of Plankton Research. 43 (4), 598-609 (2021).</li></ol>

This protocol provides an accessible and customizable approach to determine the thermal limits of small plankton organisms through acute thermal exposure. The 10-hole design and flexible temperature endpoints, controlled by the water bath at the lower end and the heater at the upper end, enable one to determine LT50 with precision. Using this approach, a difference in the thermal limit that is &lt;1 &#176;C could be detected (Figure 3). This approach provides a rapid determination...

Thermal tolerance is key to organisms&#39; survival and function1,2. As the planet continues to warm due to anthropogenic carbon emissions, increasing attention is being paid to the determination and application of thermal limits3. Various endpoints, such as mortality, failure to develop, and loss of mobility, have been used to determine both upper and lower thermal limits4. These thermal limits are often considered a proxy for an organism&#39;s thermal niche. This information is in turn used to identify species that are more vulnerable to global warming, as well as predict future species distribution and the resulting species interactions3,5,6,7. However, determining thermal limits, especially for small planktonic organisms, can be challenging.
For planktonic organisms, particularly the larval stages of marine invertebrates, the thermal limit can be determined through chronic exposure. Chronic exposure is achieved by rearing larvae at several temperatures over days to weeks and determining the temperature at which larval survivorship and/or developmental rate reduces8,9,10. However, this approach is rather time-consuming and requires large incubators and experience in larval husbandry (see reference11 for a good introduction to culturing marine invertebrate larvae).
Alternatively, acute exposure to thermal stress can be used to determine thermal limits. Often, this determination approach involves placing small vials with larvae in temperature-controlled dry baths12,13,14, leveraging thermal gradient functions in PCR thermal cyclers15,16, or putting glass vials/microcentrifuge tubes along a thermal gradient generated by applied heating and cooling on the ends of large aluminum blocks with holes in which the vials fit snuggly17,18,19. Typical dry baths generate a single temperature; hence, multiple units must be operated simultaneously to assess performance across a range of temperatures. Thermal cyclers generate a gradient but only accommodate a small sample volume (120 &#181;L) and require careful manipulations. Similar to thermal cyclers, large aluminum blocks create linear and stable temperature gradients. Both approaches can be coupled with logistic or probit regression to compute the lethal temperature for 50% percent of the population (LT50)12,20,21. However, the aluminum blocks used were ~100 cm long; this size demands a large lab space and access to specialized computer numerical control milling machines to drill the holes. Together with using two research-grade water baths to maintain the target temperature, the financial cost of assembling the setup is high.
Therefore, this work aims to develop an alternative means to generate a stable, linear temperature gradient with commercially available parts. Such a product must have a small footprint and should be able to be easily used for acute thermal stress exposure experiments for planktonic organisms. This protocol is developed with zooplankton that is &#60;1 mm in size as target organisms, and thus, it was optimized for the use of a 1.5 or 2 mL microcentrifuge tube. Larger study organisms will require containers larger than the 1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes used and enlarged holes in the aluminum blocks.
In addition to making the experimental apparatus more accessible, this work&#160;aims&#160;to simplify the data processing pipeline. While commercial statistical software provides routines to compute LT50 using logistic or probit regression, the licensing cost is non-trivial. Therefore, an easy-to-use script that relies on the open-source statistical program R22 would make data analysis more accessible.
This protocol shows how a compact heat block can be fabricated with commercially available parts and be applied to exposing zooplankton (larvae of the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus) to acute heat stress to determine their upper thermal limit.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.45 &#181;m membrane filter</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>74300-042</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#189;&#8221; Acrylic sheet</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>8560K266</td>
