The authors express their gratitude to Professor Robinson Ram&#237;rez from UdeA for help with animals and some photos and to Carolina Palacios for technical support. Johan Pineda from Kaika helped us to set up the color and fluorescence cameras. Shyuan Ngo, from the University of Queensland, kindly proofread the manuscript. This study was funded by the CODI-UdeA (2020-34909 from February 22nd, 2021, and 2021-40170 from March 31st, 2022, SIU), and Planning Office-UdeA (E01708-K and ES03180101), Medell&#237;n, Colombia, to JCC. Funders did not participate in data collection and analysis, manuscript writing or submission.

Enzymatic Isolation and Characterization of Variable Length Mouse Muscle Fibers

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

To complement the models available for studying mature skeletal muscle biology, here we demonstrate the successful enzymatic dissociation of a range of mouse muscles with short, intermediate, and long fibers. These fibers allow for the demonstration of the generalizability of the MT-II kinetics of the Ca2+ transients in skeletal muscle. Further, the fiber types in the intact, whole muscles were classified. Given that the FDB is the most used muscle for physiological experiments, the types of fibers present in the cell suspension after dissociation were assessed.
A battery of short, intermediate, and long intact fibers for muscle biology studies 
The dissection technique, the duration of the enzymatic treatment, the type of enzyme used, and the trituration procedure are critical steps within the protocol to obtain intact enzymatically dissociated fibers. The dissection must be done as fast as possible to reduce the time under hypoxia while avoiding unnecessary stretching. The latter point is particularly relevant for the soleus, which must not be removed by pulling up the gastrocnemius-soleus complex. Moreover, an extensive enzymatic treatment (~3 h)20,48 and poor trituration procedures (e.g., harsh, low experience of the researcher) damage the cells, as confirmed empirically in several laboratories. Collagenase type 2 is recommended over other collagenase types. The formation of bubbles during trituration must be avoided and either the muscles or the fibers must be manipulated only with glass pipettes instead of plastic pipette tips. The use of glass vials is preferred during the whole procedure over plastic, conic vials, because the first give more visibility, can be placed upwards on the stereoscope for a top-view observation of the muscle when in the solutions, give more space for the trituration of the muscles longer and bulkier than the FDB, and are resistant to scratches caused by the glass Pasteur pipettes. Since age, weight, and metabolic condition (e.g., healthy vs. high-fat obesity) affect the efficiency of the method, several parameters could need optimization when working with animals out of the range used in this manuscript. Importantly, a mild exposure of a muscle to certain enzymes such as those used here and a correct dissociation procedure do not functionally affect the fibers, as shown by evidence gathered during decades by multiple groups, some of which was summarized a few years ago49. This is further supported by the fact that the peak [Ca2+] measured with fast Ca2+ dyes during a twitch obtained in manually dissected bundles and enzymatically dissociated fibers of mice can be considered comparable (reviewed in 47).
Although there are other models for muscle biology studies, such as C2C12 myotubes, normal and mutated human myoblast cell lines, or pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived fibers31,39,50,51,52,53, they are immature and are not discussed here. Permeabilized or skinned fibers are also informative, well-characterized models54,55, but they are not intact. The model of manually isolated fibers offers several advantages as presented elsewhere20 but has low efficiency and requires high training. These facts highlight that the model of interest here-fibers obtained by enzymatic dissociation-offers the possibility of obtaining intact, abundant, mature skeletal muscle fibers of different types. One limitation of the model, though, is that the lack of tendons limits the direct assessment of contractile properties in the isolated fibers.
Given that the length of the fibers is not the same as the length of the muscles14,42 and that the fibers are the experimentation unit, it is more relevant to classify the length of the fibers, not of the muscles. Given our results and their potential experimental implications, the FDB fibers can be classified as short (&#60;1 mm); PDQA and PL as intermediate (1 to 3 mm); and EDL, EHL, and soleus as long (&#62;3 mm). Short fibers are the easiest and most abundantly obtained (~400-500 fibers per mouse) and are suitable for fluorescence microscopy experiments in which the attachment of the fiber to the bottom chamber is key, or when movement artifacts must be avoided (e.g., Ca2+ transients). Long fibers are the most difficult to obtain, have the lowest rendering, and are better for protein expression using separation techniques or single-cell molecular biology studies. Intermediate fibers can be obtained in a good quantity (~50 fibers per mouse) after moderate training and are suitable for many experimental approaches, as shown for instance with the Ca2+ transients&#39; experiments. Acknowledging that FDB, EDL, and soleus have been used before, this is the first work to successfully isolate fibers from the PDQA, PL, and EHL muscles, thus, increasing the availability of models for mature skeletal muscle studies. Moreover, obtaining fibers from different muscles ensures that more information is obtained from the same animal, reducing experimental variability, increasing statistical power and biological soundness of the conclusions, and reducing the number of animals used in experimentation.
Generalizability of Ca2+ transients&#180; kinetics 
When analyzing the kinetics of the Ca2+ transients in mammalian mature skeletal muscle fibers, we have previously shown that fibers type I and IIA share the so-called morphology type I (MT-I), while fibers IIX and IIB share the MT-II morphology. Typically, MT-II signals have an RT of less than 1.2 ms, DT of less than 25 ms, A1 higher than 30%, [Ca2+] over 15 &#181;M, and are easily found in FDB and EDL fibers33,47. After comparing the results of the novel Ca2+ transients of PDQA, PL, and EHL with those found here and those previously published for FDB and EDL, it is straightforward to conclude that they are all MT-II as well. A further interesting observation is that increasing the availability of new muscles enriched in fibers type IIX and IIB as models to obtain dissociated fibers allows one to confirm that the kinetics of the Ca2+ transients can be generalized-type IIX and IIB fibers have the MT-II regardless of their source (i.e., flexors (FDB), extensors (EDL and EHL), or peronei (PDQA and PL)). This strengthens the idea of an established gene cellular program or profile of the ECC machinery, which is rather similar within all fibers of the same type, and that differences in the molecular machinery (i.e., isoforms and protein quantity) that underly the generation of Ca2+ transients explain the differences in morphologies reported among fibers33. Lastly, a practical implication is that by recording with Mag-Fluo-4 the Ca2+ transient of a fiber, it is possible to reliably know its type.
MHC expression in muscles and isolated fibers: implications for types of fibers used in physiological experiments 
Knowing the type of fiber increases the reliability of muscle research. For instance, in knockout mice of any protein differentially expressed according to fiber types, using fibers of the FDB without any typing may lead to misleading results. Our data confirm that the FDB is a mixed muscle with a predominance of type IIX fibers, in agreement with previous papers 25,31,56. More importantly, there was a high concordance between the proportion of fiber types present in the whole muscle and that obtained after dissociation. Since this information is novel and is not usually discussed in papers using FDB fibers, it can be speculated that, by chance, a lot of results gained in dissociated FDB fibers may truly reflect mixed information of ~20-25% coming from fibers type I and 75-80% from type II. Future studies using FDB muscle ought to present data and their corresponding discussion, relative to fiber types.
Since soleus is highly enriched in oxidative type I, IIA, and I/IIA fibers57,58,59, these are the fibers found in the suspension after dissociation33. EDL, another well-known muscle, is almost devoid of type I fibers57,58,59, therefore rendering only fast fibers after dissociation33. Following the same logic and according to the typing results showing enrichment of type II fibers in the three novel muscles, further supported by the fact that the few type I fibers found in peronei muscles of mouse are central60 and not expected to be reached during a mild dissociation, we hypothesize that the probability of employing a fast IIX or IIB fiber in an experiment with dissociated fibers of PDQA, PL, or EHL can be as high as 80-90%. This seems to be true according to the Ca2+ transients&#39; data in which no MT-I signals were found. Given their size, these fibers offer the advantage of being suitable for typing after finishing a functional experiment. Further, BTS&#180;s specificity for MHC II helps discriminate among fiber types while removing movement artifacts. Finally, while this fiber typing method was more laborious than recently described optimized ones61,62, it did not affect the results of the present work.
Conclusions 
The presented methodological details may foster the use of a variety of enzymatically dissociated muscle fibers in the study of muscle biology. The versatility of the model is supported by the possibility of getting fibers within a large range of lengths and types and their use across several experimental applications. Besides FDB, EDL, and soleus whose dissociation was reported years ago, we demonstrated the feasibility of obtaining intermediate and long fibers from other muscles such as PDQA, PL, and EHL. Given the ease with which the dissection can be performed and the number of fibers that can be obtained, as well as the homogeneity and size of the fibers, we propose PL as a routine, suitable model for mature skeletal muscle studies. This is supported by our findings that the kinetics of the Ca2+ transients in skeletal muscle can be generalized regardless of their source.

