We received technical assistance from the Biopolymers Facility at Harvard Medical School for bioanalyzer. This work was supported by National Multiple Sclerosis Society research grant RG-1707-28516 (H.L.W. and S.L.).

All methods involving research animals described here have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Brigham and Women&#8217;s Hospital, Harvard Medical School.
All methods involving human research subjects described here are in accordance with the guidelines set by the Partners Human Research Committee.
1. Fecal sample collection
<ol>
	<li>Autoclave or prepare a sterile and nuclease-free 2 mL microcentrifuge tube with a screw cap for each animal subject in an experiment.
	<ol>
		<li>For human subjects, provide an appropriate, nuclease-free, and sterile stool specimen collection device for each subject.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collect 25-100 mg (approximately 1-4 fecal pellets for mouse fecal samples) of fecal samples from each animal subject in a sterile environment. 
	NOTE: Two or more fecal pellets (~50 mg or heavier) are preferred for obtaining RNA of the highest purity.
	<ol>
		<li>Utilize all necessary Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and materials, for example: a pair of laboratory gloves, a disinfectant spray and a sterile paper towel, to sterilize the working area, where the animal research subject is placed on, to avoid fecal sample contamination.
		<ol>
			<li>For human subjects, instruct each research subject/collector to collect 100-200 mg of stool samples in an environment as sterile as possible. Use standard sterile operation and avoid stool specimen contamination.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collect fecal samples from each animal subject directly into a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube with a screw cap without touching any other surfaces to avoid contamination.
	<ol>
		<li>For human subjects, instruct each subject to defecate directly into an applicable collection device provided (e.g., a sterile stool specimen collection kit) to avoid contamination. 
		NOTE: Instruct subject to avoid contamination by toilet surfaces, water, urine, or any other non-sterile surfaces/objects.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Freeze fecal samples collected in 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes immediately at -80 &#176;C or place in a bucket of dry ice for the better quantity and quality of RNA before feces resuspension as described in the steps below.
	<ol>
		<li>For human stool specimens, aliquot each fresh specimen of 200 mg into 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes with screw caps and freeze them at -80 &#176;C before feces resuspension as described below.
		<ol>
			<li>For the storage of stool specimens not in 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes with screw caps, weigh and transfer 100-200 mg each of frozen specimens into separate 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes with screw caps before feces resuspension as described below. 
			NOTE: For human stool specimens, avoid taking more than 200 mg of stool specimens for RNA isolation as it may cause difficulties in the following steps. With an overloaded sample in a 2 mL microcentrifuge tube, the aqueous phase, organic phase and interphase may not be clearly formed and separated. The procedure can be paused here.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Preparations of wash solutions
<ol>
	<li>Add 21 mL of American Chemical Society (ACS) grade 100% ethanol to the Wash Solution 1 provided in the miRNA Isolation Kit&#160;(see Table of Materials)&#160;to reach the final volume of 30 mL, as shown on the bottle. Vortex until everything dissolves in the bottle.</li>
	<li>Add 40 mL of ACS grade 100% ethanol to the Wash Solution 2/3 provided to reach the final volume of 50 mL, as shown on the bottle. Vortex for 5 s or until the final mixture is well blended.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparations of equipment and materials
<ol>
	<li>Spray the working area and equipment, for example: the laboratory bench, the working area in the chemical fume hood and the micro-centrifuge tube racks, with a Ribonuclease (RNase) decontamination solution (e.g., commercially available RNase decontamination solution). To avoid contamination, apply with the RNase decontamination solution on the surfaces wherever and whenever deemed necessary.</li>
	<li>Don a clean laboratory coat, put on a facial mask, and wear appropriate laboratory gloves to protect the RNA in the fecal samples from nucleases present on human skin. Spray gloves with a RNase decontamination solution and change gloves frequently to avoid contamination.</li>
	<li>Prepare a bucket of dry ice for fecal samples stored at -80 &#176;C to prevent thawing before feces resuspension and a bucket of ice for materials, for example: Acid-Phenol: Chloroform, to prolong the shelf life. 
	NOTE: Ensure materials including the media used in the protocol are sterile without contamination of nucleases.</li>
</ol>
4. Feces resuspension
<ol>
	<li>Resuspend 25-100 mg of fecal samples in 600 &#181;L of sterile 1x Dulbecco&#39;s Phosphate-Buffered Saline (DPBS). 
	CAUTION: Fecal samples should be processed immediately when thawed from -80 &#176;C without even partial thawing to minimize the release of RNases and cellular RNA as ice crystals rupture both interior and exterior cellular compartments when cells in sample thaw.
