I thank Dr. Yuriy Kirichok for the great science I was part of in his lab and the members of the Kirichok lab for the helpful discussions. I also thank Dr. Douglas C. Wallace for providing AAC1 knockout mice. Funding: A.M.B was supported by an American Heart Association Career Development Award 19CDA34630062.

All animal experimental procedures that were performed conform to the National Institutes of Health guidelines and were approved by the University of California Los Angeles Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
NOTE: The mitochondrial isolation procedure is based on differential centrifugation and varies slightly from tissue to tissue. For example, since brown adipose tissue is extremely rich in lipids, it requires an additional step to separate cell debris and organelles from the lipid phase before harvesting the mitochondria. To avoid confusion, the two mitochondrial isolation procedures (one from the brown fat and the other from the heart) are detailed below.
1. Mitochondrial isolation from mouse interscapular brown fat (modified from Bertholet et al. 2020)15
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize C57BL/6 male mouse using CO2 asphyxiation and subsequent cervical dislocation, as recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association Panel and the IACUC Committee.</li>
	<li>After positioning the mouse with its belly facing the table, spray alcohol to clean and wet the hair (modified from Mann et al., 2014)16.</li>
	<li>Make an incision of 2 cm in the upper back after grasping the skin with tweezers.</li>
	<li>Extract the brown interscapular fat of the mouse that corresponds to a two-lobed organ with a butterfly shape16.</li>
	<li>Transfer the brown fat to a 35 mm Petri dish filled with 5 mL of cold isolation buffer (Table 1) previously placed on ice.</li>
	<li>Clean the brown fat from the white fat under a binocular.</li>
	<li>Transfer the brown fat to a 10 mL beaker with 5 mL of cold isolation buffer (Table 1) to chop it up into thin pieces. Transfer to the ice-chilled 10 mL glass homogenizer (plastic material polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) pestle).</li>
	<li>Use an overhead stirrer to homogenize the pre-cut tissue on ice with six gentle strokes at a controlled speed of 275 rotations/min.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the homogenate at 8,500 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C in a 15 mL ice-cold conical tube. Discard the supernatant containing the lipid phase.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the pellet in 5 mL of ice-cold isolation buffer (Table 1) and homogenize, a second time, the suspension on ice with six slow strokes at a speed of 275 rotation/min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the homogenate in a 15 mL ice-cold conical tube and centrifuge it at 700 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C to pellet all nuclei and unbroken cells.</li>
	<li>Collect the supernatant in a fresh 15 mL tube and place it on ice.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the supernatant at 8,500 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C to obtain a pellet containing mitochondria.</li>
	<li>Resuspend pellet containing mitochondria in 3.8 mL of ice-cold hypertonic-mannitol buffer (Table 2) and incubate the mitochondrial suspension on ice for 10-15 min.</li>
</ol>
2. Mitochondrial isolation from the mouse heart (modified from Garg et al. 2019)17
<ol>
	<li>Euthanize C57BL/6 male mouse using CO2 asphyxiation and subsequent cervical dislocation, as recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association Panel and the IACUC Committee.</li>
	<li>After positioning the mouse on its back, spray alcohol to clean and wet the hair. Then, make a 2 cm incision on the thorax after grasping the skin with tweezers.</li>
	<li>Dissect the heart from the animal&#39;s chest and rinse it to remove all the blood in a 10 mL beaker with 5 mL of the cold isolation solution (Table 1).</li>
	<li>Once the heart has been cleared of traces of blood, transfer it to another 10 mL beaker containing 5 mL of cold isolation buffer (Table 1) to chop it up into thin pieces. Then, transfer to an ice-chilled 10 mL glass homogenizer (PTFE pestle).</li>
	<li>Use an overhead stirrer to homogenize the pre-cut tissue on ice with six gentle strokes at a controlled speed of 275 rotations/min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the homogenate to a 15 mL ice-cold conical tube and centrifuge it at 700 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C to pellet nuclei and unbroken cells.</li>
	<li>Collect the supernatant in a fresh 15 mL tube and place it on ice.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the supernatant at 8,500 x g for 10 min at 4 &#176;C to obtain a pellet containing mitochondria.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the mitochondrial pellet in 3.8 mL of ice-cold hypertonic-mannitol buffer (Table 2) and incubate the mitochondrial suspension on ice for 10-15 min.</li>
</ol>
3. Preparation of mitoplasts with a French Press for mechanical rupture of the OMM.
NOTE: The French press procedure allows the IMM to be released from the OMM with its integrity preserved, including the matrix and crista (Figure 2)18. Mitochondria are pre-incubated in a hypertonic-mannitol buffer (Table 2) and subjected to a lower pressure during the French press procedure to avoid any drastic stretching of the IMM when the OMM is ruptured.
<ol>
	<li>Fill the mitochondrial-hypertonic-mannitol suspension into a refrigerated mini pressure cell (piston diameter 3/8&#34;) of the French press (Figure 3A).</li>
