Os autores gostariam de agradecer a Michael Anderson para a criação em laboratório Lee estes métodos aceitos para estudar espermatogênese com aconselhamento especializado de Karen Hales. H. Oda e Y. Akiyama-Oda generosamente forneceu a γ-tubulina-GFP voar estoque. Este trabalho foi apoiado por uma bolsa NIH R01 para LAL (GM074044).

1. Testes Dissection <ol><li> Anestesiar moscas em uma garrafa ou frasco, usando um fluxo de CO 2 e transferir para uma almofada de mosca. </li><li> Ordenar opera sob um microscópio de dissecação com um pequeno pincel, e recolher um número apropriado (dependendo do ensaio) de Drosophila, os machos dos genótipos desejáveis. Jovens do sexo masculino (0-2 dias de idade) são ideais para examinar as células ao longo das etapas anteriores da espermatogênese (por exemplo, espermatogônias, espermatócitos e espermátides iniciais pós-meióticas), enquanto que os homens um pouco mais velhos (2-5 dias de idade) são ideais para examinar células nos estágios finais da espermatogénese (em particular, o esperma maduro). </li><li> Use uma pinça para remover as asas de cada voar (para evitar que as moscas de flutuando no líquido durante a dissecção). </li><li> Adicionar ~ 500 ml de solução salina tamponada com fosfato (130 mM de NaCl, 7 mM de Na 2 HPO 4, 3 mM de NaH 2 PO 4; PBS) numa gota de um prato de dissecação com revestimento de silicone emum fundo preto. Outras soluções aquosas têm sido usados ​​com sucesso para os testículos dissecção 3. </li><li> Ponto de fórceps para o anterior da mosca, segure-o pelo tórax e mergulhá-lo na queda PBS. Durante a visualização através do microscópio de dissecação, use outro par de fórceps para agarrar e puxar a genitália externa (estrutura marrom escuro localizado na extremidade posterior do abdome ventral) posteriormente até que ele se separa do abdômen. Na maioria dos casos, os testículos, vesículas seminais e glândula acessória vai ser removido do abdómen, juntamente com os órgãos genitais externos e, se não, inserir um único par de fórceps para o abdómen e provocar os testículos. </li><li> Testículos separadas de glândula acessória e genitais externos utilizando dois pares de pinças na gota de PBS (Figura 2). De tipo selvagem testículos são facilmente distinguidos dos tecidos brancos vizinhos por sua cor amarela. Vá imediatamente para a etapa 2. </li><li> Para isolar os testículos dos machos pharate (i.. E fechada dentro da caixa de pupa), um passo adicional tem de ser realizada primeiramente que envolve a remoção da mosca do caso de pupa, este passo tem sido previamente descrita 31. Prossiga com dissecção como para os testículos adultos começando no passo 1.2. </li><li> Para isolar os testículos dos machos larvais, realizar uma modificação de um protocolo para isolar ovários de larvas de Drosophila 32. Resumidamente, as larvas do sexo masculino pode ser distinguido a partir de larvas femininas pela presença de um par de estruturas grandes, claros, ovais (testículos larva) incorporados no terço posterior do corpo gordo. Para isolar os testículos larvais, parcialmente esfolar abrir a larva do sexo masculino para isolar os testículos e o corpo gordo circundante do abdómen, tal como descrito para o isolamento de ovários de larvas. Prosseguir imediatamente para a etapa 2 do protocolo aqui descrito, os testículos pode depois ser removido do corpo gordo pouco antes da montagem (passos 2.3 ou 3.14) como descrito para os ovários 32. </li></ol><ol><li> Use uma pinça para colocar suavemente 2-3 pares de testículos em uma gota de 4-5 ml de PBS em uma praça lamínula de vidro. Note-se que a razão entre o número testículos ao volume PBS pode precisar de ser ajustado: muito líquido vai evitar que as células se espalhe corretamente quando esmagado, enquanto muito pouco líquido fará com que as células de estourar quando esmagado. Opcional: Use capa siliconizada desliza para minimizar a aderência de tecido para cobrir deslizamento no passo 3.2. </li><li> Utilizar um par de pinças para rasgar cada testículo numa posição apropriada de modo a maximizar a presença de tipos de células da linha germinal desejados na preparação (notar que o conteúdo do testículo principalmente vai egresso da região rasgada na lâmina durante o esmagamento etapa.) Para enriquecer para espermatogônias e espermatócitos, rasgar abrir o testículo adjacente à sua ponta apical (nível 1, Figura 2B). Para enriquecer para espermatócitos e espermátides, rasgar abrir o testículo em um position ligeiramente basal ao nível 1 (nível 2, Figura 2B). Para enriquecimento em células da linha germinal mais maduros, rasgar a testículo mais perto de onde a curvatura começa (nível 3, Figura 2B). </li><li> Delicadamente, coloque uma lâmina de vidro sobre a lamínula para esmagar os