	<ol>
		<li>Add 600 &#181;L of 1x DPBS to the 2 mL microcentrifuge tube with a screw cap containing fecal samples at room temperature (RT).</li>
		<li>Incubate the mixture of fecal samples submerged in 600 &#181;L of 1x DPBS in the 2 mL microcentrifuge tube capped for 30 min at RT.</li>
		<li>Resuspend the mixture by mashing with 1 mL pipette tip and vortex well with the 2 mL microcentrifuge tube capped. To optimize and increase the quantity and quality of RNA, resuspend the mixture with a homogenizer with the setting for one cycle at S4000 (or 4000 rpm) and 45 s.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Organic extraction
CAUTION: Use the hazardous chemical fume hood for the following steps until Step 6 with the use of acid-phenol: chloroform and ACS grade 100% ethanol due to their toxicity and inflammability. Change PPE as needed and follow proper standard precautions when dealing with hazardous material.
<ol>
	<li>Extract RNA with 600 &#181;L of acid-phenol: chloroform (the volume of acid-phenol: chloroform required equals to the initial volume of added 1x DPBS in Step 4.1).
	<ol>
		<li>Add 600 &#956;L of acid-phenol: chloroform to the suspension from Step 4.1. 
		NOTE: Withdraw acid-phenol: chloroform from the lower phase in the bottle as the upper phase is mixed with an aqueous buffer. If the interphase between these two phases is disturbed, then wait and withdraw acid-phenol: chloroform only when the interphase re-establishes itself to avoid contamination.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Vortex the mixture for 60 s to thoroughly mix. Alternatively, to optimize and increase quantity of RNA in the yield, mix by using a homogenizer with the setting for one cycle at S4000 and 45 s.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge for 15 min at 10,000 x g at RT to separate the aqueous and organic phases with a microcentrifuge. After centrifugation, the interphase should be compact. If not, repeat the centrifugation. 
	NOTE: If the interphase could not be as compact as desired possibly due to uneven ratio of the initial volume to the volume of added acid-phenol: chloroform after several repeats of centrifugation, proceed to recover the aqueous phase with a greater care to avoid contamination.</li>
	<li>Recover the aqueous phase and transfer it to a new 2 mL microcentrifuge tube with a hinge cap (not provided by the miRNA isolation kit).
	<ol>
		<li>Remove the aqueous (or upper) phase carefully without disturbing the lower phase and transfer it to a new 2 mL microcentrifuge tube with a hinge cap. Note the volume transferred (e.g., ~500 &#181;L). 
		NOTE: When the interphase is compact and the upper phase is clearly separated, there are possibly a few tiny residual particles floating on the top of the aqueous phase. Pipette carefully to avoid these residues and only recover visibly and clearly separated aqueous phase to ensure a quality RNA yield, even if you could only obtain a small volume of the aqueous phase.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Final RNA isolation
<ol>
	<li>Add 1.25 volumes of RT ACS grade 100% ethanol to the aqueous phase in the 2 mL microcentrifuge tube (e.g., add 625 &#956;L of 100% ethanol if 500 &#956;L of aqueous phase is recovered from Step 5.4.). Vortex 3 s.</li>
	<li>Load the aqueous phase/ethanol mixture through the filter cartridge provided in the miRNA isolation kit.
	<ol>
		<li>For each sample, place the filter cartridge into one of the collection tubes supplied by the kit.
		<ol>
			<li>Pipette and load 600 &#181;L of the aqueous phase/ethanol mixture into the filter cartridge. 
			NOTE: Vortex the mixture briefly to thoroughly mix the ethanol with aqueous phase before pipetting. No more than 700 &#181;L of the aqueous phase/ethanol mixture can be loaded at a time.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Centrifuge at 10,000 x g for 90 s to filter through the mixture. Spinning at a higher speed may damage the filter.</li>
		<li>Discard the filtrate and repeat Steps 6.2.1 to 6.2.2 until all the mixture is filtered through the same filter membrane in successive applications. Keep and reuse the same collection tube for washing steps below.</li>
		<li>Wash the filter with 700 &#181;L of miRNA Wash Solution 1. 
		CAUTION: miRNA Wash Solution 1 contains guanidine thiocyanate that can cause skin irritation and serious eye damage. Wear necessary PPE, for examples: gloves, face shield, protective laboratory coat. Change gloves frequently as necessary.
		<ol>
			<li>Apply 700 &#181;L of miRNA Wash Solution 1, the working solution prepared with the ACS grade 100% ethanol, into the filter cartridge.</li>
			<li>Centrifuge for 60 s to filter the miRNA Wash Solution 1 through the filter cartridge.</li>
			<li>Discard the filtrate from the collection tube and place the same filter cartridge into the same collection tube.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Wash the filter with Wash Solution 2/3 one time each with volumes of 700 &#181;L, 500 &#181;L, and 250 &#181;L consecutively.
		<ol>
			<li>Apply 700 &#181;L of Wash Solution 2/3, the working solution prepared with the ACS grade 100% ethanol, into the filter cartridge.
			<ol>
				<li>Centrifuge at 10,000 x g for 1 min.</li>
				<li>Discard the filtrate from the collection tube and place the same filter cartridge into the same collection tube.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Apply 500 &#181;L of Wash Solution 2/3 into the filter cartridge.