	<li>Select the Medium mode of the French Press and compress the suspension through the mini pressure cell at 110 on the dial of the French Press for the brown fat mitochondria and at 140 for the heart mitochondria (~2,000 psi).&#160; Ensure that the suspension comes out of the mini pressure cell at a rate of about 1 drop/s.</li>
	<li>Collect the drops in a 15 mL ice-chilled conical tube.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the suspension at 10,500 x g for 10 min at 4 &#730;C.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the mitoplasts pellet in 0.5-2 mL of ice-cold Hypertonic-KCl buffer (Table 3) and store the suspension on ice. 
	NOTE: Brown fat and heart mitoplasts are ready for patch-clamp recordings and should remain usable for about 3-6 h.</li>
</ol>
4. Electrophysiological recordings of H+ leak through UCP1 and AAC5,7,15
NOTE: Use the following electrophysiological setup (Figure 3B): inverted microscope with differential interference contrast (DIC), 60x water immersion objective, vibration isolation table and a Faraday cage, a standard amplifier supporting low-noise recordings, a standard digitizer used for electrophysiological setup, pClamp 10, a micromanipulator, bath reference electrode (3 M KCl-agar salt bridge inserted within a microelectrode holder containing a silver/silver chloride pellet molded into the holder body (described in Liu et al. 2021)19, perfusion chamber with a 0.13 mm glass coverslip bottom, connected to a gravity-fed perfusion system.
<ol>
	<li>Pull the borosilicate glass filaments on the day of recording using a micropipette puller. Set a program on the puller used for generating pipettes with a high degree of reproducibility20. 
	NOTE: This program design requires several tries to obtain pipettes optimized for the IMM patch-clamp. A standard pipette has fine tips with a progressive conic shape.</li>
	<li>Insert one glass filament within the puller and pull to obtain almost two identical patch pipettes from one borosilicate filament.</li>
	<li>Adjust the program when pipettes become inconsistent between pulling cycles due to aging of the heating box filament of the puller.</li>
	<li>Position the pipette inside the pipette polisher and place the tip near the filament under 100x magnification to fire-polish it.</li>
	<li>Press the foot pedal several times to heat the filament without clogging or damaging the tip curve.</li>
	<li>Polish until pipettes with a resistance between 25 and 35 M&#937; are obtained when filled with TMA-based pipette solution (TMA for tetramethylammonium hydroxide, Table 4).</li>
	<li>Pre-incubate coverslips (5 mm diameter, 0.1 mm thickness) with 0.1% gelatin to reduce the mitoplast adhesion and rinse them with the KCl bath solution (Table 5) before depositing the mitoplast suspension.</li>
	<li>Prepare a raw dilution by mixing ~35 &#181;L of the concentrated mitoplast suspension with 500 &#181;L of the KCl bath solution (Table 5) and place it on coverslips previously placed in a well of a 4-well plate.</li>
	<li>Incubate on ice for 15 to 20 min for mitoplasts to sediment on the coverslip.</li>
	<li>Fill the bath chamber completely with ~50 &#181;L of the KCl bath solution (Table 5).</li>
	<li>Transfer a coverslip with mitoplasts within the chamber using thin microdissection tweezers with a bent tip.</li>
	<li>Arrange the coverslip at the bottom of the chamber. Do not perfuse the chamber to keep the mitoplasts stable on the coverslip.</li>
	<li>Choose an individual non-adhesive mitoplast in the shape of 8 by scanning the coverslip under the microscope with a 60x objective.</li>
	<li>Load the pipette with the pipette solution (~50 &#181;L) and place it in the pipette holder.</li>
	<li>Bring the pipette into the bath solution with a micromanipulator and approach it just above the selected mitoplast to get close to the IMM. The amplifier program gives the resistance of the pipette once it is in the bath solution. Hold the membrane potential at 0 mV and apply 10 mV pulses using the membrane test command in the amplifier program.</li>
	<li>Apply slight negative pressure to quickly create a gigaseal with the IMM (Figure 2B).</li>
	<li>Rise the pipette with the mitoplast attached to keep them away from the coverslip to avoid the seal breakage due to the pipette drift during the experiment.</li>
	<li>Compensate the stray capacitance transients with the &#34;membrane test&#34; command in the amplifier program before testing the whole-mitoplast configuration to obtain a correct capacitance (Cm) measurement for the mitoplast membrane after the break-in.</li>
	<li>Apply short-duration (5-15 ms) voltage pulses (250-600 mV) with the amplifier program to rupture the membrane patch under the glass pipette and achieve the whole-mitoplast configuration (Figure 2C). Successful break-in is reflected by the reappearance of capacitance transients.</li>
	<li>After the break-in, fit the capacitance transients with the amplifier program&#39;s membrane test option to assess the membrane capacitance (reflecting the size of the mitoplast) and its access resistance Ra (reflecting the quality of the whole-mitoplast configuration). After the break-in, Ra should be between 40 and 80 M&#937;. Mitoplasts (2-6 &#181;m in size) used for patch-clamp experiments typically have membrane capacitances of 0.5-1.1 pF.</li>
	<li>Immediately after the break-in, replace the KCl bath solution (Table 5) with the HEPES bath solution (Table 6) by starting the perfusion.</li>
	<li>Apply an 850 ms ramp protocol designed with the amplifier program, from -160 mV to +100 mV with a 5 s interval, while holding the mitoplast at 0 mV. This protocol works for UCP16,7,15 and AAC5 studies (Figure 4 and Figure 5). 
	NOTE: It is recommended for UCP1 and AAC-dependent H+ current measurements to acquire all electrophysiological data at 10 kHz and to filter at 1 kHz using adequate software driving the amplifier and digitizer.</li>
</ol>