testículos; não aplique pressão manualmente, como o peso de só a lamínula é suficiente para obter uma amostra adequada esmagado. Tente evitar bolhas de interceptação. Opcional: Utilização de poli-L-lisina revestido lâminas de microscópio para promover a aderência do tecido a deslizar no passo 3.2. </li><li> Use preparação imediatamente (de preferência dentro de 15 minutos de preparação) para observar células vivas por microscopia de contraste de fase, pois moscas transgênicas com expressão de proteínas fluorescentes marcados nos testículos, células vivas podem ser examinados por microscopia de fluorescência nesta etapa. Alternativamente, proceder com a fixação e coloração de anticorpos (Protocolo 3). </li><li> Gentilmente pavio qualquer excesso de líquido sob a lamela usando uma limpeza wipe para permitir o achatamento de preparação até que as células germinais são claramente em foco. </li></ol> 3. Formaldeído Fixação e Coloração Anticorpo <ol><li> Encaixar congelar cada slide contendo testículos esmagados (das Protocolo 2) usando um par de pinças de metal para mergulhá-lo brevemente em nitrogênio líquido (até nitrogênio líquido pára borbulhando). </li><li> Retire a tampa de deslizamento imediatamente usando uma lâmina de barbear. </li><li> Use pinças metálicas para transferir lâminas para uma grade deslizante de vidro previamente arrefecido com gelo-etanol frio a 95% (grau de espectrofotometria, livre de metanol). Armazenar a -20 ° C durante 10 min. </li><li> Use pinças metálicas para transferir lâminas para uma grade deslizante de vidro cheio com 4% de formaldeído em PBS mais 0,1% de Triton X-100 (PBS-T). Armazenar à temperatura ambiente durante 7 min. </li><li> Use pinças de metal para transferir slides para um porta-lâminas de vidro cheio de PBS. Lavar as lâminas com PBS durante 5 minutos à temperatura ambiente. Repetir 1x. Executar todas as lavagens de solução descartando no rack lâmina de vidro ( <em&gt; Ie. derramando-o para fora) e substituindo com solução fresca. </li><li> Descartar o PBS e mergulhar as lâminas em PBS-T, durante 30 minutos à temperatura ambiente, para permeabilizar as membranas das células. </li><li> Lavar as lâminas com PBS durante 5 minutos à temperatura ambiente. Repetir 2x. </li><li> Bloqueio passo (opcional): mergulhar as lâminas em PBS mais 1% de BSA durante 45 min à temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Use uma caneta barreira hidrofóbica para desenhar um círculo no slide em torno de tecido amassado (facilmente visível a olho nu), a fim de limitar as soluções de anticorpos (adicionados em passos 3,9 e 3,11). O tecido deve ser mantido úmido em todos os momentos durante a execução de imunomarcação. </li><li> Adicionar 30-40 mL de anticorpo primário (diluído em PBS-T, 1:400 a 1:50, dependendo do anticorpo) para o tecido no interior do círculo. Se o bloqueio foi realizado, diluir o anticorpo primário em PBS-T + 1% de BSA. Anticorpo anti-gama-tubulina (por coloração de centrossomas na Figura 4) foi diluída de 1:100. Incubar em uma câmara escura úmida (caixa de plástico, por exemplo. Fechadocom toalhas de papel húmidas) durante 2 horas à temperatura ambiente ou durante a noite a 4 ° C. </li><li> Lavar as lâminas em PBS por 5 min a sala de 3x de temperatura. Se o bloqueio foi realizado, lavar duas vezes em PBS-T, e uma vez em PBS (5 min a temperatura ambiente, cada um). </li><li> Adicionar 30-40 mL de anticorpo secundário conjugado com fluoróforo (diluído 1:400 em PBS) para o tecido e incubar no escuro durante 1-2 horas à temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Lavar as lâminas com PBS durante 5 minutos à temperatura ambiente. Repetir 2x. </li><li> Adicionar 30-40 mL de solução DAPI (0,2 mg / ml em PBS) para o tecido no interior do círculo. </li><li> Delicadamente, coloque uma lamínula de vidro sobre o tecido, tomando cuidado para evitar bolhas de interceptação. Se bolhas de ar devem aparecer, cuidadosamente mover ao redor da lamínula sem destruir a abóbora até que as bolhas escapar dos lados da lamínula. </li><li> Use uma limpeza limpar para apagar o excesso de DAPI a partir das bordas do slide. </li><li> Selar a lamela para o slide usando claro unha polonês. </li><li> Use esta preparaçãono próximo 3-4 hr para ver células imunomarcadas por microscopia fluorescente. Para o armazenamento de longo prazo de lâminas (até, pelo menos, várias semanas), use uma mídia difícil montar à base de glicerol com DAPI, e armazenar a -20 ˚ lâminas C. </li><li> Em alternativa, fixar as amostras em metanol em vez de formaldeído (dependendo do antigénio). Depois de completar todo o protocolo até a etapa 3.2, mergulhe as lâminas de testículos esmagados em metanol por 10 min a -20 ° C e prossiga com o passo 3.5 em diante. </li></ol>