			<ol>
				<li>Centrifuge at 10,000 x g for 1 min.</li>
				<li>Discard the filtrate from the collection tube and place the same filter cartridge into the same collection tube.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Apply 250 &#181;L of Wash Solution 2/3 into the filter cartridge.
			<ol>
				<li>Centrifuge at 10,000 x g for 1 min.</li>
				<li>Discard the filtrate from the collection tube.</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Transfer the filter cartridge into a new collection tube and spin the assembly for 5 min to remove residual fluid from the filter.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
7. Elute RNA with 50 &#181;L nuclease-free water
<ol>
	<li>Transfer the filter cartridge into a new collection tube. Pipette 50 &#181;L of nuclease-free water to the center of the filter and cap the collection tube.
	<ol>
		<li>Incubate at RT for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Spin for 5 min at 8,000 x g to recover RNA into the new collection tube.</li>
		<li>Determine the concentration and purity of recovered fecal RNA using a fluorometer. Recovered fecal RNA can be stored at -80 &#730;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Das, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+extracellular+RNA+communication+consortium:+Establishing+foundational+knowledge+and+technologies+for+extracellular+RNA+research.">The extracellular RNA communication consortium: Establishing foundational knowledge and technologies for extracellular RNA research.</a> Cell. 177 (2), 231-242 (2019).</li><li>Ahmed, F. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diagnostic+microRNA+markers+for+screening+sporadic+human+colon+cancer+and+active+ulcerative+colitis+in+stool+and+tissue.">Diagnostic microRNA markers for screening sporadic human colon cancer and active ulcerative colitis in stool and tissue.</a> Cancer Genomics &amp; Proteomics. 6 (5), 281-295 (2009).</li><li>Liu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+host+shapes+the+gut+microbiota+via+fecal+microRNA.">The host shapes the gut microbiota via fecal microRNA.</a> Cell Host &amp; Microbe. 19 (1), 32-43 (2016).</li><li>Viennois, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Host-derived+fecal+microRNAs+can+indicate+gut+microbiota+healthiness+and+ability+to+induce+inflammation.">Host-derived fecal microRNAs can indicate gut microbiota healthiness and ability to induce inflammation.</a> Theranostics. 9 (15), 4542-4557 (2019).</li><li>Liu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oral+administration+of+miR-30d+from+feces+of+MS+patients+suppresses+MS-like+symptoms+in+mice+by+expanding+Akkermansia+muciniphila.">Oral administration of miR-30d from feces of MS patients suppresses MS-like symptoms in mice by expanding Akkermansia muciniphila.</a> Cell Host &amp; Microbe. 26 (6), 779-794 (2019).</li><li>Masotti, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+small+non-coding+RNAs+allows+an+accurate+comparison+of+miRNA+expression+profiles.">Quantification of small non-coding RNAs allows an accurate comparison of miRNA expression profiles.</a> Journal of Biomedicine &amp; Biotechnology. 2009, 659028 (2009).</li><li>Green, M. R., Sambrook, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+to+win+the+battle+with+RNase.">How to win the battle with RNase.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2019 (2), 101857 (2019).</li><li>Franzosa, E. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relating+the+metatranscriptome+and+metagenome+of+the+human+gut.">Relating the metatranscriptome and metagenome of the human gut.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (22), 2329-2338 (2014).</li><li>Wohnhaas, C. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fecal+microRNAs+show+promise+as+noninvasive+Crohn's+disease+biomarkers.">Fecal microRNAs show promise as noninvasive Crohn's disease biomarkers.</a> Crohn's &amp; Colitis. 2 (1), 003 (2020).</li><li>Tomkovich, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+colon+mucosal+biofilms+and+murine+host+communicate+via+altered+mRNA+and+microRNA+expression+during+cancer.">Human colon mucosal biofilms and murine host communicate via altered mRNA and microRNA expression during cancer.</a> mSystems. 5 (1), (2020).</li><li>Tarallo, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Altered+fecal+small+RNA+profiles+in+colorectal+cancer+reflect+gut+microbiome+composition+in+stool+samples.">Altered fecal small RNA profiles in colorectal cancer reflect gut microbiome composition in stool samples.</a> mSystems. 4 (5), 70 (2019).</li><li>Xing, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breed+differences+in+the+expression+levels+of+gga-miR-222a+in+laying+hens+influenced+H2S+production+by+regulating+methionine+synthase+genes+in+gut+bacteria.">Breed differences in the expression levels of gga-miR-222a in laying hens influenced H2S production by regulating methionine synthase genes in gut bacteria.</a> Research Square. , (2020).</li><li>Teng, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant-derived+exosomal+microRNAs+shape+the+gut+microbiota.">Plant-derived exosomal microRNAs shape the gut microbiota.</a> Cell Host &amp; Microbe. 24 (5), 637-652 (2018).</li><li>Moloney, G. 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The authors declare no relevant or material financial interests that are related to the research method described in this protocol paper.