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The author declares no competing interests.

This method article aims to present the patch-clamp technique recently applied to mitochondria, a new approach to directly study H+ leak through the IMM responsible for mitochondrial thermogenesis5,6,7,15. This technique is not limited to tissues and can also be used to analyze H+ leak and other conductances of the IMM in different standard human and cell models such as HA...

Mitochondria are famous for being the powerhouse of the cell. Indeed, they are the major source of chemical energy, ATP. What is less known is that mitochondria also generate heat. In fact, every mitochondrion constantly generates the two types of energies (ATP and heat) and a fine balance between the two energy forms defines metabolic cell homeostasis (Figure 1). How mitochondria distribute energy between ATP and heat is certainly the most fundamental question in the field of bioenergetics, although it is still largely unknown. We do know that increasing mitochondrial heat production (called mitochondrial thermogenesis), and consequently reducing ATP production increases energy expenditure and this is one of the best ways to combat metabolic syndrome1.
Mitochondrial thermogenesis originates from H+ leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM), leading to uncoupling of substrate oxidation and ATP synthesis with consequent production of heat, hence the name &#34;mitochondrial uncoupling&#34;1 (Figure 1). This H+ leak depends on mitochondrial transporters called uncoupling proteins (UCPs). UCP1 was the first UCP identified. It is only expressed in thermogenic tissues, brown fat, and beige fat in which mitochondria are specialized for heat production2,3,4. The identity of UCP in non-adipose tissues such as skeletal muscle, heart, and liver, has remained controversial. Mitochondria in these tissues can have about 25% of the total mitochondrial energy converted into heat, which can significantly impact the physiology of the whole body1. Besides maintaining core body temperature, mitochondrial thermogenesis also prevents diet-induced obesity by reducing calories. In addition, it reduces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by mitochondria to protect cells from oxidative damage1. Thus, mitochondrial thermogenesis is involved in normal aging, age-related degenerative disorders, and other conditions involving oxidative stress, such as ischemia-reperfusion. Therefore, mitochondrial thermogenesis is a powerful regulator of cellular metabolism, and a mechanistic understanding of this fundamental process will promote the development of therapeutic strategies to combat many pathologies associated with mitochondrial dysfunction.
Mitochondrial respiration was the first technique to reveal the crucial role of mitochondrial thermogenesis in cellular metabolism and is still the most popular in the community1. This technique is based on the measurement of oxygen consumption by the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) that increases when mitochondrial H+ leak is activated. This technique, although instrumental, cannot directly study mitochondrial H+ leak across the IMM1, thereby making the precise identification and characterization of the proteins responsible for it difficult, particularly in non-adipose tissues in which heat production is secondary as compared to ATP production. Recently, the development of the patch-clamp technique applied to mitochondria, provided the first direct study of H+ leak across the whole IMM in various tissues5,6,7.
The mitochondrial patch-clamp of the whole IMM was first established in a reproducible way by Kirichok et al.8. They described the first direct measurement of mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) currents in 2004 using mitoplasts from COS-7 cell lines8. Later, the Kirichok lab showed calcium currents from IMMs of mouse9 and Drosophila tissues9. Other labs now routinely use this technique to study the biophysical properties of MCU10,11,12,13,14. Whole IMM patch-clamp analysis of potassium and chloride conductance is also possible and has been mentioned in several papers but has not yet been the main subject of a publication6,7,9. The first measurement of H+ currents across the IMM was reported in 2012 from mouse brown fat mitochondria6, and from mouse beige fat mitochondria in 20177. This current is due to the specific uncoupling protein of thermogenic tissues, UCP16,7. Recent work published in 2019 characterized AAC as the main protein responsible for mitochondrial H+ leak in non-adipose tissues such as the heart and skeletal muscle5.
This unique approach now allows for the direct high-resolution functional analysis of the mitochondrial ion channels and transporters responsible for mitochondrial thermogenesis. To facilitate the expansion of the method and to complement other studies such as mitochondrial respiration, a detailed protocol is described below for measuring the H+ currents carried by UCP1 and AAC. Three important steps are described: 1) mitochondrial isolation from mouse brown fat to analyze UCP1-dependent H+ current and mitochondrial isolation from the heart to analyze AAC-dependent H+ current, 2) preparation of mitoplasts with a French Press for mechanical rupture of the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM), 3) patch-clamp recordings of UCP1 and AAC-dependent H+ currents across the whole IMM.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.1% gelatin</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>ES-006-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60X water immersion objective, numerical aperture 1.20</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>UPLSAPO60XW</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Axopatch 200B amplifier</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass capillaries</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>BF150-86-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digidata 1550B Digitizer</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Faraday cage</td>