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H., Perrimon, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+gene+expression+as+a+means+of+altering+cell+fates+and+generating+dominant+phenotypes.">Targeted gene expression as a means of altering cell fates and generating dominant phenotypes.</a> Development. 118, 401-415 (1993).</li><li>White-Cooper, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue+cell+type+and+stage-specific+ectopic+gene+expression+and+RNAi+induction+in+the+Drosophila+testis.">Tissue cell type and stage-specific ectopic gene expression and RNAi induction in the Drosophila testis.</a> Spermatogenesis. 2, 11-22 (2012).</li><li>Rebollo, E., Llamazares, S., Reina, J., Gonzalez, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+noncentrosomal+microtubules+to+spindle+assembly+in+Drosophila+spermatocytes.">Contribution of noncentrosomal microtubules to spindle assembly in Drosophila spermatocytes.</a> PLoS Biol. 2, (2004).</li><li>Cheng, J., Hunt, A. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-lapse+live+imaging+of+stem+cells+in+Drosophila+testis.">Time-lapse live imaging of stem cells in Drosophila testis.</a> Curr. Protoc. Stem Cell. Biol.. 2, 10-1002 (2009).</li><li>Sheng, X. R., Matunis, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+imaging+of+the+Drosophila+spermatogonial+stem+cell+niche+reveals+novel+mechanisms+regulating+germline+stem+cell+output.">Live imaging of the Drosophila spermatogonial stem cell niche reveals novel mechanisms regulating germline stem cell output.</a> Development. 138, 3367-3376 (2011).</li><li>Belloni, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+in+Cog7+affect+Golgi+structure,+meiotic+cytokinesis+and+sperm+development+during+Drosophila+spermatogenesis.">Mutations in Cog7 affect Golgi structure, meiotic cytokinesis and sperm development during Drosophila spermatogenesis.</a> J. Cell Sci. 125, 5441-5452 (2012).</li><li>Moon, S., Cho, B., Min, S. H., Lee, D., Chung, Y. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+THO+complex+is+required+for+nucleolar+integrity+in+Drosophila+spermatocytes.">The THO complex is required for nucleolar integrity in Drosophila spermatocytes.</a> Development. 138, 3835-3845 (2011).</li><li>Wang, Z., Mann, R. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Requirement+for+two+nearly+identical+TGIF-related+homeobox+genes+in+Drosophila+spermatogenesis.">Requirement for two nearly identical TGIF-related homeobox genes in Drosophila spermatogenesis.</a> Development. 130, 2853-2865 (2003).</li></ol>

Os autores declaram que não têm interesses financeiros concorrentes.