			<td>Used to construct a ridged case with sufficient insulation.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mL syringe</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>76290-420</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 Channel 7 Thermocouple Types Datalogger</td>
			<td>Omega Engineering</td>
			<td>HH506A</td>
			<td>Can be replaced with any thermometer that will fit inside a microcentrifuge tube</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automatic pipette&#160;</td>
			<td>Ranin&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bolt- and Clamp-Mount Strip Heater 
			with 430 Stainless Steel Sheath, 120V AC, 1-1/2&#34; Wide, 100W</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>3619K32</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystal Sea Bioassay Mix</td>
			<td>Pentair</td>
			<td>CM2B</td>
			<td>Use to make aritifical seawater&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Denraster excentricus</td>
			<td>M-Rep&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Sand dollars from California&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting microscope&#160;</td>
			<td>Nikon&#160;</td>
			<td>SMZ645</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DIYhz Aluminum Water Cooling Block, Liquid Water Cooler Heat Sink System for PC Computer CPU Graphics Radiator Heatsink Endothermic Head Silver(40 mm x 120 mm x 12 mm)</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Connects to water bath and used to cool one end of the block.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Easy-to-Machine MIC6 Cast Aluminum Sheet 2&#34; thick 8&#34; x 8&#34;&#160;</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>86825K953</td>
			<td>Machined to 2&#34; x 6&#34; x 8&#34; with 60 equally spaced holes (11 mm dia., 42 mm depth) with two addition holes drilled in one side for thermostat probes.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Economical Flexible Polyethylene Foam Pipe Insulation</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>4530K121</td>
			<td>Covers the plastic tubing between chiller and block to reduce heat loss. Can be omitted if temperature range is close to room temperature&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EVERSECU 72w 110-240v Aquarium Water Chiller Warmer/Cooler Temperature Controller for Fish Shrimp Tank Marine Coral Reef Tank Below 20 L/30 L Aquarium Chiller</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Can be used in place of the lab-grade water bath&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Example with larval sand dollar&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GENNEL 100 g Silver Silicone Thermal Conductive Compound Grease Paste For GPU CPU IC LED Ovens Cooling</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Improves the thermal conductance between the block and the heating and cooling elements.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inkbird WiFi Reptile Thermostat Temperature Controller with 2 Probes and 2 Outlets, IPT-2CH Reptiles Heat Mat Thermostat (Max 250 W per Outlet)</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Monitors hot and cold ends. Maintains hot end in range</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lauda Ecoline Silver Air-Cooled Refrigerated Circulators</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89202-386</td>
			<td>Can be replaced with an aquarium chiller&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge Tubes</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>76019-014</td>
			<td>If larger animals are used, scanilation vials (VWR 66022-004) is a good alternative&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitex mesh filter</td>
			<td>&#160;Self made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used hot glue to attached Nitex mesh to 1/2&#34; PVC tubing&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur pipette</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>14673-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride (0.35 M)&#160;</td>
			<td>Millpore-Sigma</td>
			<td>P3911-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>R statistical software.&#160;</td>
			<td>The R Project for Statistical Computing</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe needle</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89219-346</td>
			<td>Depending on size of target organism gague 14 and 16 can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tygon Tubing&#160;</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>5233K65</td>
			<td>Adjust to match the chiller and block used&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zoo Med Repti Temp Rheostat</td>
			<td>Chewy.com</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Rated to 150 W and rewired to feed directly into the heating element. Used to control rate of heat output</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