It is important to use RNase-free technique to prevent RNase contamination during the isolation7. After centrifugation and the formation of a compact interphase, it is key to avoid the interphase, lower phase, and the particle contaminant floating on the top of the aqueous phase when recovering the aqueous phase. Additionally, two washing steps with 500 &#181;L and 250 &#181;L Wash Solution 2/3 are added to eliminate contaminants in the filter membrane for optimized quality. Furthermore, a start s...

Extracellular RNA is getting recognized as a significant factor that mediates many biological processes1. Extracellular RNA in feces was first reported in 2008 as a marker for colon cancer and active ulcerative colitis2, and it was recently revealed as a normal component of the gut lumen and feces and mediates host-microbe communications3,4,5. The purpose of this RNA isolation protocol is to extract high quality extracellular RNA from fecal samples collected from animal and human subjects. The protocol was adapted from a commercial miRNA Isolation Kit. The RNA acquired is utilized for downstream analyses such as RNA sequencing, RT-PCR, and micro-array. The protocol includes several important and useful tips to maximize the quantity and quality of RNA found in the feces of animals and humans. The reason to develop and optimize this method of RNA (including microRNA) isolation is to decrease microbial RNA in the feces, limit the variables in the research studies and analyze the RNA composition in the gut without accounting various confounding factors and sources of contamination. Of note, this RNA isolation minimizes the release of RNA from living cell and living microbes (cellular RNA). It focuses on extracellular RNAs that have been released by gut cells or been acquired via food intake. Principally, this method is not suitable for studies where the microbial transcriptome is investigated.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Acid-Phenol: Chloroform, pH 4.5 (with IAA, 125:24:1)</td><td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td><td>AM9720</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DPBS, no calcium, no magnesium</td><td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td><td>14190-144</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gloves</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Microcentrifuge</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>mirVana miRNA Isolation Kit</td><td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td><td>AM1561</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nuclease-Free microcentrifuge tubes (1.5 mL, 2 mL)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nuclease-Free Water (Not DEPC-treated)</td><td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td><td>AM9937</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Pipettor and Nuclease-Free Pipette tips (with filter)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>PowerLyzer 24 Homogenizer</td><td>QIAGEN</td><td>13155</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RNaseZap RNase Decontamination Solution</td><td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td><td>AM9780</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vortex Shaker</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

fecal (micro) rna isolation

It is becoming clear that RNA exists in the gut lumen and feces in animals and humans. The protocol described below isolates total RNA including microRNAs from fecal samples of animal and human subjects. The aim is to isolate total RNA with high purity and quantity for downstream analyses such as RNA sequencing, RT-PCR, and micro-array. The advantages of this optimized protocol in the miRNA isolation are capabilities of isolating highly purified RNA products with additional washing steps described, increased quantity of RNA obtained with an improved method in the resuspension of sample, and important tips of decontamination. One limitation is the inability to process and purify larger sample of more than 200 mg as these sample sizes would cause a difficulty in the clear formation of the interphase. Consequently, the large sample size may contaminate the aqueous phase to be extracted as described in the protocol with organic matters that affect the quality of RNA isolated in the end. However, RNA isolates from a sample of up to 200 mg are sufficient for most of downstream analyses.

Representative RNAs were isolated from 50 mg mouse fecal samples (2 mouse fecal pellets) and 100 mg human stool specimens respectively and eluted in 50 &#181;L nuclease-free water. Spectrophotometer analysis of the concentration suggests a total amount of 49 &#181;g and 16 &#181;g RNA were isolated respectively (Table 1). The RNA purity was high as indicated by an A260/A280 ratio of ~2.0 and an A260/A230 ratio of ~1.8 (Table 1). As reported3, the majority of RNAs ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fecal micro RNA Isolation at JoVE.com

Fecal micro RNA Isolation

This protocol isolates high quality total RNA from fecal samples of animal and human subjects. A commercial miRNA isolation kit is used with significant adaption to isolate pure RNA with optimized quantity and quality. The RNA isolates are good for most downstream RNA assays such as sequencing, micro-array, and RT-PCR.

Fecal (micro) RNA Isolation

It is becoming clear that RNA exists in the gut lumen and feces in animals and humans. The protocol described below isolates total RNA including microRNAs ...

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4.7K Views.  Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School. This protocol isolates high quality total RNA from fecal samples of animal and human subjects. A commercial miRNA isolation kit is used with significant adaption to isolate pure RNA with optimized quantity and quality. The RNA isolates are good for most downstream RNA assays such as sequencing, micro-array, and RT-PCR.