Embora os testículos de moscas do tipo selvagem pode ser facilmente identificado, devido à sua cor amarela (em contraste, os tecidos brancos vizinhos), os testículos de moscas mutantes brancos são brancos e, assim, eventualmente, pode ser confundido com o intestino. Mais estirpes transgénicas, que são tipicamente num fundo branco, também têm testículos branco porque o mini-gene de branco encontrada em P-elementos não promove a acumulação de pigmentos nos testículos. Quand...

Testículos de Drosophila são um sistema modelo ideal para o estudo de muitos processos biológicos incluindo a regulação das células estaminais, a meiose, e desenvolvimento do esperma 13-18. Os espermatócitos e os seus fusos meióticos são grandes e, portanto, conveniente para análise citológica e relaxado checkpoints do ciclo celular durante a espermatogênese facilitar o estudo de mutações em genes do ciclo celular. Diferentes tipos de células pode ser observada na progressão ordenada ao longo do comprimento dos testículos, e qualquer interrupção da espermatogénese pode conduzir a alterações neste arranjo global. Estas características combinadas com ferramentas genéticas Drosophila têm facilitado a análise mutacional da espermatogênese 21-23. As fases de Drosophila espermatogénese foram bem definidos. As células da linha germinativa que se desenvolvem de forma síncrona nos cistos progredir sequencialmente através das fases de espermatogénese ao longo do comprimento do testículo. Durante both da mitose e meiose divisões das células germinais masculinas, citocinese ocorre de forma incompleta de modo a que as células filhas permanecem ligados por pontes citoplasmáticos conhecidos como canais de anel (Figura 1). A extremidade apical do testículo contém uma população de células estaminais da linha germinativa, que dá origem a células spermatogonial, que se submetem a quatro divisões mitóticas com citocinese incompletos para gerar cistos de 16 células de espermatócitos primários. Após a fase S pré-meiótica, espermatócitos primários entrar G2, um período prolongado de crescimento ~ 90 horas, durante o qual o volume celular aumenta ~ 25 vezes. Progressão através da meiose I e meiose II resulta na formação de quistos de 32 células de espermatócitos secundários e de cistos de 64 células de espermatídeos haplóides, respectivamente. As espermátides arredondadas, imaturos passam por extensos remodelamento celular para formar espermatozóides maduros. Células pós-meióticas, em especial os molhos de alongamento e espermatídeos maduros, ocupam a maior parte do volume do testículo. Tele o transporte de sucesso de esperma funcional para moscas fêmeas requer a coordenação entre as diferentes partes do sistema reprodutor masculino, a qual é composta de várias estruturas emparelhados (os testículos, vesículas seminais e glândulas acessórias) e de uma única conduta ejaculatório (Figura 2). Os espermatozóides são produzidos dentro dos testículos e armazenado dentro das vesículas seminais até a cópula 24. As glândulas acessórias conter células secretoras de fluido seminal. O esperma migração das vesículas seminais são misturados com o fluido seminal dentro do ducto ejaculatório, a qual está ligada a ambas as vesículas seminais e glândulas acessórias. Esta mistura de esperma e fluido seminal é finalmente bombeado para fora do macho no interior da vagina da fêmea voar através do bulbo ejaculatório localizado na extremidade posterior do abdómen macho 25. As proteínas no fluido seminal, são essenciais para a armazenagem prolongada de esperma dentro de órgãos especializados conhecidos como Espermatecas na reptrato roductive de Drosophila fêmeas 26. Excelentes métodos para o isolamento de testículos de Drosophila e a visualização de células em vários estádios da espermatogénese estão disponíveis na literatura científica 3-12. Nós aqui acrescentar a este corpo de conhecimento, apresentando exemplos desses protocolos com uma demonstração em vídeo que o acompanha. O protocolo para a preparação de amostras de testículos vivos para microscopia de fase de contraste baseia-se num método anteriormente descrito 27. O protocolo para a fixação de formaldeído e imunocoloração de testículos também se baseia em um método previamente descrito 28. As abordagens aqui descritos têm sido utilizados em vários estudos de Drosophila espermatogénese (por exemplo, para avaliar as funções da dineína, um motor de microtúbulos menos dirigida-fim, durante a espermatogénese de Drosophila). Além dos protocolos básicos, são apresentadas sugestões para varying a dissecação, de modo a enriquecer a espermatogônias, espermatócitos, ou espermatozóides maduros. Diferentes métodos para o processamento dos testículos tais que cistos ou permanecem intactos ou são interrompidos quando necessário são descritos. Uma vantagem no uso de testículos de Drosophila como sistema modelo é que, em comparação com oócitos e embriões de Drosophila, os anticorpos e corantes podem facilmente penetrar nas células após a sua dispersão a partir dos testículos, e menos passos de lavagem são necessários, assim, os protocolos podem ser realizadas em um relativamente curto espaço de tempo.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1013">
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			<td style="width:321px;">Use according to manufacturer&#39;s directions to siliconize cover slips</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Name of Equipment</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Stemi 2000-CS stereoscope</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:351px;">Plan-Fluor 40x objective</td>
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			<td style="width:127px;"></td>
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</table>

