Imaging and analysis on Imaris were performed in the Vanderbilt Cell Imaging Shared Resource (CIRS) supported by NIH (CA68485, DK20593, DK58404, DK59637, and EY08126). The LSM 880 is supported by grant 1S10OD201630. Imaging on a Nikon spinning disk was performed at the Nikon Center of Excellence. We thank Jenny Schafer, CISR director, and Bryan Millis for training and insightful discussions and members of the Burnette lab: Dylan Burnette, Aidan Fenix, and Nilay Taneja for advice. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grants to DMM (R01NS081259 and R01NS106951) and an American Heart Association grant to ACC (18PRE33960581).

1. Determination of the structure of the DD dendritic spines
<ol>
	<li>Create transgenic worms to label DD spines
	<ol>
		<li>Use the flp-13 promoter to build an expression vector for the label of interest (e.g., cytoplasmic mCherry, MYR::mRuby, LifeAct::GFP, GFP::utrophin) (Figure 1). See the complete list of plasmids in Supplementary File 1.</li>
		<li>Use established methods to generate a transgenic line labeling DD spines8,9.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare the sealant
	<ol>
		<li>Make &#65279;a 1:1 mixture of paraffin-based embedding medium10 (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Heat the medium at 60 &#176;C until melting, then aliquot in 1.5 mL capped microcentrifuge tubes and maintain a heating block at 60-70 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: Sealant can last for 4 weeks in the heating block.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare an anesthetic.
	<ol>
		<li>Make stock solutions in distilled H2O of 1% Tricaine and 1 M levamisole (see Table of Materials). Store at -20 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Prepare a working solution of 0.05% Tricaine and 15 mM levamisole anesthetic, as described in steps 1.3.3-1.3.511.</li>
		<li>Mix 75 &#181;L of 1% Tricaine stock and 22.5 &#181;L of 1 M levamisole.</li>
		<li>Add M9 buffer to a final volume of 1.5 mL.</li>
		<li>Aliquot 10 &#181;L of 0.05% Tricaine, 15 mM levamisole into 0.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes and store at -20 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: The anesthetic mixture is sensitive to temperature, and individual aliquots of the working solution should not be refrozen after thawing for each experiment. See Supplementary File 2 for a recipe for M9 buffer.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Acquire high-resolution images
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare 10% agarose and maintain it in the water bath at 60 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: See the report by Monica Driscoll in WormBook12.</li>
		<li>Mount 15-20 young adults on 10% agarose pads and add 3 &#181;L of anesthetic (see step 3).</li>
		<li>Apply coverslip (worms are immobilized within 5 min).</li>
		<li>Seal the edges of the coverslip with melted adhesive sealant mixture (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Acquire images
		<ol>
			<li>Super-resolution acquisition
			<ol>
				<li>Use a laser-scanning confocal microscope equipped for super-resolution microscopy with a 63x/1.40 Plan-Apochromat oil objective lens to achieve a small pixel size (e.g., &#60; 50 nm). Acquire Z-stacks using the step size recommended by the manufacturer&#39;s software (see Table of Materials).</li>
				<li>Collect a series of optical sections that span the total volume of the DD ventral process (e.g., 15-20 slices at 0.19 &#181;m step size or 2- 3&#181;m thick). Submit Z-stacks for image processing using the manufacturer&#39;s software and analyze images with a score higher than 7 (Figure 1B, Figure 2 and Figure 3).</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Nyquist acquisition
			<ol>
				<li>Use a laser scanning confocal microscope to select the optimal pixel size for the wavelength of light and numerical aperture of the objective lens in use (e. g., 40x/1.4 Plan Fluor oil objective). 
				NOTE: The smaller pixel size will reveal the fine structure of DD spines.</li>
				<li>Submit stack for 3D deconvolution using Automatic algorithm (see Table of Materials) (Figure 3).</li>
			</ol>
			</li>
			<li>Use the smallest Z-step possible (e.g., determined by Piezo stage) because oversampling in Z can yield sharper images after 3D deconvolution13.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Image analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Use&#160;appropriate image processing software (see Table of Materials) to create maximum intensity projections of the Z-stacks14.</li>
		<li>Manually count the protrusions on the DD dendrite. 
		NOTE: Protrusions are perpendicular extensions from the main shaft (Figure 1B, arrowheads).</li>
		<li>Determine the length of the DD dendrite scored to calculate the density of spines per 10 &#181;m of DD dendrite (Figure 1C).</li>
		<li>Classify spines as thin/mushroom, filopodial, stubby or branched (Figure 2A). 
		NOTE: Thin/mushroom spines exhibit a narrow base (neck) and a broader tip (head). Filopodial spines do not display a constricted base (no neck) but have a constant width. Stubby spines have a wide base and tip. Branched spines are protrusions with more than one tip.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Assessing activation of DD dendritic spines by presynaptic cholinergic signaling
<ol>
	<li>Create transgenic worms using conventional techniques (e.g., microinjection)8,9