Video: Fecal micro RNA Isolation

Isolation of Cognate RNA-protein Complexes from Cells Using Oligonucleotide-directed Elution

Ribonucleoprotein particles direct the biogenesis and post-transcriptional regulation of all mRNAs through distinct combinations of RNA binding proteins. They are composed of position-dependent, cis-acting RNA elements and unique combinations of RNA binding proteins. Defining the composition of a specific RNP is essential to achieving a fundamental understanding of gene regulation. The isolation of a select RNP is akin to finding a needle in a haystack. Here, we demonstrate an approach to isolate RNPs associated at the 5' untranslated region of a select mRNA in asynchronous, transfected cells. This cognate RNP has been demonstrated to be necessary for the translation of select viruses and cellular stress-response genes.
The demonstrated RNA-protein co-precipitation protocol is suitable for the downstream analysis of protein components through proteomic analyses, immunoblots, or suitable biochemical identification assays. This experimental protocol demonstrates that DHX9/RNA helicase A is enriched at the 5' terminus of cognate retroviral RNA and provides preliminary information for the identification of its association with cell stress-associated huR and junD cognate mRNAs.

This manuscript describes an approach to isolate select cognate RNPs formed in eukaryotic cells via a specific oligonucleotide-directed enrichment. We demonstrate the applicability of this approach by isolating a cognate RNP bound to the retroviral 5' untranslated region that is composed of DHX9/RNA helicase A.

Ribonucleoprotein particles direct the biogenesis and post-transcriptional regulation of all mRNAs through distinct combinations of RNA binding proteins. ...

Biochemistry

Novel RNA-Binding Proteins Isolation by the RaPID Methodology

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play important roles in every aspect of RNA metabolism and regulation. Their identification is a major challenge in modern biology. Only a few in vitro and in vivo methods enable the identification of RBPs associated with a particular target mRNA. However, their main limitations are the identification of RBPs in a non-cellular environment (in vitro) or the low efficiency isolation of RNA of interest (in vivo). An RNA-binding protein purification and identification (RaPID) methodology was designed to overcome these limitations in yeast and enable efficient isolation of proteins that are associated in vivo. To achieve this, the RNA of interest is tagged with MS2 loops, and co-expressed with a fusion protein of an MS2-binding protein and a streptavidin-binding protein (SBP). Cells are then subjected to crosslinking and lysed, and complexes are isolated through streptavidin beads. The proteins that co-purify with the tagged RNA can then be determined by mass spectrometry. We recently used this protocol to identify novel proteins associated with the ER-associated PMP1 mRNA. Here, we provide a detailed protocol of RaPID, and discuss some of its limitations and advantages.

RNA-protein interactions lie at the heart of many cellular processes. Here, we describe an in vivo method to isolate specific RNA and identify novel proteins that are associated with it. This could shed new light on how RNAs are regulated in the cell.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play important roles in every aspect of RNA metabolism and regulation. Their identification is a major challenge in modern ...

Genetics

Simultaneous DNA-RNA Extraction from Coastal Sediments and Quantification of 16S rRNA Genes and Transcripts by Real-time PCR

Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction also known as quantitative PCR (q-PCR) is a widely used tool in microbial ecology to quantify gene abundances of taxonomic and functional groups in environmental samples. Used in combination with a reverse transcriptase reaction (RT-q-PCR), it can also be employed to quantify gene transcripts. q-PCR makes use of highly sensitive fluorescent detection chemistries that allow quantification of PCR amplicons during the exponential phase of the reaction. Therefore, the biases associated with &#39;end-point&#39; PCR detected in the plateau phase of the PCR reaction are avoided. A protocol to quantify bacterial 16S rRNA genes and transcripts from coastal sediments via real-time PCR is provided. First, a method for the co-extraction of DNA and RNA from coastal sediments, including the additional steps required for the preparation of DNA-free RNA, is outlined. Second, a step-by-step guide for the quantification of 16S rRNA genes and transcripts from the extracted nucleic acids via q-PCR and RT-q-PCR is outlined. This includes details for the construction of DNA and RNA standard curves. Key considerations for the use of RT-q-PCR assays in microbial ecology are included.

A protocol to quantify bacterial 16S rRNA genes and transcripts from coastal sediments via real-time PCR is provided. The methodology includes the co-extraction of DNA and RNA; preparation of DNA-free RNA; and 16S rRNA gene and transcript quantification via RT-q-PCR, including standard curve construction.

Real Time Polymerase Chain Reaction also known as quantitative PCR (q-PCR) is a widely used tool in microbial ecology to quantify gene abundances of ...