thermal limits determination for zooplankton using a heat block

Thermal limits and breadth have been widely used to predict species distribution. As the global temperature continues to rise, understanding how thermal limit changes with acclimation and how it varies between life stages and populations are vital for determining the vulnerability of species to future warming. Most marine organisms have complex life cycles that include early planktonic stages. While quantifying the thermal limit of these small early developmental stages (tens to hundreds of microns) helps identify developmental bottlenecks, this process can be challenging due to the small size of target organisms, large bench space requirement, and high initial fabrication cost. Here, a setup that is geared toward small volumes (mL to tens of mL) is presented. This setup combines commercially available components to generate a stable and linear thermal gradient. Production specifications of the setup, as well as procedures to introduce and enumerate live versus dead individuals and compute lethal temperature, are also presented.

The goal of this protocol is to determine the upper thermal limit of zooplankton. To do so, a stable and linear thermal gradient is needed. The proposed setup was able to generate a thermal gradient ranging from 14 &#176;C to 40 &#176;C by setting the water bath temperature to 8 &#176;C and the heater to 39 &#176;C (Figure 2A). The temperature gradient can be narrowed and shifted by changing the endpoint values. A thermal gradient with a narrower range (19 &#176;C to 37 &#176;C) was also gen...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block at JoVE.com

Thermal Limits Determination for Zooplankton Using a Heat Block

The present protocol illustrates the use of commercially available components to generate a stable and linear thermal gradient. Such gradient can then be used to determine the upper thermal limit of planktonic organisms, particularly invertebrate larvae.

Thermal limits and breadth have been widely used to predict species distribution. As the global temperature continues to rise, understanding how thermal ...

As global temperatures continue to rise, quantifying thermal limits and the relationship with acclimation and ontogeny are vital for determining the vulnerability of species to future warming. For marine organisms with complex life histories, determining thermal limits can be logistically challenging. This protocol introduces a small footprint, easy to build method to estimate critical temperatures of small planktonic organisms.While the method was developed for small, less than a millimeter sized plankton, it can be adopted for larger marine organisms that would fit into scintillation vials of approximately 50 milliliters volume. Begin by wiring the strip heater to the rheostat. Drill 60 holes in a grid of six by 10 size to prepare the aluminum block of a size of 20.3 by 15.2 by five centimeter, and ensure that the holes are spaced two centimeters from center to center in both directions.Drill two additional holes between the first and second column and the ninth and 10th column, matching the size of the temperature controller probes. To hold the elements in place and insulate the completed heat block, construct a case from clear acrylic sheets, ensuring to apply two layers at the backside of the heating element. In the final assembly, apply thermal paste to maximize heat conductance from the heating element into the block and from the block to the cooling element.Connect the water bath with Tygon tubing and insert the thermostat probe into the holes on the side of the aluminum block. In all the milled holes, place 1.5 milliliter micro-centrifuge tubes, filled with tap water to the brim. Turn on the temperature controller and set the stop heating temperature of probe one to 35 to 37 degrees Celsius, and probe two to 21.5 to 22.5 degrees Celsius.Rotate the rheostat to turn on the heating element and set it to medium. Turn on the water bath and set the chiller temperature to 15 degrees Celsius. Using a thermocouple with a K-type electrode, check the temperature inside each micro-centrifuge tube every 10 minutes afterward.Adjust the values of the end points by changing the settings of the temperature controller and the water bath as needed. Turn on the recirculating water bath and heater and set them to 15 degrees Celsius and 37 degrees Celsius respectively, to generate a temperature gradient from 19.5 degrees Celsius to 37 degrees Celsius. Once the micro-centrifuge tubes are placed in milled holes and the temperature of the heat block is reached, check the temperature inside each micro-centrifuge tube using a thermocouple with a K-type electrode.And note down these temperatures. Fill a 1.5 milliliter micro-centrifuge tube with seawater, filtered through a 0.45 micrometer mesh. Concentrate the study organism's culture with reverse filtering so that the organisms remain at the bottom of the beaker.Rinse the concentrated culture with filtered seawater, and repeat the reverse filtering once more to concentrate the sample. Count the small planktonic organisms under a dissecting microscope and transfer a known number of organisms into half-filled micro-centrifuge tubes using a glass pasteur pipette. Now add filtered sea water until the final volume in these tubes reaches one milliliter.Now place these tubes in pairs into the heating block, starting from the cold end to allow the organisms to gradually warm up to the desired experimental temperature. Wait for 10 minutes and move the pairs of micro-centrifuge tubes to the adjacent drilled holes with warmer temperatures. Place additional pairs of micro-centrifuge tubes in each row at the cold end and continue to shift them towards the warmer end in pairs.Once the entire block is filled, incubate it for two hours at the designated temperature. At the end of the incubation period, measure the temperature in each tube and note it down. Then transfer all tubes to the pre-labeled holders and incubate them at a predetermined temperature for one hour to allow recovery.For enumerating the alive organism portion, transfer the contents of an individual micro-centrifuge tube in a 35 millimeter petri dish using a glass pipette. Under a dissecting microscope, count the live and dead organisms and note down the numbers. The observed number of organisms should match the originally taken organism.If it does not, check the side of the micro-centrifuge tubes and petri dish, Generate a data table in CSV format with the headers grouping variable of interest, the temperature of the tube in degrees Celsius, number of individuals alive, and number of individuals dead. To fit the data with a logistic regression, use a generalized linear model with a binomial distribution. To run the model, type source, and use the R file, modelloop.r.Compute the predictor values at which 50%of the individuals survived, to determine the median upper thermal limit. Using this protocol, the survivorship of larval sand dollars was measured, which was across a temperature range of 19 to 37 degrees Celsius, at two, four and six days post-fertilization. As larval sand dollars developed, the upper thermal limit increased from 28.6 degrees Celsius at two days post-fertilization, to 28.8 degrees Celsius at four days post-fertilization, and approximately 29 degrees Celsius at six days post-fertilization.Incubation and recovery times are species specific. It is important to conduct a preliminary test to ensure that timing selected yields a reliable live versus dead estimation.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Protocol for Dengue Infections in Mosquitoes (A. aegypti) and Infection Phenotype Determination