	<ol>
		<li>Use the flp-13 promoter to drive expression of the Ca++ sensor, GCaMP6s, in DD neurons and the unc-4 promoter to drive expression of Chrimson, a red-shifted channelrhodopsin, in presynaptic VA neurons (Figure 4A). See the list of plasmids in Supplementary File 1.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare All-trans Retinal (ATR) and control plates. 
	NOTE: ATR is a required cofactor for Chrimson to function as an optogenetically activated ion channel.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare 100 mM ATR stock solution in ethanol (100%). Store at -20 &#176;C in 1 mL aliquots.</li>
		<li>Under a laminar flow hood, add 300 &#181;L of overnight OP50 bacterial culture and 0.25 &#181;L of ATR to each 60 mm NGM (Nematode Growth Medium) nutrient agar plate and spread with a sterile glass rod.</li>
		<li>For controls, add 300 &#181;L of OP50 bacteria and 0.25 &#181;L of ethanol (100%) to a separate group of NGM plates.</li>
		<li>Let plates sit in hood at room temperature for 24 h (protected from ambient light) to allow bacterial growth. 
		NOTE: Plates can be used after the initial 24 h incubation or maintained at 4 &#176;C to use within 5 days.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Setting-up the experiment
	<ol>
		<li>Place five NC3569 L4-stage larvae on OP50-seeded ATR or control plates that lack ATR and grow in darkness at 23&#176;C.</li>
		<li>Three days later, use a stereo dissecting microscope to confirm vulva development to pick L4 stage progeny from ATR and control plates for imaging as described in steps 2.4.1-2.4.3.</li>
		<li>On a microscope slide, place 2 &#181;L of 0.05 &#181;m polybeads (2.5% solids w/v) (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Use a platinum wire (&#34;worm pick&#34;) to add a small globule of super glue to the solution and swirl gently to generate filamentous &#34;strands&#34; of glue. Then add 3 &#181;L of M9 buffer (Figure 4B).</li>
		<li>Place approximately ten L4 larvae in the solution and apply a coverslip. 
		NOTE: Glue fibers will randomly contact worms and immobilize them after the coverslip is applied. Worms that are embedded in large globules of glue appear desiccated and should not be imaged.</li>
		<li>Seal edges of coverslip as mentioned in step 1.4.4.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Recording of evoked Ca++ transients in dendritic spines.
	<ol>
		<li>Use a spinning disk confocal microscope equipped with a sensitive CCD camera, a 100x TIRF oil objective lens, and 488 nm and 561 nm laser lines (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Adjust microscope stage to position DD spines in the focal plane.</li>
		<li>Set-up time-lapse acquisition to illuminate the sample with 488 nm laser line every frame (for detecting GCaMP6s fluorescence) and the 561 nm laser line at periodic intervals (for Chrimson excitation). 
		NOTE: For example, use 488 nm light to capture consecutive snapshots (200 ms) of GCaMP6s signal coupled with a 200 ms pulse of 561 nm light every 5th frame (Figure 4C-E). With this configuration, GCaMP levels before and after each 561 nm pulse are detected ~1 s apart (200 ms of 488 nm laser to detect GCaMP before VA activation, 200 ms of 561 nm pulse to activate VA and ~600 ms to switch between laser lines and emission filters. With this set-up, VA neurons are activated every 2.5 s.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Analysis of in vivo Ca++ imaging
	<ol>
		<li>Use 2D-deconvolution and image alignment to correct minor deviations arising from the worm movement during acquisition (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Define the DD dendritic spine as the Region Of Interest (ROI in Figures 4C-D).</li>
		<li>Duplicate the ROI and relocate to a neighboring region inside the worm to collect background signal (i.e., noise).</li>
		<li>Use appropriate software (see Table of Materials) to export GCaMP6s&#160;intensities to excel for each time point. Subtract background fluorescence from spine ROI fluorescence.</li>
		<li>Determine the change in fluorescence by subtracting the GCaMP6s fluorescence in the frame immediately before 561 nm excitation (F0) from each time-point after excitation (&#916;F), then dividing by F0 to determine &#916;F/F0 (Figure 4E).</li>
		<li>Graph the normalized traces (See Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>Perform a paired statistical test for each measurement of GCaMP6s fluorescence before and after each pulse of 561 nm light. 
		NOTE: This approach effectively excludes random fluctuations in GCaMP6s fluorescence that otherwise reduce the statistical power of comparing the mean GCaMP6s signal from all measurements before and after 561 nm excitation (Figure 4F).</li>
		<li>For measurements that show a normal or Gaussian distribution, use a paired parametric ANOVA test and correct for multiple comparisons for each of the two groups (ATR before vs. after, no ATR before vs. after). Alternatively, for data that are not normally distributed, use a non-parametric ANOVA with posthoc correction for multiple testing. 
		NOTE: Worms grown on plates that lack ATR (&#34;no ATR&#34;) are necessary controls and should not show 561 nm-activated Ca++ transients because ATR is required for Chrimson function.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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We declare no conflicts of interest.