			<td>Homemade</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>French Press</td>
			<td>Glen Mills</td>
			<td>5500-000011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IKA Eurostar PWR CV S1 laboratory overhead stirrer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inversed Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>IX71 or IX73</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro Forge</td>
			<td>(Narishige)</td>
			<td>MF-830</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanupulator MPC-385</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>FG-MPC325</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microelectrode holder for agar bridge</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>MEH3F4515</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td>(Sutter Instruments)</td>
			<td>P97</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Cell for French Press</td>
			<td>Glen Mills</td>
			<td>5500-FA-004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MIXER IKA 6-2000RPM</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>EW-50705-50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Objective 100X magnification</td>
			<td>Nikon&#160; lens</td>
			<td>MPlan 100/0.80 ELWD 210/0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pClamp 10</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perfusion chamber</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>RC-24E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potter-Elvehjem homogenizer 10 ml</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>358039</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
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			<td>Refrigerated centrifuge SORVALL X4R PRO-MD</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>75 009 521</td>
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		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small round glass coverslips: 5 mm diameter, 0.1 mm thickness</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>640700</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibration isolation table</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>VIS3036-SG2-325A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemicals</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-gluconic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G1951</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-mannitol</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M4125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>3777</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>H7523</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>60128</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>63068</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sucrose</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7903</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TMA</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>331635</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TrisBase</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TrisCl</td>
			<td>&#160;Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T3253</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

the use of the patch-clamp technique to study the thermogenic capacity of mitochondria

Mitochondrial thermogenesis (also known as mitochondrial uncoupling) is one of the most promising targets for increasing energy expenditure to combat metabolic syndrome. Thermogenic tissues such as brown and beige fats develop highly specialized mitochondria for heat production. Mitochondria of other tissues, which primarily produce ATP, also convert up to 25% of the total mitochondrial energy production into heat and can, therefore, have a considerable impact on the physiology of the whole body. Mitochondrial thermogenesis is not only essential for maintaining the body temperature, but also prevents diet-induced obesity and reduces the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to protect cells from oxidative damage. Since mitochondrial thermogenesis is a key regulator of cellular metabolism, a mechanistic understanding of this fundamental process will help in the development of therapeutic strategies to combat many pathologies associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Importantly, the precise molecular mechanisms that control acute activation of thermogenesis in mitochondria are poorly defined. This lack of information is largely due to a dearth of methods for the direct measurement of uncoupling proteins. The recent development of patch-clamp methodology applied to mitochondria enabled, for the first time, the direct study of the phenomenon at the origin of mitochondrial thermogenesis, H+ leak through the IMM, and the first biophysical characterization of mitochondrial transporters responsible for it, the uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), specific of brown and beige fats, and the ADP/ATP transporter (AAC) for all other tissues. This unique approach will provide new insights into the mechanisms that control H+ leak and mitochondrial thermogenesis and how they can be targeted to combat metabolic syndrome. This paper describes the patch-clamp methodology applied to mitochondria to study their thermogenic capacity by directly measuring H+ currents through the IMM.