cytological analysis of spermatogenesis: live and fixed preparations of drosophila testes

Drosophila melanogaster é um poderoso sistema modelo que tem sido amplamente utilizado para elucidar de uma variedade de processos biológicos. Por exemplo, estudos, tanto do sexo feminino e as linhas germinativas masculinas de Drosophila têm contribuído grandemente para a compreensão atual da meiose, bem como a biologia de células-tronco. Excelente protocolos estão disponíveis na literatura para o isolamento e imagiologia de ovários e testículos 3-12 Drosophila. Aqui, os métodos para a dissecação e preparação de testes de Drosophila para análise microscópica são descritos com uma demonstração em vídeo que o acompanha. Um protocolo para o isolamento de testículos do abdómen de adultos do sexo masculino e preparar as lâminas de tecido vivo, para análise por microscopia de contraste de fase, bem como o protocolo para a fixação e imunocoloração testículos para análise por microscopia de fluorescência são apresentados. Estas técnicas podem ser aplicadas na caracterização de mutantes de Drosophila que exibem defects na espermatogénese, assim como na visualização de localizações subcelulares de proteínas.

Um exemplo de um par adequadamente dissecados dos órgãos reprodutores masculinos de Drosophila é mostrado na Figura 2A. Testículos do abdómen da mosca adulta masculina está normalmente ligado ao ducto ejaculatório (castanho, Figura 2A &#39;) e um par de glândulas acessórias (verde, Figura 2A&#39;), através de um par de vesículas seminais (azul, Figura 2A &#39;) . Para separar os testículos da maioria do tecido somático que o acompa...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes at JoVE.com

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Os métodos para isolar e preparar amostras de testículos de Drosophila (ao vivo e fixo) para geração de imagens por contraste de fase e microscopia de fluorescência são descritos aqui.

Citológica Análise da espermatogênese: Preparados ao vivo e fixo<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Testes

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model system that has been widely used to elucidate a variety of biological processes. For example, studies of both ...

cytological-analysis-spermatogenesis-live-fixed-preparations

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

25.9K visualizações.  Vanderbilt University Medical Center.  Os métodos para isolar e preparar amostras de testículos de Drosophila (ao vivo e fixo) para geração de imagens por contraste de fase e microscopia de fluorescência são descritos aqui. 

Vídeo: Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Thin Sectioning of Slice Preparations for Immunohistochemistry

Many investigations in neuroscience, as well as other disciplines, involve studying small, yet macroscopic pieces or sections of tissue that have been preserved, freshly removed, or excised but kept viable, as in slice preparations of brain tissue.  Subsequent microscopic studies of this material can be challenging, as the tissue samples may be difficult to handle.  Demonstrated here is a method for obtaining thin cryostat sections of tissue with a thickness that may range from 0.2-5.0 mm.  We routinely cut 400 micron thick Vibratome brain slices serially into 5-10 micron coronal cryostat sections.  The slices are typically first used for electrophysiology experiments and then require microscopic analysis of the cytoarchitecture of the region from which the recordings were observed.  We have constructed a simple device that allows controlled and reproducible preparation and positioning of the tissue slice.  This device consists of a cylinder 5 cm in length with a diameter of 1.2 cm, which serves as a freezing stage for the slice.  A ring snugly slides over the cylinder providing walls around the slice allowing the tissue to be immersed in freezing compound (e.g., OCT).  This is then quickly frozen with crushed dry ice and the resulting  wafer  can be position easily for cryostat sectioning.  Thin sections can be thaw-mounted onto coated slides to allow further studies to be performed, such as various staining methods, in situ hybridization, or immunohistochemistry, as demonstrated here.