The Airyscan detector was selected to acquire snapshots of DD spines because it affords a higher signal-to-noise ratio and better resolution than conventional confocal microscopes19,20. AiryScan imaging also allows the use of conventional fluorescent proteins (e.g., GFP, mCherry, etc.), now widely available for C. elegans. Although higher resolution images can be obtained with other super-resolution methods (e.g., STORM, STED, PALM), these methods require photo-activatable or photo-switchable fluorescent proteins21. As an alternative to Airyscan, conventional confocal microscopes are recommended. For example, imaging with Nyquist acquisition (Figure 3) achieves the pixel size using a 40x/1.3 objective of 123.9 nm, sufficient to distinguish the spine morphological types (Figure 2).
For determining spine density, using a cytosolic fluorescent protein such as (1) mCherry or GFP, (2) LifeAct to label the actin cytoskeleton, or (3) a myristoylated fluorescent protein (e.g., MYR::mRuby) to label the plasma membrane (Figure 1B) is recommended. In comparison, the F-actin binding protein Utrophin reduces spine density (Figure 1C), indicating a negative effect on spine morphogenesis when Utrophin is over-expressed.
The current imaging methods should help identify genetic variants that govern spine morphology1,16. DD spine morphology (i.e., thin/mushroom, filopodial, stubby, branched, see Figure 2) can be assessed from single 2D-projections of the ventral nerve cord lateral images since most DD spines adopt a characteristically ventrally-directed orientation. In these comparisons, it is essential to use the same fluorescent marker for each condition since apparent spine morphological types seem to be influenced by the labeling method (e.g., MYR::mRuby vs. LifeAct::GFP). In addition, it was noted that the spine shapes are dynamic and likely change shape in response to the external signals2,16. Thus, it is also essential to compare spine shapes between genotypes at similar developmental stages and under similar conditions.
The orientation of the C. elegans ventral cord is critically vital for accurate image acquisition. Both the ventral and dorsal cords on opposite sides of the animal should be visible in the same Z-plane, indicating that the worm is oriented on its side (Figure 1B). It is best not to collect images of worms moving or in contact with other worms or bubbles near the ventral cord, as this can degrade images of spines.
For in vivo calcium imaging, fresh slides need to be prepared immediately before each acquisition. It is best to image worms in contact with only thin glue fibers vs. &#34;globs&#34; of glue which tend to desiccate worms and degrade the image (Figure 4B). In the experiment shown in Figure 4, the pulse of 561 nm light activates the entire field of view. For increasing the temporal and spatial resolution to detect local Ca++ transients, for example, within individual DD spines, a galvo mini scanner set up for the 561 nm laser line can be used to stimulate a smaller region of interest17.

Dendritic spines are specialized cellular structures that receive input from neighboring neurons for synaptic transmission. Activation of neurotransmitter receptors elevates intracellular calcium and downstream signaling pathways in these&#160;characteristic neuronal protrusions1. Because of the fundamental importance of dendritic spines to neurotransmission and their misregulation in neurodevelopmental diseases1, the discovery of factors that modulate dendritic spine morphogenesis and function is of high interest to the field of neuroscience.
Recently, dendritic spines have been identified in the C. elegans nervous system based on key characteristics shared with mammalian spines2. This determination is crucial because it opens the possibility of exploiting the advantages of C. elegans to investigate spine biology. Dendritic spines on Dorsal D (DD) motor neurons receive input from cholinergic neurons (VA and VB) in the ventral nerve cord (Figure 1A)2,3,4. Here, imaging methods are presented to explore the structure of DD dendritic spines and their function in vivo in an intact nervous system that is readily accessible to live imaging and genetic analysis. For monitoring the shape of dendritic spines, (1) cytosolic fluorescent proteins, which fill the dendritic process and spines; (2) membrane-bound fluorescent proteins, which decorate the border of dendritic spines and dendrites; or (3) the actin markers, LifeAct5 or Utrophin6, which are enriched in dendritic spines are used, thus revealing their shape. To monitor the functionality of DD spines, GCaMP&#160; fluorescence is used to detect Ca++ transients evoked by activation of the red-shifted opsin, Chrimson, in presynaptic cholinergic neurons7. Both strategies are expected to facilitate the study of DD dendritic spines in wild-type and mutant animals.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>All-trans retinal (ATR)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>R2500-100MG</td>
			<td>Necessary cofactor for neuronal excitation with Chrimson</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>diH2O</td>
			<td>MilliQ</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To prepare M9 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol 100%</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>64-17-5</td>
			<td>To dilute ATR and make control plates for neuronal excitation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethyl 3-aminobenzoate methanesulfonate salt (tricaine)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To immobilize animals for imaging dendritic spines</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>NIH</td>
			<td>(Schindelin J et al., 2012)</td>
			<td>Open source image processing software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Bioreagents</td>
			<td>7758-11-4</td>
			<td>To prepare M9 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Levamisole hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>16595-80-5</td>
			<td>To immobilize animals for imaging dendritic spines</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgSO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>M63-500</td>
			<td>To prepare M9 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope cover glass</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>12542B</td>
			<td>To mount animals for microscopy acquisition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S369-500</td>
			<td>To prepare M9 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>S671-3</td>
			<td>To prepare M9 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NIS Elements version 05.21</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To analyze images and movies (e.g., Deconvolution, image alignment)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybeads carboxylate 0.05um microspheres</td>
			<td>Polysciences, Inc</td>
			<td>15913-10</td>
			<td>To immobilize animals for imaging Ca++ transients</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For statistical analysis and graphing normalized Ca++ transients</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SeaKen ME agarose</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>50014</td>
			<td>To make agarose pads to mount animals for imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Super Glue</td>
			<td>The gorilla company</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To immobilize animals for imaging Ca++ transients</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superfrost microscope slides</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>22-034-980</td>
			<td>To mount animals for microscopy acquisition</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vaseline</td>
			<td>Covidien</td>
			<td>8884430300</td>
			<td>To seal sample for confocal snapshots</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wax</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>23-021-399</td>
			<td>Paraplast tissue embedding medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope for super-resolution imaging</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LSM880</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AiryScan detector</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plan Apochromat (oil) 63x/ 1.40 NA, WD = 0.19 mm</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser lines</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stage controller</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope for Nyquist image acquisition</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A1R Confocal</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plan Fluor (oil) 40x/1.3 NA, WD 0.24 mm</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>488 nm, 16mW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm, 17mW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope to monitor evoked Ca++ transients in dendritic spines</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spinning Disk Confocal</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Andor DU-897 EMCCD camera</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spinning disk Head CSU-X1</td>
			<td>Yokogawa</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Apo TIRF (oil) 100x/1.49 NA ,WD 0.12 mm</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>488 nm, 65mW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm, 86mW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>525 nm (+/- 18 nm)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>605 nm (+/- 35 nm)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