Environment

Avian Influenza Surveillance with FTA  Cards: Field Methods, Biosafety, and Transportation Issues Solved

Avian Influenza Viruses (AIVs) infect many mammals, including humans1. These AIVs are diverse in their natural hosts, harboring almost all possible viral subtypes2. Human pandemics of flu originally stem from AIVs3. Many fatal human cases during the H5N1 outbreaks in recent years were reported. Lately, a new AIV related strain swept through the human population, causing the 'swine flu epidemic'4. Although human trading and transportation activity seems to be responsible for the spread of highly pathogenic strains5, dispersal can also partly be attributed to wild birds6, 7. However, the actual reservoir of all AIV strains is wild birds.
In reaction to this and in face of severe commercial losses in the poultry industry, large surveillance programs have been implemented globally to collect information on the ecology of AIVs, and to install early warning systems to detect certain highly pathogenic strains8-12. Traditional virological methods require viruses to be intact and cultivated before analysis. This necessitates strict cold chains with deep freezers and heavy biosafety procedures to be in place during transport. Long-term surveillance is therefore usually restricted to a few field stations close to well equipped laboratories. Remote areas cannot be sampled unless logistically cumbersome procedures are implemented. These problems have been recognised13, 14 and the use of alternative storage and transport strategies investigated (alcohols or guanidine)15-17. Recently, Kraus et al.18 introduced a method to collect, store and transport AIV samples, based on a special filter paper. FTA cards19 preserve RNA on a dry storage basis20 and render pathogens inactive upon contact21. This study showed that FTA cards can be used to detect AIV RNA in reverse-transcription PCR and that the resulting cDNA could be sequenced and virus genes and determined.
In the study of Kraus et al.18 a laboratory isolate of AIV was used, and samples were handled individually. In the extension presented here, faecal samples from wild birds from the duck trap at the Ottenby Bird Observatory (SE Sweden) were tested directly to illustrate the usefulness of the methods under field conditions. Catching of ducks and sample collection by cloacal swabs is demonstrated. The current protocol includes up-scaling of the work flow from single tube handling to a 96-well design. Although less sensitive than the traditional methods, the method of FTA cards provides an excellent supplement to large surveillance schemes. It allows collection and analysis of samples from anywhere in the world, without the need to maintaining a cool chain or safety regulations with respect to shipping of hazardous reagents, such as alcohol or guanidine.

A method to preserve, detect and sequence RNA from Avian Influenza Viruses was validated and extended using natural faecal samples from birds. This technique removes the necessity of maintaining a cool chain and handling of infectious viruses and can be applied in a 96-well high-throughput setup.

Avian Influenza Viruses (AIVs) infect many mammals, including humans1. These AIVs are diverse in their natural hosts, harboring almost all possible viral ...

Detection and Genogrouping of Noroviruses from Children's Stools By Taqman One-step RT-PCR

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of outbreaks of sporadic acute gastroenteritis worldwide in humans of all ages. They are important cause of hospitalizations in children with a public health impact similar to that of Rotavirus. NoVs are RNA viruses of great genetic diversity and there is a continuous appearance of new strains. Five genogroups are recognized; GI and GII with their many genotypes and subtypes being the most important for human infection. However, the diagnosis of these two genotypes remains problematic, delaying diagnosis and treatment. 1, 2, 3
For RNA extraction from stool specimens the most commonly used method is the QIAmp Viral RNA commercial kit from Qiagen. This method combines the binding properties of a silica gel membrane, buffers that control RNases and provide optimum binding of the RNA to the column together with the speed of microspin. This method is simple, fast and reliable and is carried out in a few steps that are detailed in the description provided by the manufacturer. 
 Norovirus is second only to rotavirus as the most common cause of diarrhea. Norovirus diagnosis should be available in all studies on pathogenesis of diarrhea as well as in outbreaks or individual diarrhea cases. At present however norovirus diagnosis is restricted to only a few centers due to the lack of simple methods of diagnosis. This delays diagnosis and treatment 1, 2, 3. In addition, due to costs and regulated transportation of corrosive buffers within and between countries use of these manufactured kits poses logistical problems. As a result, in this protocol we describe an alternative, economic, in-house method which is based on the original Boom et al. method4 which uses the nucleic acid binding properties of silica particles together with the anti-nuclease properties of guanidinium thiocyanate.
For the detection and genogrouping (GI and GII) of NoVs isolates from stool specimens, several RT-PCR protocols utilizing different targets have been developed. The consensus is that an RT-PCR using TaqMan chemistry would be the best molecular technique for diagnosis, because it combines high sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility with high throughput and ease of use. Here we describe an assay targeting the open reading frame 1 (ORF1)-ORF2 junction region; the most conserved region of the NoV genome and hence most suitable for diagnosis. For further genetic analysis a conventional RT-PCR that targets the highly variable N-terminal-shell from the major protein of the capsid (Region C) using primers originally described by Kojima et al. 5 is detailed. Sequencing of the PCR product from the conventional PCR enables the differentiation of genotypes belonging to the GI and GII genogroups.

A One-Step RT-PCR assay for detection and genogroup identification of Norovirus isolates from children&#x2019;s stools, that utilizes primers and TaqMan probes specific to the open reading frame 1 (ORF1)-ORF2 junction region, the most conserved region of the Norovirus genome is described. A non-commercial, cost-effective RNA extraction method is detailed.