The purpose of this procedure is to infect the Aedes mosquito with dengue virus in a laboratory condition and examine the infection level and dynamic of the virus in the mosquito tissues. This protocol is routinely used for studying mosquito-virus interactions, especially for identification of novel host factors that are able to determine vector competence. The entire experiment must be conducted in a BSL2 laboratory. Similar to Plasmodium falciparum infections, proper attire including gloves and lab coat must be worn at all times. After the experiment, all the materials that came in contact with the virus need to be treated with 75% ethanol and bleached before proceeding with normal washing. All other materials need to be autoclaved before discarding them.

Protocol for Dengue Infections in Mosquitoes A. aegypti and Infection Phenotype Determination

Once a gene is identified as potentially refractory for the dengue virus, it must be evaluated for it's role in preventing viral infections within the mosquito. This protocol illustrates how the extent of dengue infections of mosquitoes can be assayed. The techniques for growing up the virus in culture, membrane feeding mosquitoes human blood, and assaying viral titers in the mosquito midgut are demonstrated.

The purpose of this procedure is to infect the Aedes mosquito with dengue virus in a laboratory condition and examine the infection level and dynamic of ...

Transformation of Plasmid DNA into E. coli Using the Heat Shock Method

Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli using the heat shock method is a basic technique of molecular biology. It consists of inserting a foreign plasmid or ligation product into bacteria. This video protocol describes the traditional method of transformation using commercially available chemically competent bacteria from Genlantis. After a short incubation in ice, a mixture of chemically competent bacteria and DNA is placed at 42&deg;C for 45 seconds (heat shock) and then placed back in ice. SOC media is added and the transformed cells are incubated at 37&deg;C for 30 min with agitation. To be assured of isolating colonies irrespective of transformation efficiency, two quantities of transformed bacteria are plated. This traditional protocol can be used successfully to transform most commercially available competent bacteria. The turbocells from Genlantis can also be used in a novel 3-minute transformation protocol, described in the instruction manual.

Transformation of plasmid DNA into E. coli using the heat shock method is a basic technique of molecular biology. It consists of inserting a foreign ...

Crystallizing Membrane Proteins for Structure Determination using Lipidic Mesophases

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the lipidic cubic phase or in meso method. The method has been shown to be quite versatile in that it has been used to solve X-ray crystallographic structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins, proteins that are monomeric, homo- and hetero-multimeric, chromophore-containing and chromophore-free, and alpha-helical and beta-barrel proteins. Recent successes using in meso crystallization are the human engineered beta2-adrenergic and adenosine A2a G protein-coupled receptors. Protocols are presented for reconstituting the membrane protein into the monoolein-based mesophase, and for setting up crystallizations in the manual mode. Additional steps in the overall process, such as crystal harvesting, are to be addressed in future video articles. The time required to prepare the protein-loaded mesophase and to set up a crystallization plate manually is about one hour.