imaging dendritic spines in caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are specialized sites of synaptic innervation modulated by activity and serve as substrates for learning and memory. Recently, dendritic spines have been described for DD GABAergic neurons as the input sites from presynaptic cholinergic neurons in the motor circuit of Caenorhabditis elegans. This synaptic circuit can now serve as a powerful new in vivo model of spine morphogenesis and function that exploits the facile genetics and ready accessibility of C. elegans to live-cell imaging. 
This protocol describes experimental strategies for assessing DD spine structure and function. In this approach, a super-resolution imaging strategy is used to visualize the intricate shapes of actin-rich dendritic spines. To evaluate the DD spine function, the light-activated opsin, Chrimson, stimulates the presynaptic cholinergic neurons, and the calcium indicator, GCaMP, reports the evoked calcium transients in postsynaptic DD spines. Together, these methods comprise powerful approaches for identifying genetic determinants of dendritic spines in C. elegans that could also direct spine morphogenesis and function in the brain.

Measurements with three independent markers (cytosolic mCherry, LifeAct::GFP, MYR::mRuby) yielded an average density of 3.4 &#177; 1.03 DD dendritic spines per 10 &#181;m of DD dendrite in wild-type young adults (Figure 1B,C). For this analysis, the measurements obtained with the GFP::Utrophin marker that yielded a significantly lower spine density were excluded (2.4 &#177; 0.74, Figure 1)&#160;due to interactions of Utrophin with the actin cytoskeleton6 that&#160;potentially drives spine morphogenesis15. The measurements of spine density in the light microscope are comparable to the value of 4.2 spines/10 &#181;m dendrite obtained from the reconstruction of 12 spines from electron micrographs of the DD1 neuron2. The live-cell imaging approach confirmed that the thin/mushroom-shaped morphology of the DD spines predominates in the adult vs. alternative spine shapes (e.g., filopodial, stubby, branched) (Figure 2B), which is also typical for spines in the mature mammalian nervous system16.
An optogenetic strategy was used to ask if the presumptive dendritic spines detected by high-resolution light microscopy (Figure 1 and Figure 2) are responsive to neurotransmitter release from presynaptic sites, a characteristic hallmark of dendritic spines in mammalian neurons. Green light (561 nm) was used to activate a channelrhodopsin variant, Chrimson, in presynaptic cholinergic neurons and blue light (488 nm) to detect Ca++-dependent fluorescence emitted by a cytoplasmic GCaMP probe in postsynaptic DD dendritic spines. This experiment detected transient bursts of GCaMP signal in DD spines immediately after optogenetic activation of Chrimson in presynaptic VA neurons (Figure 3). The success of this experiment depends on the reliable expression of Chrimson in all presynaptic VA neurons. In this case, a chromosomal integrant17 of the Punc-4::Chrimson marker was used to ensure consistent VA expression. This experiment could also be conducted with an extrachromosomal array. Chrimson expression in a specific VA neuron can be independently confirmed, for example, by coupling the Chrimson transgene to an SL2 transpliced leader sequence with a downstream nuclear-localized GFP as a co-expression marker2. It is essential to perform a control experiment in the absence of ATR to confirm that the measured GCaMP signal depends on optogenetic activation of Chrimson, which is strictly ATR-dependent (Figure 4D). Finally, because evoked Ca++ signals are transient, it is crucial to adopt an imaging protocol that allows rapid switching (&#60;1 s) between 561 nm excitation and GCaMP signal acquisition with the 488 nm laser (Figure 4).
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig1v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Labeling of DD dendritic spines. (A) (Top) Six Dorsal D (DD1-DD6) neurons in the ventral nerve cord of C. elegans. (Bottom) In adults, ventrally directed DD spines (arrowhead) contact presynaptic terminals of Ventral A (VA) and Ventral B (VB) motor neurons (magenta), and DD commissures extend to the dorsal nerve cord to provide GABAergic output to body muscles (arrow)18. This figure has been modified from Reference2. (B) Fluorescent micrographs (Airyscan) of DD spines labeled with cytosolic mCherry, myristoylated mRuby (MYR::mRuby), LifeAct::GFP and GFP::Utrophin in young adult worms. Gray arrowheads point to spines. Scale bar = 2 &#181;m. (C) Density (spines/10 &#181;m) of DD neuron dendritic spines labeled with cytosolic mCherry (3.77 &#177; 0.9), MYR::mRuby (3.09 &#177; 0.8), LifeAct::GFP (3.44 &#177; 1.1) or GFP::Utrophin (2.41 &#177; 0.8). All samples are normally distributed. One-Way ANOVA shows that spine densities for cytosolic mCherry, MYR::mRuby, and LifeAct::GFP are not significantly (NS) different, whereas spine density is reduced for GFP::Utrophin vs. cytosolically labeled mCherry (p = 0.0016) and LifeAct::GFP (p = 0.0082). The dashed red line represents the spine density of DD neurons assessed from 3D EM reconstruction (4.2 spines/10 &#181;m). This figure has been modified from Reference2. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig1v2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Imaging DD dendritic spines. (A) (Top) Schematic of spine shapes. (Bottom) Airyscan images of each type of spine (Scale bar = 500 nm) labeled with LifeAct::GFP (green) and 3D-reconstructions by serial electron micrographs of a high-pressure frozen adult (blue). (B)&#160;Spine frequency by type, visualized with LifeAct::GFP: Thin/Mushroom (55.5 &#177; 14.5%), Filopodial (10.3 &#177; 8.70%), Stubby (18.8 &#177; 10.7%), Branched (15.42 &#177; 6.01%). Spines frequency by type visualized with MYR::mRuby: Thin/Mushroom (52.2 &#177; 16.5%), Filopodial (5.68 &#177; 7.0%), Stubby (33.1 &#177; 14.8%), Branched (9.02 &#177; 9.6%). Unpaired T-test, Filopodial (p = 0.0339); Stubby (p = 0.0009) and Branched (p = 0.011) spines labeled with the MYR::mRuby marker are significantly different from LifeAct::GFP. This figure has been modified from Reference2. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Strategies for acquiring high-resolution images of DD spines. (A-B) (Top) Fluorescent images of DD1 dendrites labeled with a cytosolic marker (mCherry) by (A) Airyscan detector and (B) Nyquist acquisition. (Bottom) DD dendrite (red) is depicted with an image analysis software (auto-path option of filament tracer), and DD spines (blue) are graphically illustrated using the semi-automated spines detection module. Arrow points to branched spine enlarged in C and D. Arrowheads denote neighboring thin/mushroom spines enlarged in C and D. Scale bar = 2 &#181;m.&#160;(C-D)&#160;Enlarged examples of (top) branched spine (arrow) and (bottom) two neighboring thin/mushroom spines (arrowheads) obtained with (C) Airyscan detector or by (D) Nyquist acquisition. Scale bar = 500 nm.&#160;Data reproduced from2. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Assessing the function of DD spines. (A) DD motor neurons express the Ca++ indicator GCaMP6s (green), and VA motor neurons express the channelrhodopsin-variant, Chrimson (magenta)7. (B)&#160;Schematic depicting method for mounting worms for Ca++ measurements. (1) On a clean microscope slide, (2) place 2 &#181;L of 0.05 &#181;m poly beads, (3) use a platinum wire (&#34;worm pick&#34;) to add a small globule of super glue and (4) swirl into the solution to generate filamentous strands of glue. (5) Add 3&#181;L of M9 buffer. (6) Place approximately ten L4 larvae in the solution, (7) apply coverslip and seal edges with Vaseline/wax. (C-D) Activation of VA neurons correlates with Ca++ transients in DD1 spines. GCaMP6s fluorescence imaged (at 0.5 s intervals) with periodic light activation of Chrimson (2.5 s intervals) evokes Ca++ transients with (C) +ATR (n = 12) but not in (D) controls (-ATR, n = 12). Panels are snapshots over time (s), before and after pulse of 561 nm light (vertical pink line). Scale bars = 2 &#181;m. GCaMP6s signal is acquired from an ROI (Region of Interest) at the tip of each spine.&#160;(E) GCaMP6s fluorescence during the 10 s recording period plotted for +ATR (green) vs -ATR (control, gray) (n = 12 videos). Vertical pink bars denote 561 nm illumination (e.g., Chrimson activation). Each animal was stimulated 4 times with 561 nm light. Measurements were collected before and after each pulse of 561 nm light.&#160;(F) Plot of the GCaMP6s fluorescence before and after each pulse of 561 nm light. GCaMP6s fluorescence was measured 1 s after each pulse of 561 nm light. Because samples are not normally distributed, a paired non-parametric Friedman test was applied to correct for multiple comparisons of GCaMP6s fluorescence before vs. after 561 nm light stimulation for worms grown either with ATR (+ATR, green) (*** p = 0.0004, n = 48 measurements) or in the absence of ATR (-ATR, gray) (NS, Not Significant, p = 0.0962, n = 48 measurements). This figure has been modified from Reference2. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62676/62676fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Supplementary File 1: List of plasmids used in the study. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62676/Supplementary File 1.docx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>
Supplementary File 2: Composition and preparation of M9 buffer. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62676/Supplementary File 2.docx" target="_blank">Please click here to download this File.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans at JoVE.com

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are important cellular features of the nervous system. Here live imaging methods are described for assessing the structure and function of dendritic spines in C. elegans.&#160;These approaches support the development of mutant screens for genes that define dendritic spine shape or function.

Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Dendritic spines are specialized sites of synaptic innervation modulated by activity and serve as substrates for learning and memory. Recently, dendritic ...

imaging-dendritic-spines-in-caenorhabditis-elegans

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Neuroscience

2.2K Views.  Vanderbilt University. Dendritic spines are important cellular features of the nervous system. Here live imaging methods are described for assessing the structure and function of dendritic spines in C. elegans. These approaches support the development of mutant screens for genes that define dendritic spine shape or function.

Video: Imaging Dendritic Spines in Caenorhabditis elegans

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) of Fluorescence Tagged Proteins in Dendritic Spines of Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

FRAP has been used to quantify the mobility of GFP-tagged proteins. Using a strong excitation laser, the fluorescence of a GFP-tagged protein is bleached in the region of interest. The fluorescence of the region recovers when the unbleached GFP-tagged protein from outside of the region diffuses into the region of interest. The mobility of the protein is then analyzed by measuring the fluorescence recovery rate. This technique could be used to characterize protein mobility and turnover rate.
In this study, we express the (enhanced green fluorescent protein) EGFP vector in cultured hippocampal neurons. Using the Zeiss 710 confocal microscope, we photobleach the fluorescence signal of the GFP protein in a single spine, and then take time lapse images to record the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Finally, we estimate the percentage of mobile and immobile fractions of the GFP in spines, by analyzing the imaging data using ImageJ and Graphpad softwares.
This FRAP protocol shows how to perform a basic FRAP experiment as well as how to analyze the data.

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching FRAP of Fluorescence Tagged Proteins in Dendritic Spines of Cultured Hippocampal Neurons

FRAP has been used to quantify the mobility of Green Fluorescence Protein (GFP)-tagged proteins in cultured cells. We examined the mobile/immobile fractions of the GFP by analyzing the fluorescence recovery percentage after photobleaching. In this study, FRAP was performed at spines of hippocampal neurons.

FRAP has been used to quantify the mobility of GFP-tagged proteins. Using a strong excitation laser, the fluorescence of a GFP-tagged protein is bleached ...

Voltage-sensitive Dye Recording from Axons, Dendrites and Dendritic Spines of Individual Neurons in Brain Slices

Understanding the biophysical properties and functional organization of single neurons and how they process information is fundamental for understanding how the brain works. The primary function of any nerve cell is to process electrical signals, usually from multiple sources. Electrical properties of neuronal processes are extraordinarily complex, dynamic, and, in the general case, impossible to predict in the absence of detailed measurements. To obtain such a measurement one would, ideally, like to be able to monitor, at multiple sites, subthreshold events as they travel from the sites of origin on neuronal processes and summate at particular locations to influence action potential initiation. This goal has not been achieved in any neuron due to technical limitations of measurements that employ electrodes. To overcome this drawback, it is highly desirable to complement the patch-electrode approach with imaging techniques that permit extensive parallel recordings from all parts of a neuron. Here, we describe such a technique - optical recording of membrane potential transients with organic voltage-sensitive dyes (Vm-imaging) - characterized by sub-millisecond and sub-micrometer resolution. Our method is based on pioneering work on voltage-sensitive molecular probes 2. Many aspects of the initial technology have been continuously improved over several decades 3, 5, 11. Additionally, previous work documented two essential characteristics of Vm-imaging. Firstly, fluorescence signals are linearly proportional to membrane potential over the entire physiological range (-100 mV to +100 mV; 10, 14, 16). Secondly, loading neurons with the voltage-sensitive dye used here (JPW 3028) does not have detectable pharmacological effects. The recorded broadening of the spike during dye loading is completely reversible 4, 7. Additionally, experimental evidence shows that it is possible to obtain a significant number (up to hundreds) of recordings prior to any detectable phototoxic effects 4, 6, 12, 13. At present, we take advantage of the superb brightness and stability of a laser light source at near-optimal wavelength to maximize the sensitivity of the Vm-imaging technique. The current sensitivity permits multiple site optical recordings of Vm transients from all parts of a neuron, including axons and axon collaterals, terminal dendritic branches, and individual dendritic spines. The acquired information on signal interactions can be analyzed quantitatively as well as directly visualized in the form of a movie.

An imaging technique for monitoring of membrane potential changes with sub-micrometer spatial and sub-millisecond temporal resolution is described. The technique, based on laser excitation of voltage-sensitive dyes, allows measurements of signals in axons and axon collaterals, terminal dendritic branches, and individual dendritic spines.

Understanding the biophysical properties and functional organization of single neurons and how they process information is fundamental for understanding ...

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

Amylopathy is a term that describes abnormal synthesis and accumulation of amyloid beta (A&beta;) in tissues with time. A&beta; is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is found in Lewy body dementia, inclusion body myositis and cerebral amyloid angiopathy 1-4. Amylopathies progressively develop with time. For this reason simple organisms with short lifespans may help to elucidate molecular aspects of these conditions. Here, we describe experimental protocols to study A&beta;-mediated neurodegeneration using the worm Caenorhabditis elegans. Thus, we construct transgenic worms by injecting DNA encoding human A&beta;42 into the syncytial gonads of adult hermaphrodites. Transformant lines are stabilized by a mutagenesis-induced integration. Nematodes are age synchronized by collecting and seeding their eggs. The function of neurons expressing A&beta;42 is tested in opportune behavioral assays (chemotaxis assays). Primary neuronal cultures obtained from embryos are used to complement behavioral data and to test the neuroprotective effects of anti-apoptotic compounds.