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of outbreaks of sporadic acute gastroenteritis worldwide in humans of all ages. They are important cause of ...

Medicine

RNA Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Colonizing the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections result in significant morbidity and mortality in hosts with compromised immune systems, such as patients with leukemia, severe burn wounds, or organ transplants1. In patients at high-risk for developing PA bloodstream infections, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract is the main reservoir for colonization2, but the mechanisms by which PA transitions from an asymptomatic colonizing microbe to an invasive, and often deadly, pathogen are unclear. Previously, we performed in vivo transcription profiling experiments by recovering PA mRNA from bacterial cells residing in the cecums of colonized mice 3 in order to identify changes in bacterial gene expression during alterations to the host&#x2019;s immune status.
As with any transcription profiling experiment, the rate-limiting step is in the isolation of sufficient amounts of high quality mRNA. Given the abundance of enzymes, debris, food residues, and particulate matter in the GI tract, the challenge of RNA isolation is daunting. Here, we present a method for reliable and reproducible isolation of bacterial RNA recovered from the murine GI tract. This method utilizes a well-established murine model of PA GI colonization and neutropenia-induced dissemination4. Once GI colonization with PA is confirmed, mice are euthanized and cecal contents are recovered and flash frozen. RNA is then extracted using a combination of mechanical disruption, boiling, phenol/chloroform extractions, DNase treatment, and affinity chromatography. Quantity and purity are confirmed by spectrophotometry (Nanodrop Technologies) and bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies) (Fig 1). This method of GI microbial RNA isolation can easily be adapted to other bacteria and fungi as well.

RNA Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Colonizing the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract

A reliable method for the RNA isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa recovered from murine cecums is described. The RNA recovered is of sufficient quantity and quality for subsequent qPCR, transcription profiling, and RNA Seq experiments. This technique can be adapted for RNA isolation of other intestinal microbes.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infections result in significant morbidity and mortality in hosts with compromised immune systems, such as patients with ...

An Oligonucleotide-based Tandem RNA Isolation Procedure to Recover Eukaryotic mRNA-Protein Complexes

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play key roles in the post-transcriptional control of gene expression. Therefore, biochemical characterization of mRNA-protein complexes is essential to understanding mRNA regulation inferred by interacting proteins or non-coding RNAs. Herein, we describe a tandem RNA isolation procedure (TRIP) that enables the purification of endogenously formed mRNA-protein complexes from cellular extracts. The two-step protocol involves the isolation of polyadenylated mRNAs with antisense oligo(dT) beads and subsequent capture of an mRNA of interest with 3&#39;-biotinylated 2&#39;-O-methylated antisense RNA oligonucleotides, which can then be isolated with streptavidin beads. TRIP was used to recover in vivo crosslinked mRNA-ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) complexes from yeast, nematodes and human cells for further RNA and protein analysis. Thus, TRIP is a versatile approach that can be adapted to all types of polyadenylated RNAs across organisms to study the dynamic re-arrangement of mRNPs imposed by intracellular or environmental cues.

A tandem RNA isolation procedure (TRIP) for recovery of endogenously formed mRNA-protein complexes is described. Specifically, RNA-protein complexes are crosslinked in vivo, polyadenylated RNAs are isolated from extracts with oligo(dT) beads, and particular mRNAs are captured with modified RNA antisense oligonucleotides. Proteins bound to mRNAs are detected by immunoblot analysis.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play key roles in the post-transcriptional control of gene expression. Therefore, biochemical characterization of mRNA-protein ...

Isolation of Viral Replication Compartment-enriched Sub-nuclear Fractions from Adenovirus-infected Normal Human Cells

During infection of human cells by adenovirus (Ad), the host cell nucleus is dramatically reorganized, leading to formation of nuclear microenvironments through the recruitment of viral and cellular proteins to sites occupied by the viral genome. These sites, called replication compartments (RC), can be considered viral-induced nuclear domains where the viral genome is localized and viral and cellular proteins that participate in replication, transcription and post-transcriptional processing are recruited. Moreover, cellular proteins involved in the antiviral response, such as tumor suppressor proteins, DNA damage response (DDR) components and innate immune response factors are also co-opted to RC. Although RC seem to play a crucial role to promote an efficient and productive replication cycle, a detailed analysis of their composition and associated activities has not been made. To facilitate the study of adenoviral RC and potentially those from other DNA viruses that replicate in the cell nucleus, we adapted a simple procedure based on velocity gradients to isolate Ad RC and established a cell-free system amenable to conduct morphological, functional and compositional studies of these virus-induced subnuclear structures, as well as to study their impact on host-cell interactions.

We provide a novel strategy to isolate viral replication compartments (RC) from adenovirus (Ad)-infected human cells. This approach represents a cell-free system that can help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms regulating viral genome replication and expression as well as regulation of viral-host interactions established at the RC.