The development of the patch-clamp methodology applied to mitochondria provided the first direct study of H+ leak through the IMM and the mitochondrial transporters, UCP1 and AAC, which are responsible for it. The electrophysiological analysis of UCP1- and AAC-dependent H+ leaks can provide a first glance of the thermogenic capacity of mitochondria. The results section describes the standard procedures to measure H+ leak via UCP1 and AAC.
UCP1-dependent...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about The Use of the Patch-Clamp Technique to Study the Thermogenic Capacity of Mitochondria at JoVE.com

The Use of the Patch-Clamp Technique to Study the Thermogenic Capacity of Mitochondria

This method article details the main steps in measuring H+ leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane with the patch-clamp technique, a new approach to study the thermogenic capacity of mitochondria.

Mitochondrial thermogenesis (also known as mitochondrial uncoupling) is one of the most promising targets for increasing energy expenditure to combat ...

the-use-patch-clamp-technique-to-study-thermogenic-capacity

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JoVE Journal

Biology

3.6K Views.  University of California Los Angeles. This method article details the main steps in measuring H+ leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane with the patch-clamp technique, a new approach to study the thermogenic capacity of mitochondria.

Video: The Use of the Patch-Clamp Technique to Study the Thermogenic Capacity of Mitochondria

Testing Visual Sensitivity to the Speed and Direction of Motion in Lizards

Testing visual sensitivity in any species provides basic information regarding behaviour, evolution, and ecology. However, testing specific features of the visual system provide more empirical evidence for functional applications. Investigation into the sensory system provides information about the sensory capacity, learning and memory ability, and establishes known baseline behaviour in which to gauge deviations (Burghardt, 1977). However, unlike mammalian or avian systems, testing for learning and memory in a reptile species is difficult. Furthermore, using an operant paradigm as a psychophysical measure of sensory ability is likewise as difficult. Historically, reptilian species have responded poorly to conditioning trials because of issues related to motivation, physiology, metabolism, and basic biological characteristics. Here, I demonstrate an operant paradigm used a novel model lizard species, the Jacky dragon (Amphibolurus muricatus) and describe how to test peripheral sensitivity to salient speed and motion characteristics. This method uses an innovative approach to assessing learning and sensory capacity in lizards. I employ the use of random-dot kinematograms (RDKs) to measure sensitivity to speed, and manipulate the level of signal strength by changing the proportion of dots moving in a coherent direction. RDKs do not represent a biologically meaningful stimulus, engages the visual system, and is a classic psychophysical tool used to measure sensitivity in humans and other animals. Here, RDKs are displayed to lizards using three video playback systems. Lizards are to select the direction (left or right) in which they perceive dots to be moving. Selection of the appropriate direction is reinforced by biologically important prey stimuli, simulated by computer-animated invertebrates.

Testing visual sensitivity in lizards using an operant conditioning paradigm that employs video playback of random-dot kinematograms and computer-generated invertebrates.

Badania wizualne Wrażliwość na prędkość i kierunek ruchu w Jaszczurki

Testing visual sensitivity in any species provides basic information regarding behaviour, evolution, and ecology. However, testing specific features of ...

Computer-Generated Animal Model Stimuli

Communication between animals is diverse and complex. Animals may communicate using auditory, seismic, chemosensory, electrical, or visual signals. In particular, understanding the constraints on visual signal design for communication has been of great interest. Traditional methods for investigating animal interactions have used basic observational techniques, staged encounters, or physical manipulation of morphology. Less intrusive methods have tried to simulate conspecifics using crude playback tools, such as mirrors, still images, or models. As technology has become more advanced, video playback has emerged as another tool in which to examine visual communication (Rosenthal, 2000). However, to move one step further, the application of computer-animation now allows researchers to specifically isolate critical components necessary to elicit social responses from conspecifics, and manipulate these features to control interactions. Here, I provide detail on how to create an animation using the Jacky dragon as a model, but this process may be adaptable for other species. In building the animation, I elected to use Lightwave  3D to alter object morphology, add texture, install bones, and provide comparable weight shading that prevents exaggerated movement. The animation is then matched to select motor patterns to replicate critical movement features. Finally, the sequence must rendered into an individual clip for presentation. Although there are other adaptable techniques, this particular method had been demonstrated to be effective in eliciting both conspicuous and social responses in staged interactions.

Computer-generated stimuli using the Jacky dragon as a model.

Communication between animals is diverse and complex. Animals may communicate using auditory, seismic, chemosensory, electrical, or visual signals. In ...