Herein is described the procedure implemented in the Caffrey Membrane Structural and Functional Biology Group to set up manually crystallization trials of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases.

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the ...

Agar-Block Microcosms for Controlled Plant Tissue Decomposition by Aerobic Fungi

The two principal methods for studying fungal biodegradation of lignocellulosic plant tissues were developed for wood preservative testing (soil-block; agar-block). It is well-accepted that soil-block microcosms yield higher decay rates, fewer moisture issues, lower variability among studies, and higher thresholds of preservative toxicity. Soil-block testing is thus the more utilized technique and has been standardized by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (method D 1413-07). The soil-block design has drawbacks, however, using locally-variable soil sources and in limiting the control of nutrients external (exogenous) to the decaying tissues. These drawbacks have emerged as a problem in applying this method to other, increasingly popular research aims. These modern aims include degrading lignocellulosics for bioenergy research, testing bioremediation of co-metabolized toxics, evaluating oxidative mechanisms, and tracking translocated elements along hyphal networks. Soil-blocks do not lend enough control in these applications. A refined agar-block approach is necessary.
Here, we use the brown rot wood-degrading fungus Serpula lacrymans to degrade wood in agar-block microcosms, using deep Petri dishes with low-calcium agar. We test the role of exogenous gypsum on decay in a time-series, to demonstrate the utility and expected variability. Blocks from a single board rip (longitudinal cut) are conditioned, weighed, autoclaved, and introduced aseptically atop plastic mesh. Fungal inoculations are at each block face, with exogenous gypsum added at interfaces. Harvests are aseptic until the final destructive harvest. These microcosms are designed to avoid block contact with agar or Petri dish walls. Condensation is minimized during plate pours and during incubation. Finally, inoculum/gypsum/wood spacing is minimized but without allowing contact. These less technical aspects of agar-block design are also the most common causes of failure and the key source of variability among studies. Video publication is therefore useful in this case, and we demonstrate low-variability, high-quality results.

This video demonstrates a controlled environment approach to study degradation of lignocellulosic plant tissues by aerobic fungi. The ability to control nutrient sources and moisture is a key advantage of agar-block microcosms, but the approach often yields mixed success. We address critical pitfalls to yield reproducible, low-variability results.

The two principal methods for studying fungal biodegradation of lignocellulosic plant tissues were developed for wood preservative testing (soil-block; ...

Rapid PCR Thermocycling using Microscale Thermal Convection

Many molecular biology assays depend in some way on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify an initially dilute target DNA sample to a detectable concentration level. But the design of conventional PCR thermocycling hardware, predominantly based on massive metal heating blocks whose temperature is regulated by thermoelectric heaters, severely limits the achievable reaction speed1. Considerable electrical power is also required to repeatedly heat and cool the reagent mixture, limiting the ability to deploy these instruments in a portable format.
Thermal convection has emerged as a promising alternative thermocycling approach that has the potential to overcome these limitations2-9. Convective flows are an everyday occurrence in a diverse array of settings ranging from the Earth's atmosphere, oceans, and interior, to decorative and colorful lava lamps. Fluid motion is initiated in the same way in each case: a buoyancy driven instability arises when a confined volume of fluid is subjected to a spatial temperature gradient. These same phenomena offer an attractive way to perform PCR thermocycling. By applying a static temperature gradient across an appropriately designed reactor geometry, a continuous circulatory flow can be established that will repeatedly transport PCR reagents through temperature zones associated with the denaturing, annealing, and extension stages of the reaction (Figure 1). Thermocycling can therefore be actuated in a pseudo-isothermal manner by simply holding two opposing surfaces at fixed temperatures, completely eliminating the need to repeatedly heat and cool the instrument.
One of the main challenges facing design of convective thermocyclers is the need to precisely control the spatial velocity and temperature distributions within the reactor to ensure that the reagents sequentially occupy the correct temperature zones for a sufficient period of time10,11. Here we describe results of our efforts to probe the full 3-D velocity and temperature distributions in microscale convective thermocyclers12. Unexpectedly, we have discovered a subset of complex flow trajectories that are highly favorable for PCR due to a synergistic combination of (1) continuous exchange among flow paths that provides an enhanced opportunity for reagents to sample the full range of optimal temperature profiles, and (2) increased time spent within the extension temperature zone the rate limiting step of PCR. Extremely rapid DNA amplification times (under 10 min) are achievable in reactors designed to generate these flows.