During infection of human cells by adenovirus (Ad), the host cell nucleus is dramatically reorganized, leading to formation of nuclear microenvironments ...

Vampiric Isolation of Extracellular Fluid from Caenorhabditis elegans

The genetically tractable model organism C. elegans has provided insights into a myriad of biological questions, enabled by its short generation time, ease of growth and small size. This small size, though, has disallowed a number of technical approaches found in other model systems. For example, blood transfusions in mammalian systems and grafting techniques in plants enable asking questions of circulatory system composition and signaling. The circulatory system of the worm, the pseudocoelom, has until recently been impossible to assay directly. To answer questions of intercellular signaling and circulatory system composition C. elegans researchers have traditionally turned to genetic analysis, cell/tissue specific rescue, and mosaic analysis. These techniques provide a means to infer what is happening between cells, but are not universally applicable in identification and characterization of extracellular molecules. Here we present a newly developed technique to directly assay the pseudocoelomic fluid of C. elegans. The technique begins with either genetic or physical manipulation to increase the volume of extracellular fluid. Afterward the animals are subjected to a vampiric reverse microinjection technique using a microinjection rig that allows fine balance pressure control. After isolation of extracellular fluid, the collected fluid can be assayed by transfer into other animals or by molecular means. To demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique we present a detailed approach to assay a specific example of extracellular signaling molecules, long dsRNA during a systemic RNAi response. Although characterization of systemic RNAi is a proof of principle example, we see this technique as being adaptable to answer a variety of questions of circulatory system composition and signaling.

Vampiric Isolation of Extracellular Fluid from Caenorhabditis elegans

The model organism C. elegans uses pseudocoelomic fluid as a passive circulatory system. Direct assay of this fluid has not been previously possible. Here we present a novel technique to directly assay the extracellular space, and use systemic silencing signals during an RNAi response as a proof of principle example.

The genetically tractable model organism C. elegans has provided insights into a myriad of biological questions, enabled by its short generation time, ...

Biology

Depletion of Ribosomal RNA for Mosquito Gut Metagenomic RNA-seq

The mosquito gut accommodates dynamic microbial communities across different stages of the insect's life cycle. Characterization of the genetic capacity and functionality of the gut community will provide insight into the effects of gut microbiota on mosquito life traits. Metagenomic RNA-Seq has become an important tool to analyze transcriptomes from various microbes present in a microbial community. Messenger RNA usually comprises only 1-3% of total RNA, while rRNA constitutes approximately 90%. It is challenging to enrich messenger RNA from a metagenomic microbial RNA sample because most prokaryotic mRNA species lack stable poly(A) tails. This prevents oligo d(T) mediated mRNA isolation. Here, we describe a protocol that employs sample derived rRNA capture probes to remove rRNA from a metagenomic total RNA sample. To begin, both mosquito and microbial small and large subunit rRNA fragments are amplified from a metagenomic community DNA sample. Then, the community specific biotinylated antisense ribosomal RNA probes are synthesized in vitro using T7 RNA polymerase. The biotinylated rRNA probes are hybridized to the total RNA. The hybrids are captured by streptavidin-coated beads and removed from the total RNA. This subtraction-based protocol efficiently removes both mosquito and microbial rRNA from the total RNA sample. The mRNA enriched sample is further processed for RNA amplification and RNA-Seq.

A ribosomal RNA (rRNA) depletion protocol was developed to enrich messenger RNA (mRNA) for RNA-seq of the mosquito gut metatranscriptome. Sample specific rRNA probes, which were used to remove rRNA via subtraction, were created from the mosquito and its gut microbes. Performance of the protocol can result in the removal of approximately 90-99% of rRNA.

The mosquito gut accommodates dynamic microbial communities across different stages of the insect's life cycle. Characterization of the genetic capacity ...

Fecal (micro) RNA Isolation

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Isolation of Cognate RNA-protein Complexes from Cells Using Oligonucleotide-directed Elution

Novel RNA-Binding Proteins Isolation by the RaPID Methodology

Simultaneous DNA-RNA Extraction from Coastal Sediments and Quantification of 16S rRNA Genes and Transcripts by Real-time PCR

Avian Influenza Surveillance with FTA Cards: Field Methods, Biosafety, and Transportation Issues Solved

Detection and Genogrouping of Noroviruses from Children's Stools By Taqman One-step RT-PCR

RNA Isolation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Colonizing the Murine Gastrointestinal Tract

An Oligonucleotide-based Tandem RNA Isolation Procedure to Recover Eukaryotic mRNA-Protein Complexes

Isolation of Viral Replication Compartment-enriched Sub-nuclear Fractions from Adenovirus-infected Normal Human Cells

Vampiric Isolation of Extracellular Fluid from Caenorhabditis elegans

Depletion of Ribosomal RNA for Mosquito Gut Metagenomic RNA-seq