The present method allows reproducible cryostat sectioning of small, difficult-to-manage, tissue pieces, such as biopsies and brain slices. We utilize a simple aluminum freezing stage to facilitate handling of tissue and a standard cryostat to routinely produce 5-10 micron serial sections from 400 micron thick brain slices.

Seccionamento fina de Preparações Slice para Imunohistoquímica

Many investigations in neuroscience, as well as other disciplines, involve studying small, yet macroscopic pieces or sections of tissue that have been ...

Biologia

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we present a protocol for the mounting of Drosophila melanogaster embryos and subsequent live imaging of fluorescently labeled hemocytes, the embryonic macrophages of this organism. Using the Gal4-uas system1 we drive the expression of a variety of genetically encoded, fluorescently tagged markers in hemocytes to follow their developmental dispersal throughout the embryo. Following collection of embryos at the desired stage of development, the outer chorion is removed and the embryos are then mounted in halocarbon oil between a hydrophobic, gas-permeable membrane and a glass coverslip for live imaging. In addition to gross migratory parameters such as speed and directionality, higher resolution imaging coupled with the use of fluorescent reporters of F-actin and microtubules can provide more detailed information concerning the dynamics of these cytoskeletal components.

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Drosophila hemocytes disperse over the entirety of the developing embryo. This protocol demonstrates how to mount and image these migrations using embryos with fluorescently labelled hemocytes.

Imagens ao vivo de Drosophila melanogaster Embrionárias Migrações hemócitos

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we ...

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three preparations of the brain and visual system that cover the range from the developing eye disc-brain complex in the developing pupae to individual eye and brain dissection from adult flies. All protocols are optimized for the live culture of the preparations. However, we also present the conditions for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry where applicable. Finally, we show live imaging conditions for these preparations using conventional and resonant 4D confocal live imaging in a perfusion chamber. Together, these protocols provide a basis for live imaging on different time scales ranging from functional intracellular assays on the scale of minutes to developmental or degenerative processes on the scale of many hours.

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

This protocol describes three Drosophila preparations: 1) adult brain dissection, 2) adult retina dissection and 3) developing eye disc- brain complexes dissection. Emphasis is laid on special preparation techniques and conditions for live imaging, although all preparations can be used for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry.

Preparação de Desenvolvimento e Adultos Drosophila Brains e retina de imagens ao vivo

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three ...

Isolation of Drosophila melanogaster Testes

The testes of Drosophila melanogaster provide an important model for the study of stem cell maintenance and differentiation, meiosis, and soma-germline interactions. Testes are typically isolated from adult males 0-3 days after eclosion from the pupal case. The testes of wild-type flies are easily distinguished from other tissues because they are yellow, but the testes of white mutant flies, a common genetic background for laboratory experiments are similar in both shape and color to the fly gut. Performing dissection on a glass microscope slide with a black background makes identifying the testes considerably easier. Testes are removed from the flies using dissecting needles. Compared to protocols that use forceps for testes dissection, our method is far quicker, allowing a well-practiced individual to dissect testes from 200-300 wild-type flies per hour, yielding 400-600 testes. Testes from white flies or from mutants that reduce testes size are harder to dissect and typically yield 200-400 testes per hour.

Isolation of Drosophila melanogaster Testes

Drosophila melanogaster testes can be rapidly and efficiently isolated from adult males using dissecting needles. With practice, one can readily isolate in one or two days an amount of testes sufficient for the analysis of DNA or RNA by high throughput sequencing or more traditional molecular biology methods or of protein for antibody- or enzyme-based assays.

Isolamento de Drosophila melanogaster Testes

The testes of Drosophila melanogaster provide an important model for the study of stem cell maintenance and differentiation, meiosis, and soma-germline ...