Methods for Patch Clamp Capacitance Recordings from the Calyx

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal. Electrical recordings from the presynaptic terminal allow the measurement of action potentials, calcium channel currents, vesicle fusion (exocytosis) and subsequent membrane uptake (endocytosis). The fusion of vesicles containing neurotransmitter causes the vesicle membrane to be added to the cell membrane of the calyx. This increase in the amount of cell membrane is measured as an increase in capacitance. The subsequent reduction in capacitance indicates endocytosis, the process of membrane uptake or removal from the calyx membrane. Endocytosis, is necessary to maintain the structure of the calyx and it is also necessary to form vesicles that will be filled with neurotransmitter for future exocytosis events. Capacitance recordings at the calyx of Held have made it possible to directly and rapidly measure vesicular release and subsequent endocytosis in a mammalian CNS nerve terminal. In addition, the corresponding postsynaptic activity can be simultaneously measured by using paired recordings. Thus a complete picture of the presynaptic and postsynaptic electrical activity at a central nervous system synapse is achievable using this preparation. Here, the methods for slice preparation, morphological features for identification of calyces of Held, basic patch clamping techniques, and examples of capacitance recordings to measure exocytosis and endocytosis are presented.

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal.

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal. ...

Pressure-polishing Pipettes for Improved Patch-clamp Recording

Pressure-polishing is a method for shaping glass pipettes for patch-clamp recording. We first developed this method for fabricating pipettes suitable for recording from small (&lt;3 m) neuronal cell bodies. The basic principal is similar to glass-blowing and combines air pressure and heat to modify the shape of patch pipettes prepared by a conventional micropipette puller. It can be applied to so-called soft (soda lime) and hard (borosilicate) glasses. Generally speaking, pressure polishing can reduce pipette resistance by 25% without decreasing the diameter of the tip opening (Goodman and Lockery, 2000). It can be applied to virtually any type of glass and requires only the addition of a high-pressure valve and fitting to a microforge. This technique is essential for recording from ultrasmall cells (&lt;5 m) and can also improve single-channel recording by minimizing pipette resistance. The blunt shape is also useful for perforated-patch clamp recording since this tip shape results in a larger membrane bleb available for perforation.

This is a guide to modifying the shape of glass micropipettes. Specifically, by using heat and air pressure the taper is widened without increasing the tip opening, leading to lower pipette resistance. This is critical to obtain low noise recordings of small cells but is useful in many applications.

Pressure-polishing is a method for shaping glass pipettes for patch-clamp recording.  We first developed this method for fabricating pipettes suitable for ...

Multi-parameter Measurement of the Permeability Transition Pore Opening in Isolated Mouse Heart Mitochondria

The mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mtPTP) is a non specific channel that forms in the inner mitochondrial membrane to transport solutes with a molecular mass smaller than 1.5 kDa. Although the definitive molecular identity of the pore is still under debate, proteins such as cyclophilin D, VDAC and ANT contribute to mtPTP formation. While the involvement of mtPTP opening in cell death is well established1, accumulating evidence indicates that the mtPTP serves a physiologic role during mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis2, bioenergetics and redox signaling 3.
mtPTP opening is triggered by matrix Ca2+ but its activity can be modulated by several other factors such as oxidative stress, adenine nucleotide depletion, high concentrations of Pi, mitochondrial membrane depolarization or uncoupling, and long chain fatty acids4. In vitro, mtPTP opening can be achieved by increasing Ca2+ concentration inside the mitochondrial matrix through exogenous additions of Ca2+ (calcium retention capacity). When Ca2+ levels inside mitochondria reach a certain threshold, the mtPTP opens and facilitates Ca2+ release, dissipation of the proton motive force, membrane potential collapse and an increase in mitochondrial matrix volume (swelling) that ultimately leads to the rupture of the outer mitochondrial membrane and irreversible loss of organelle function.
Here we describe a fluorometric assay that allows for a comprehensive characterization of mtPTP opening in isolated mouse heart mitochondria. The assay involves the simultaneous measurement of 3 mitochondrial parameters that are altered when mtPTP opening occurs: mitochondrial Ca2+ handling (uptake and release, as measured by Ca2+ concentration in the assay medium), mitochondrial membrane potential, and mitochondrial volume. The dyes employed for Ca2+ measurement in the assay medium and mitochondrial membrane potential are Fura FF, a membrane impermeant, ratiometric indicator which undergoes a shift in the excitation wavelength in the presence of Ca2+, and JC-1, a cationic, ratiometric indicator which forms green monomers or red aggregates at low and high membrane potential, respectively. Changes in mitochondrial volume are measured by recording light scattering by the mitochondrial suspension. Since high-quality, functional mitochondria are required for the mtPTP opening assay, we also describe the steps necessary to obtain intact, highly coupled and functional isolated heart mitochondria.