We describe a novel method to perform DNA replication via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Thermal convection is harnessed to continuously shuttle reagents between denaturing, annealing, and extension conditions by maintaining opposing surfaces of the reactor at constant temperature. This inherently simple design promises to make rapid PCR more accessible.

Many molecular biology assays depend in some way on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify an initially dilute target DNA sample to a detectable ...

Chemically-blocked Antibody Microarray for Multiplexed High-throughput Profiling of Specific Protein Glycosylation in Complex Samples

In this study, we describe an effective protocol for use in a multiplexed high-throughput antibody microarray with glycan binding protein detection that allows for the glycosylation profiling of specific proteins. Glycosylation of proteins is the most prevalent post-translational modification found on proteins, and leads diversified modifications of the physical, chemical, and biological properties of proteins. Because the glycosylation machinery is particularly susceptible to disease progression and malignant transformation, aberrant glycosylation has been recognized as early detection biomarkers for cancer and other diseases. However, current methods to study protein glycosylation typically are too complicated or expensive for use in most normal laboratory or clinical settings and a more practical method to study protein glycosylation is needed. The new protocol described in this study makes use of a chemically blocked antibody microarray with glycan-binding protein (GBP) detection and significantly reduces the time, cost, and lab equipment requirements needed to study protein glycosylation. In this method, multiple immobilized glycoprotein-specific antibodies are printed directly onto the microarray slides and the N-glycans on the antibodies are blocked. The blocked, immobilized glycoprotein-specific antibodies are able to capture and isolate glycoproteins from a complex sample that is applied directly onto the microarray slides. Glycan detection then can be performed by the application of biotinylated lectins and other GBPs to the microarray slide, while binding levels can be determined using Dylight 549-Streptavidin. Through the use of an antibody panel and probing with multiple biotinylated lectins, this method allows for an effective glycosylation profile of the different proteins found in a given human or animal sample to be developed.
Introduction
Glycosylation of protein, which is the most ubiquitous post-translational modification on proteins, modifies the physical, chemical, and biological properties of a protein, and plays a fundamental role in various biological processes1-6. Because the glycosylation machinery is particularly susceptible to disease progression and malignant transformation, aberrant glycosylation has been recognized as early detection biomarkers for cancer and other diseases 7-12. In fact, most current cancer biomarkers, such as the L3 fraction of &alpha;-1 fetoprotein (AFP) for hepatocellular carcinoma 13-15, and CA199 for pancreatic cancer 16, 17 are all aberrant glycan moieties on glycoproteins. However, methods to study protein glycosylation have been complicated, and not suitable for routine laboratory and clinical settings. Chen et al. has recently invented a chemically blocked antibody microarray with a glycan-binding protein (GBP) detection method for high-throughput and multiplexed profile glycosylation of native glycoproteins in a complex sample 18. In this affinity based microarray method, multiple immobilized glycoprotein-specific antibodies capture and isolate glycoproteins from the complex mixture directly on the microarray slide, and the glycans on each individual captured protein are measured by GBPs. Because all normal antibodies contain N-glycans which could be recognized by most GBPs, the critical step of this method is to chemically block the glycans on the antibodies from binding to GBP. In the procedure, the cis-diol groups of the glycans on the antibodies were first oxidized to aldehyde groups by using NaIO4 in sodium acetate buffer avoiding light. The aldehyde groups were then conjugated to the hydrazide group of a cross-linker, 4-(4-N-MaleimidoPhenyl)butyric acid Hydrazide HCl (MPBH), followed by the conjugation of a dipeptide, Cys-Gly, to the maleimide group of the MPBH. Thus, the cis-diol groups on glycans of antibodies were converted into bulky none hydroxyl groups, which hindered the lectins and other GBPs bindings to the capture antibodies. This blocking procedure makes the GBPs and lectins bind only to the glycans of captured proteins. After this chemically blocking, serum samples were incubated with the antibody microarray, followed by the glycans detection by using different biotinylated lectins and GBPs, and visualized with Cy3-streptavidin. The parallel use of an antibody panel and multiple lectin probing provides discrete glycosylation profiles of multiple proteins in a given sample 18-20. This method has been used successfully in multiple different labs 1, 7, 13, 19-31. However, stability of MPBH and Cys-Gly, complicated and extended procedure in this method affect the reproducibility, effectiveness and efficiency of the method. In this new protocol, we replaced both MPBH and Cys-Gly with one much more stable reagent glutamic acid hydrazide (Glu-hydrazide), which significantly improved the reproducibility of the method, simplified and shorten the whole procedure so that the it can be completed within one working day. In this new protocol, we describe the detailed procedure of the protocol which can be readily adopted by normal labs for routine protein glycosylation study and techniques which are necessary to obtain reproducible and repeatable results.