A Caenorhabditis elegans Model System for Amylopathy Study

We describe methods to study aspects of amylopathies in the worm C. elegans. We show how to construct worms expressing human A&beta;42 in neurons and how to test their function in behavioral assays. We further show how to obtain primary neuronal cultures that can be used for pharmacological testing.

Amylopathy is a term that describes abnormal synthesis and accumulation of amyloid beta (A&beta;) in tissues with time. A&beta; is a hallmark of ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Methods for Studying the Mechanisms of Action of Antipsychotic Drugs in Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a simple genetic organism amenable to large-scale forward and reverse genetic screens and chemical genetic screens. The C. elegans genome includes potential antipsychotic drug (APD) targets conserved in humans, including genes encoding proteins required for neurotransmitter synthesis and for synaptic structure and function. APD exposure produces developmental delay and/or lethality in nematodes in a concentration-dependent manner. These phenotypes are caused, in part, by APD-induced inhibition of pharyngeal pumping1,2. Thus, the developmental phenotype has a neuromuscular basis, making it useful for pharmacogenetic studies of neuroleptics. Here we demonstrate detailed procedures for testing APD effects on nematode development and pharyngeal pumping. For the developmental assay, synchronized embryos are placed on nematode growth medium (NGM) plates containing APDs, and the stages of developing animals are then scored daily. For the pharyngeal pumping rate assay, staged young adult animals are tested on NGM plates containing APDs. The number of pharyngeal pumps per unit time is recorded, and the pumping rate is calculated. These assays can be used for studying many other types of small molecules or even large molecules.

Methods for Studying the Mechanisms of Action of Antipsychotic Drugs in Caenorhabditis elegans

Approaches for testing the effects of antipsychotic drugs (APDs) in Caenorhabditis elegans are demonstrated. Assays are described for testing drug effects on development and viability and on pharyngeal pumping rate. These methods are also applicable for pharmacogenetic experiments with drug classes other than APDs.

Caenorhabditis elegans is a simple genetic organism amenable to  large-scale forward and reverse genetic screens and chemical genetic screens. The C.  ...

Imaging Dendritic Spines of Rat Primary Hippocampal Neurons using Structured Illumination Microscopy

Dendritic spines are protrusions emerging from the dendrite of a neuron and represent the primary postsynaptic targets of excitatory inputs in the brain. Technological advances have identified these structures as key elements in neuron connectivity and synaptic plasticity. The quantitative analysis of spine morphology using light microscopy remains an essential problem due to technical limitations associated with light's intrinsic refraction limit. Dendritic spines can be readily identified by confocal laser-scanning fluorescence microscopy. However, measuring subtle changes in the shape and size of spines is difficult because spine dimensions other than length are usually smaller than conventional optical resolution fixed by light microscopy's theoretical resolution limit of 200 nm.
Several recently developed super resolution techniques have been used to image cellular structures smaller than the 200 nm, including dendritic spines. These techniques are based on classical far-field operations and therefore allow the use of existing sample preparation methods and to image beyond the surface of a specimen. Described here is a working protocol to apply super resolution structured illumination microscopy (SIM) to the imaging of dendritic spines in primary hippocampal neuron cultures. Possible applications of SIM overlap with those of confocal microscopy. However, the two techniques present different applicability. SIM offers higher effective lateral resolution, while confocal microscopy, due to the usage of a physical pinhole, achieves resolution improvement at the expense of removal of out of focus light. In this protocol, primary neurons are cultured on glass coverslips using a standard protocol, transfected with DNA plasmids encoding fluorescent proteins and imaged using SIM. The whole protocol described herein takes approximately 2 weeks, because dendritic spines are imaged after 16-17 days in vitro, when dendritic development is optimal. After completion of the protocol, dendritic spines can be reconstructed in 3D from series of SIM image stacks using specialized software.

This article describes a working protocol to image dendritic spines from hippocampal neurons in vitro using Structured Illumination Microscopy (SIM). Super-resolution microscopy using SIM provides image resolution significantly beyond the light diffraction limit in all three spatial dimensions, allowing the imaging of individual dendritic spines with improved detail.

Dendritic spines are protrusions emerging from the dendrite of a neuron and represent the primary postsynaptic targets of excitatory inputs in the brain. ...

Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation

In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as addition/removal of synapses, occur in an experience-dependent manner, providing the structural foundation of neuronal plasticity. As postsynaptic components of the most excitatory synapses in the cortex, dendritic spines are considered to be a good proxy of synapses. Taking advantages of mouse genetics and fluorescent labeling techniques, individual neurons and their synaptic structures can be labeled in the intact brain. Here we introduce a transcranial imaging protocol using two-photon laser scanning microscopy to follow fluorescently labeled postsynaptic dendritic spines over time in vivo. This protocol utilizes a thinned-skull preparation, which keeps the skull intact and avoids inflammatory effects caused by exposure of the meninges and the cortex. Therefore, images can be acquired immediately after surgery is performed. The experimental procedure can be performed repetitively over various time intervals ranging from hours to years. The application of this preparation can also be expanded to investigate different cortical regions and layers, as well as other cell types, under physiological and pathological conditions.

Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation

Time-lapse imaging in the living animal provides valuable information on structural reorganization in the intact brain. Here, we introduce a thinned-skull preparation that allows transcranial imaging of fluorescently labeled synaptic structures in the living mouse cortex by two-photon microscopy.

In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as ...

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure the activity of neurons during various behaviors. To correlate neural activity with behavior, the animal should not be immobilized but should be able to move. Many behavioral changes occur during long time scales and require recording over many hours of behavior. This also makes it necessary to culture the worms in the presence of food. How can worms be cultured and their neural activity imaged over long time scales? Agarose Microchamber Imaging (AMI) was previously developed to culture and observe small larvae and has now been adapted to study all life stages from early L1 until the adult stage of C. elegans. AMI can be performed on various life stages of C. elegans. Long-term calcium imaging is achieved without immobilizing the animals by using short externally triggered exposures combined with an electron multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD) camera recording. Zooming out or scanning can scale up this method to image up to 40 worms in parallel. Thus, a method is described to image behavior and neural activity over long time scales in all life stages of C. elegans.

Agarose Microchambers for Long-term Calcium Imaging of Caenorhabditis elegans

Imaging behavior and neural activity over long time scales without immobilization of the animal is a prerequisite to understand behavior. Agarose microfluidic chambers imaging (AMI) can be used to image neural activity and behavior for all life stages of Caenorhabditis elegans.

Behavior is controlled by the nervous system. Calcium imaging is a straightforward method in the transparent nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to measure ...

Analyzing Dendritic Morphology in Columns and Layers

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and columns to facilitate brain wiring during development and information processing in developed animals. Postsynaptic neurons elaborate dendrites in type-specific patterns in specific layers to synapse with appropriate presynaptic terminals. The fly medulla neuropil is composed of 10 layers and about 750 columns; each column is innervated by dendrites of over 38 types of medulla neurons, which match with the axonal terminals of some 7 types of afferents in a type-specific fashion. This report details the procedures to image and analyze dendrites of medulla neurons. The workflow includes three sections: (i) the dual-view imaging section combines two confocal image stacks collected at orthogonal orientations into a high-resolution 3D image of dendrites; (ii) the dendrite tracing and registration section traces dendritic arbors in 3D and registers dendritic traces to the reference column array; (iii) the dendritic analysis section analyzes dendritic patterns with respect to columns and layers, including layer-specific termination and planar projection direction of dendritic arbors, and derives estimates of dendritic branching and termination frequencies. The protocols utilize custom plugins built on the open-source MIPAV (Medical Imaging Processing, Analysis, and Visualization) platform and custom toolboxes in the matrix laboratory language. Together, these protocols provide a complete workflow to analyze the dendritic routing of Drosophila medulla neurons in layers and columns, to identify cell types, and to determine defects in mutants.

Here, we show how to analyze dendritic routing of Drosophila medulla neurons in columns and layers. The workflow includes a dual-view imaging technique to improve the image quality and computational tools for tracing, registering dendritic arbors to the reference column array and for analyzing the dendritic structures in 3D space.

In many regions of the central nervous systems, such as the fly optic lobes and the vertebrate cortex, synaptic circuits are organized in layers and ...

A Caenorhabditis elegans Nutritional-status Based Copper Aversion Assay

To ensure survival, organisms must be capable of avoiding unfavorable habitats while ensuring a consistent food source. Caenorhabditis elegans alter their locomotory patterns upon detection of diverse environmental stimuli and can modulate their suite of behavioral responses in response to starvation conditions. Nematodes typically exhibit a decreased aversive response when removed from a food source for over 30 min. Observation of behavioral changes in response to a changing nutritional status can provide insight into the mechanisms that regulate the transition from a well-fed to starved state.
We have developed an assay that measures a nematode&#39;s ability to cross an aversive barrier (i.e. copper) then reach a food source over a prolonged period of time. This protocol builds upon previous work by integrating multiple variables in a manner that allows for continued data collection as the organisms shift towards an increasingly starved condition. Moreover, this assay permits an increased sample size so that larger populations of nematodes can be simultaneously evaluated.
Organisms defective for the ability to detect or respond to copper immediately cross the chemical barrier, while wild type nematodes are initially repelled. As wild type worms are increasingly starved, they begin to cross the barrier and reach the food source. We designed this assay to evaluate a mutant that is incapable of responding to diverse environmental cues, including food sensation or detection of aversive chemicals. When evaluated via this protocol, the defective organisms immediately crossed the barrier, but were also incapable of detecting a food source. Hence, these mutants repeatedly cross the chemical barrier despite temporarily reaching a food source. This assay can straightforwardly test populations of worms to evaluate potential pathway defects related to aversion and starvation.

A Caenorhabditis elegans Nutritional-status Based Copper Aversion Assay

Here, we present a Caenorhabditis elegans-specific assay designed to evaluate changes in copper aversion behavior and the ability to locate a common food source, as the organism progresses from a well-fed to starved nutritional state.

To ensure survival, organisms must be capable of avoiding unfavorable habitats while ensuring a consistent food source. Caenorhabditis elegans alter their ...