A spectrofluorometric protocol for the measurement of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening in isolated mouse heart mitochondria is presented here. The assay involves the simultaneous measurement of mitochondria Ca2+ handling, mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial volume. The procedure for obtaining high-quality and functional heart mitochondria is also described.

The mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mtPTP) is a non specific channel that forms in the inner mitochondrial membrane to transport solutes with ...

One-channel Cell-attached Patch-clamp Recording

Ion channel proteins are universal devices for fast communication across biological membranes. The temporal signature of the ionic flux they generate depends on properties intrinsic to each channel protein as well as the mechanism by which it is generated and controlled and represents an important area of current research. Information about the operational dynamics of ion channel proteins can be obtained by observing long stretches of current produced by a single molecule. Described here is a protocol for obtaining one-channel cell-attached patch-clamp current recordings for a ligand gated ion channel, the NMDA receptor, expressed heterologously in HEK293 cells or natively in cortical neurons. Also provided are instructions on how to adapt the method to other ion channels of interest by presenting the example of the mechano-sensitive channel PIEZO1. This method can provide data regarding the channel&#8217;s conductance properties and the temporal sequence of open-closed conformations that make up the channel&#8217;s activation mechanism, thus helping to understand their functions in health and disease.

Described here is a procedure for obtaining long stretches of current recording from one ion channel with the cell-attached patch-clamp technique. This method allows for observing, in real time, the pattern of open-close channel conformations that underlie the biological signal. These data inform about channel properties in undisturbed biological membranes.

Ion channel proteins are universal devices for fast communication across biological membranes. The temporal signature of the ionic flux they generate ...

Assessing the Secretory Capacity of Pancreatic Acinar Cells

Pancreatic acinar cells produce and secrete digestive enzymes. These cells are organized as a cluster which forms and shares a joint lumen. This work demonstrates how the secretory capacity of these cells can be assessed by culture of isolated acini. The setup is advantageous since isolated acini, which retain many characteristics of the intact exocrine pancreas can be manipulated and monitored more readily than in the whole animal. Proper isolation of pancreatic acini is a key requirement so that the ex&#160;vivo culture will represent the in&#160;vivo nature of the acini. The protocol demonstrates how to isolate intact acini from the mouse pancreas. Subsequently, two complementary methods for evaluating pancreatic secretion are presented. The amylase secretion assay serves as a global measure, while direct imaging of pancreatic secretion allows the characterization of secretion at a sub-cellular resolution. Collectively, the techniques presented here enable a broad spectrum of experiments to study exocrine secretion.

Isolated pancreatic acini retain their in&#160;vivo morphology and activity and offer powerful ways for monitoring and manipulating secretion. This work demonstrates how acini can be isolated from the mouse pancreas, and how their secretory capacities can be assessed.

Pancreatic acinar cells produce and secrete digestive enzymes. These cells are organized as a cluster which forms and shares a joint lumen. This work ...

Isolation of Mitochondria from Minimal Quantities of Mouse Skeletal Muscle for High Throughput Microplate Respiratory Measurements

Dysfunctional skeletal muscle mitochondria play a role in altered metabolism observed with aging, obesity and Type II diabetes. Mitochondrial respirometric assays from isolated mitochondrial preparations allow for the assessment of mitochondrial function, as well as determination of the mechanism(s) of action of drugs and proteins that modulate metabolism. Current isolation procedures often require large quantities of tissue to yield high quality mitochondria necessary for respirometric assays. The methods presented herein describe how high quality purified mitochondria (~ 450 &#181;g) can be isolated from minimal quantities (~75-100 mg) of mouse skeletal muscle for use in high throughput respiratory measurements. We determined that our isolation method yields 92.5&#177; 2.0% intact mitochondria by measuring citrate synthase activity spectrophotometrically. In addition, Western blot analysis in isolated mitochondria resulted in the faint expression of the cytosolic protein, GAPDH, and the robust expression of the mitochondrial protein, COXIV. The absence of a prominent GAPDH band in the isolated mitochondria is indicative of little contamination from non-mitochondrial sources during the isolation procedure. Most importantly, the measurement of O2 consumption rate with micro-plate based technology and determining the respiratory control ratio (RCR) for coupled respirometric assays shows highly coupled (RCR; &#62;6 for all assays) and functional mitochondria. In conclusion, the addition of a separate mincing step and significantly reducing motor driven homogenization speed of a previously reported method has allowed the isolation of high quality and purified mitochondria from smaller quantities of mouse skeletal muscle that results in highly coupled mitochondria that respire with high function during microplate based respirometirc assays.