In this study, we describe an improved protocol for a multiplexed high-throughput antibody microarray with lectin detection method that can be used in glycosylation profiling of specific proteins. This protocol features new reliable reagents and significantly reduces the time, cost, and lab equipment requirements as compared to the previous procedure.

 In this study, we describe an effective protocol for use in a multiplexed high-throughput antibody microarray with glycan binding protein detection that ...

A Method for Mouse Pancreatic Islet Isolation and Intracellular cAMP Determination

Uncontrolled glycemia is a hallmark of diabetes mellitus and promotes morbidities like neuropathy, nephropathy, and retinopathy. With the increasing prevalence of diabetes, both immune-mediated type 1 and obesity-linked type 2, studies aimed at delineating diabetes pathophysiology and therapeutic mechanisms are of critical importance. The &#946;-cells of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans are responsible for appropriately secreting insulin in response to elevated blood glucose concentrations. In addition to glucose and other nutrients, the &#946;-cells are also stimulated by specific hormones, termed incretins, which are secreted from the gut in response to a meal and act on &#946;-cell receptors that increase the production of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Decreased &#946;-cell function, mass, and incretin responsiveness are well-understood to contribute to the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes, and are also being increasingly linked with type 1 diabetes. The present mouse islet isolation and cAMP determination protocol can be a tool to help delineate mechanisms promoting disease progression and therapeutic interventions, particularly those that are mediated by the incretin receptors or related receptors that act through modulation of intracellular cAMP production. While only cAMP measurements will be described, the described islet isolation protocol creates a clean preparation that also allows for many other downstream applications, including glucose stimulated insulin secretion, [3H]-thymidine incorporation, protein abundance, and mRNA expression.

Assaying in vitro &#946;-cell function using isolated mouse islets of Langerhans is an important component in the study of diabetes pathophysiology and therapeutics. While many&#160;downstream applications are available, this protocol specifically describes the measurement of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) as an essential parameter determining &#946;-cell function.

Uncontrolled glycemia is a hallmark of diabetes mellitus and promotes morbidities like neuropathy, nephropathy, and retinopathy. With the increasing ...