Quantitative Live Cell Fluorescence-microscopy Analysis of Fission Yeast

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using fluorochromes like Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) directly attached to the protein of interest has become increasingly popular 1. Using GFP and similar fluorochromes the subcellular localisations and movements of proteins can be detected in a fluorescent microscope. Moreover, also the subnuclear localisation of a certain region of a chromosome can be studied using this technique. GFP is fused to the Lac Repressor protein (LacR) and ectopically expressed in the cell where tandem repeats of the lacO sequence has been inserted into the region of interest on the chromosome2. The LacR-GFP will bind to the lacO repeats and that area of the genome will be visible as a green dot in the fluorescence microscope. Yeast is especially suited for this type of manipulation since homologous recombination is very efficient and thereby enables targeted integration of the lacO repeats and engineered fusion proteins with GFP 3. Here we describe a quantitative method for live cell analysis of fission yeast. Additional protocols for live cell analysis of fission yeast can be found, for example on how to make a movie of the meiotic chromosomal behaviour 4. In this particular experiment we focus on subnuclear organisation and how it is affected during gene induction. We have labelled a gene cluster, named Chr1, by the introduction of lacO binding sites in the vicinity of the genes. The gene cluster is enriched for genes that are induced early during nitrogen starvation of fission yeast 5. In the strain the nuclear membrane (NM) is labelled by the attachment of mCherry to the NM protein Cut11 giving rise to a red fluorescent signal. The Spindle Pole body (SPB) compound Sid4 is fused to Red Fluorescent Protein (Sid4-mRFP) 6. In vegetatively growing yeast cells the centromeres are always attached to the SPB that is embedded in the NM 7. The SPB is identified as a large round structure in the NM. By imaging before and 20 minutes after depletion of the nitrogen source we can determine the distance between the gene cluster (GFP) and the NM/SPB. The mean or median distances before and after nitrogen depletion are compared and we can thus quantify whether or not there is a shift in subcellular localisation of the gene cluster after nitrogen depletion.

The fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is a good model system to study basic cellular processes. Here we describe a method to perform quantitative live cell analysis of fission yeast. In this particular experiment we focus on organisation of the genome within the cell nucleus, but the method can also be used to study cytosolic factors.

Quantitativas de células vivas de Análise de microscopia de fluorescência de levedura

Several microscopy techniques are available today that can detect a specific protein within the cell. During the last decade live cell imaging using ...

Preparing Individual Drosophila Egg Chambers for Live Imaging

Live cell imaging is an important technique applied to a number of Drosophila tissues used as models to investigate topics such as axis specification, cell differentiation and organogenesis 1. Correct preparation of the experimental samples is a crucial, often neglected, step. The goal of preparation is to ensure physiological relevance and to establish optimal imaging conditions. To maintain tissue viability, it is critical to avoid dehydration, hypoxia, overheating or medium deterioration 2. 
 The Drosophila egg chamber is a well established system for examining questions relating, but not limited, to body patterning, mRNA localization and cytoskeletal organization 3,4. For early- and mid-stage egg chambers, mounting in halocarbon oil is good for survival in that it allows free diffusion of oxygen, prevents dehydration and hypoxia and has superb optical properties for microscopy. Imaging of fluorescent proteins is possible through the introduction of transgenes into the egg chamber or physical injection of labeled RNA, protein or antibodies 5-7. For example, addition of MS2 constructs to the genome of animals enables real time observation of mRNAs in the oocyte 8. These constructs allow for in vivo labeling of mRNA through utilization of the MS2 bacteriophage RNA stem loop interaction with its coat protein 9. 
 Here, we present a protocol for the extraction of ovaries as well as isolating individual ovarioles and egg chambers from the female Drosophila. For a detailed description of Drosophila oogenesis see Allan C. Spradling (1993, reprinted 2009) 10.

Preparing Individual Drosophila Egg Chambers for Live Imaging

The Drosophila egg chamber is an excellent model for studying the mechanisms of mRNA localization. In order to capture the dynamic events that underpin the processes of localization, rapid high resolution imaging of live tissue is required. Here, we present a protocol for dissection and imaging of live samples with minimal disruption.

Preparação Individual Drosophila Ovos Câmaras de imagens ao vivo

Live cell imaging is an important technique applied to a number of Drosophila tissues used as models to investigate topics such as axis specification, ...