Here, we present a modification of a previously reported method that allows for the isolation of high quality and purified mitochondria from smaller quantities of mouse skeletal muscle. This procedure results in highly coupled mitochondria that respire with high function during microplate based respirometirc assays.

Dysfunctional skeletal muscle mitochondria play a role in altered metabolism observed with aging, obesity and Type II diabetes. Mitochondrial ...

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Fluorescent labeling is a well-established process for examining the fate of labeled molecules under a variety of experimental conditions both in vitro and in vivo. Fluorescent probes are particularly useful in determining the bio-distribution of administered large molecules, where the addition of a small-molecule fluorescent label is unlikely to affect the kinetics or bio-distribution of the compound. A variety of methods exist to examine bio-distribution that vary significantly in the amount of effort required and whether the resulting measurements are fully quantitative, but using multiple methods in conjunction can provide a rapid and effective system for analyzing bio-distributions.
Ex vivo whole-organ imaging is a method that can be used to quickly compare the relative concentrations of fluorescent molecules within tissues and between multiple types of tissues or treatment groups. Using an imaging platform designed for live-animal or whole-organ imaging, fluorescence within intact tissues can be determined without further processing, saving time and labor while providing an accurate picture of the overall bio-distribution. This process is ideal in experiments attempting to determine the tissue specificity of a compound or for the comparison of multiple different compounds. Quantitative tissue histology on the other hand requires extensive further processing of tissues in order to create a quantitative measure of the labeled compounds. To accurately assess bio-distribution, all tissues of interest must be sliced, scanned, and analyzed relative to standard curves in order to make comparisons between tissues or groups. Quantitative tissue histology is the gold standard for determining absolute compound concentrations within tissues.
Here, we describe how both methods can be used together effectively to assess the ability of different administration methods and compound modifications to target and deliver fluorescently labeled molecules to the central nervous system1.

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Ex vivo whole-organ imaging is a rapid method for determining the relative concentrations of fluorescently labeled compounds within and between tissues or treatment groups. Conversely, quantitative fluorescence histology, while more labor intensive, allows for the quantification of the absolute tissue levels of labeled molecules.

Fluorescent labeling is a well-established process for examining the fate of labeled molecules under a variety of experimental conditions both in vitro ...

Isolation of Mouse Interstitial Valve Cells to Study the Calcification of the Aortic Valve In Vitro

The calcification of aortic valve cells is the hallmark of aortic stenosis and is associated with valve cusp fibrosis. Valve interstitial cells (VICs) play an important role in the calcification process in aortic stenosis through the activation of their dedifferentiation program to osteoblast-like cells. Mouse VICs are a good in vitro tool for the elucidation of the signaling pathways driving the mineralization of the aortic valve cell. The method described herein, successfully used by these authors, explains how to obtain freshly isolated cells. A two-step collagenase procedure was performed with 1 mg/mL and 4.5 mg/mL. The first step is crucial to remove the endothelial cell layer and avoid any contamination. The second collagenase incubation is to facilitate the migration of VICs from the tissue to the plate. In addition, an immunofluorescence staining procedure for the phenotype characterization of the isolated mouse valve cells is discussed. Furthermore, the calcification assay was performed in vitro by using the calcium reagent measurement procedure and alizarin red staining. The use of mouse valve cell primary culture is essential for testing new pharmacological targets to inhibit cell mineralization in vitro.

Isolation of Mouse Interstitial Valve Cells to Study the Calcification of the Aortic Valve In Vitro

This article describes the isolation of mouse aortic valve cells by a two-step collagenase procedure. Isolated mouse valve cells are important for performing different assays, such as this in vitro calcification assay, and for investigating the molecular pathways leading to aortic valve mineralization.

The calcification of aortic valve cells is the hallmark of aortic stenosis and is associated with valve cusp fibrosis. Valve interstitial cells (VICs) ...

The Use of the Patch-Clamp Technique to Study the Thermogenic Capacity of Mitochondria

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Badania wizualne Wrażliwość na prędkość i kierunek ruchu w Jaszczurki

Computer-Generated Animal Model Stimuli

Methods for Patch Clamp Capacitance Recordings from the Calyx

Pressure-polishing Pipettes for Improved Patch-clamp Recording

Multi-parameter Measurement of the Permeability Transition Pore Opening in Isolated Mouse Heart Mitochondria

One-channel Cell-attached Patch-clamp Recording

Assessing the Secretory Capacity of Pancreatic Acinar Cells

Isolation of Mitochondria from Minimal Quantities of Mouse Skeletal Muscle for High Throughput Microplate Respiratory Measurements

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Isolation of Mouse Interstitial Valve Cells to Study the Calcification of the Aortic Valve In Vitro