Determination of Protein-ligand Interactions Using Differential Scanning Fluorimetry

A wide range of methods are currently available for determining the dissociation constant between a protein and interacting small molecules. However, most of these require access to specialist equipment, and often require a degree of expertise to effectively establish reliable experiments and analyze data. Differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) is being increasingly used as a robust method for initial screening of proteins for interacting small molecules, either for identifying physiological partners or for hit discovery. This technique has the advantage that it requires only a PCR machine suitable for quantitative PCR, and so suitable instrumentation is available in most institutions; an excellent range of protocols are already available; and there are strong precedents in the literature for multiple uses of the method. Past work has proposed several means of calculating dissociation constants from DSF data, but these are mathematically demanding. Here, we demonstrate a method for estimating dissociation constants from a moderate amount of DSF experimental data. These data can typically be collected and analyzed within a single day. We demonstrate how different models can be used to fit data collected from simple binding events, and where cooperative binding or independent binding sites are present. Finally, we present an example of data analysis in a case where standard models do not apply. These methods are illustrated with data collected on commercially available control proteins, and two proteins from our research program. Overall, our method provides a straightforward way for researchers to rapidly gain further insight into protein-ligand interactions using DSF.

Differential scanning fluorimetry is a widely used method for screening libraries of small molecules for interactions with proteins. Here, we present a straightforward method to extend these analyses to provide an estimate of the dissociation constant between a small molecule and its protein partner.

A wide range of methods are currently available for determining the dissociation constant between a protein and interacting small molecules. However, most ...

Using a Thermal Camera to Measure Heat Loss Through Bird Feather Coats

Feathers are essential to insulation, and therefore to the cost of thermoregulation,&#160;in birds. There is robust literature on the energetic cost of thermoregulation in birds across a variety of ecological circumstances. However, few studies characterize the contribution of the feathers alone to thermoregulation. Several previous studies have established methods for measuring the insulation value of animal pelts, but they require destructive sampling methods that are problematic for birds, whose feathers are not distributed evenly across the skin. More information is needed about 1) how the contribution of feathers to thermoregulation varies both across and within species and 2) how feather coats may change over space and time. Reported here is a method for rapidly and directly measuring the thermal performance of feather coats and the skin using dried whole skin specimens, without the need to destroy the skin specimen. This method isolates and measures the thermal gradient across a feather coat in a way that measurements of heat loss and metabolic cost in live birds, which use behavioral and physiological strategies to thermoregulate, cannot. The method employs a thermal camera, which allows the rapid collection of quantitative thermal data to measure heat loss from a stable source through the skin. This protocol can easily be applied to various research questions, is applicable to any avian taxa, and does not require destruction of the skin specimen. Finally, it will further the understanding of the importance of passive thermoregulation in birds by simplifying and accelerating the collection of quantitative data.

This protocol describes the quantification of heat transmission through a flat skinned avian specimen using a thermal camera and hot water bath. The method allows obtaining of quantitative, comparative data about the thermal performance of feather coats across species using dried flat skin specimens.

Feathers are essential to insulation, and therefore to the cost of thermoregulation,&#160;in birds. There is robust literature on the energetic cost of ...

High-Throughput Assays of Critical Thermal Limits in Insects

Upper and lower thermal limits of plants and animals are important predictors of their performance, survival, and geographic distributions, and are essential for predicting responses to climate change. This work describes two high-throughput protocols for measuring insect thermal limits: one for assessing critical thermal minima (CTmin), and the other for assessing heat knock down time (KDT) in response to a static heat stressor. In the CTmin assay, individuals are placed in an acrylic-jacketed column, subjected to a decreasing temperature ramp, and counted as they fall from their perches using an infrared sensor. In the heat KDT assay, individuals are contained in a 96 well plate, placed in an incubator set to a stressful, hot temperature, and video recorded to determine the time at which they can no longer remain upright and move. These protocols offer advantages over commonly used techniques. Both assays are low cost and can be completed relatively quickly (~2 h). The CTmin assay reduces experimenter error and can measure a large number of individuals at once. The heat KDT protocol generates a video record of each assay and thus removes experimenter bias and the need to continuously monitor individuals in real time.

Thermal limits can predict the environments organisms tolerate, which is valuable information in the face of rapid climate change. Described here are high-throughput protocols to assess critical thermal minima and heat knockdown time in insects. Both protocols maximize the throughput and minimize the cost of the assays.

Upper and lower thermal limits of plants and animals are important predictors of their performance, survival, and geographic distributions, and are ...