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

The Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell organization, and organelle structure and function. The availability of various GFP-tagged proteins means that many cellular processes can be monitored in living cells over the course of minutes or hours, and using this technique, processes such as RNP transport, epithelial morphogenesis, and tissue remodeling have been described in great detail in Drosophila oocytes1,2.
The ability to perform video imaging combined with a rich repertoire of mutants allows an enormous variety of genes and processes to be examined in incredible detail. One such example is the process of ooplasmic streaming, which initiates at mid-oogenesis3,4. This vigorous movement of cytoplasmic vesicles is microtubule and kinesin-dependent5 and provides a useful system for investigating cytoskeleton function at these stages.
Here I present a protocol for time lapse imaging of living oocytes using virtually any confocal microscopy setup.

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

A protocol for live imaging of GFP-tagged proteins or autofluorescent structures in individual Drosophila oocytes is described.

Imagens ao vivo de Proteínas GFP-rotulados em<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Oócitos

The  Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating  fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

Imagens ao vivo de Apuramento celular por apoptose durante<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Embriogênese

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Live Cell Cycle Analysis of Drosophila Tissues using the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer and Vybrant DyeCycle Violet DNA Stain

Flow cytometry has been widely used to obtain information about DNA content in a population of cells, to infer relative percentages in different cell cycle phases. This technique has been successfully extended to the mitotic tissues of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster for genetic studies of cell cycle regulation in vivo. When coupled with cell-type specific fluorescent protein expression and genetic manipulations, one can obtain detailed information about effects on cell number, cell size and cell cycle phasing in vivo. However this live-cell method has relied on the use of the cell permeable Hoechst 33342 DNA-intercalating dye, limiting users to flow cytometers equipped with a UV laser. We have modified this protocol to use a newer live-cell DNA dye, Vybrant DyeCycle Violet, compatible with the more common violet 405nm laser. The protocol presented here allows for efficient cell cycle analysis coupled with cell type, relative cell size and cell number information, in a variety of Drosophila tissues. This protocol extends the useful cell cycle analysis technique for live Drosophila tissues to a small benchtop analyzer, the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer, which can be run and maintained on a single-lab scale.

Live Cell Cycle Analysis of Drosophila Tissues using the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer and Vybrant DyeCycle Violet DNA Stain

A protocol for cell cycle analysis of live Drosophila tissues using the Attune Acoustic Focusing Cytometer is described. This protocol simultaneously provides information about relative cell size, cell number, DNA content and cell type via lineage tracing or tissue specific expression of fluorescent proteins in vivo.

Análise do Ciclo de células vivas de<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Tecidos usando o acústico Attune Focando Cytometer e Vybrant DyeCycle Violeta DNA Stain

Flow cytometry has  been widely used to obtain information about DNA content in a population of  cells, to infer relative percentages in different cell ...

Analysis of Embryonic and Larval Zebrafish Skeletal Myofibers from Dissociated Preparations

The zebrafish has proven to be a valuable model system for exploring skeletal muscle function and for studying human muscle diseases. Despite the many advantages offered by in vivo analysis of skeletal muscle in the zebrafish, visualizing the complex and finely structured protein milieu responsible for muscle function, especially in whole embryos, can be problematic. This hindrance stems from the small size of zebrafish skeletal muscle (60 &mu;m) and the even smaller size of the sarcomere. Here we describe and demonstrate a simple and rapid method for isolating skeletal myofibers from zebrafish embryos and larvae. We also include protocols that illustrate post preparation techniques useful for analyzing muscle structure and function. Specifically, we detail the subsequent immunocytochemical localization of skeletal muscle proteins and the qualitative analysis of stimulated calcium release via live cell calcium imaging. Overall, this video article provides a straight-forward and efficient method for the isolation and characterization of zebrafish skeletal myofibers, a technique which provides a conduit for myriad subsequent studies of muscle structure and function.

Zebrafish are an emerging system for modeling human disorders of the skeletal muscle. We describe a fast and efficient method to isolate skeletal muscle myofibers from embryonic and larval zebrafish. This method yields a high-density myofiber preparation suitable for study of single skeletal muscle fiber morphology, protein subcellular localization, and muscle physiology.

Análise de Desenvolvimento Embrionário e larval Zebrafish esqueléticos miofibras de Preparações dissociadas

The zebrafish has  proven to be a valuable model system for exploring skeletal muscle function and  for studying human muscle diseases. Despite  the many ...