The mature skeletal muscle of mammals is a multifunctional tissue. It heavily regulates metabolism, is the main source of heat production, and its dynamical properties confer upon it a key role in respiration, movement of body segments, or displacement from one point to another1,2,3. Skeletal muscle is also relevant for the pathophysiology of many illnesses, including inherited and chronic conditions, such as myopathies, dystrophies, or sarcopenia, as well as many non-muscle chronic conditions, such as cardiometabolic diseases3,4,5,6,7,8.
The ex vivo study of the structural and functional properties of mature skeletal muscle in the context of health and disease has been possible mainly through two experimental models: whole muscle and isolated fibers. In the 20th century, researchers exploited the properties of the whole, intact extensor digitorum longus (EDL), soleus, tibialis anterior, and gastrocnemius muscles of different small species as pivotal models to learn about motor units, fiber types, and dynamic properties such as force and kinetics of contraction and relaxation9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16. However, the advent of more refined cell biology studies moved the area toward the study of single muscle fibers. Pioneering work then enabled the isolation of intact flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) fibers of rats by enzymatic dissociation for subsequent characterization17,18,19. Although FDB fibers can also be obtained by manual dissection20, the ease and high throughput of enzymatic dissociation of murine muscles, in addition to their suitability for a variety of experimental approaches, have made the latter model widely used during the last two decades.
The short FDB fibers are suitable for electrophysiological and other biophysical studies, biochemical, metabolic, and pharmacological analyses, electron and fluorescence microscopy experiments, transfection for cell biology approaches, or as a source of stem cells in myogenesis studies5,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32. However, using only FDB fibers in muscle experiments narrows the scope of research dealing with fiber types and limits the amount of biological material available for some methodological techniques or for gaining more information from one animal. These limitations hinder a clear correlation of cellular physiological phenomena with previous biochemical and dynamical studies performed in different whole, intact, muscles (e.g., EDL, soleus, peronei).
Overcoming these limitations, some groups succeeded in dissociating the longer EDL and soleus muscles24,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40, opening the door to further extend the method to other relevant muscles. However, the use of EDL and soleus fibers is still scarce, likely due to the lack of methodological details for getting them as intact fibers. Here, we describe in detail how to isolate fibers of different lengths and types from six muscles: three of them already described (FDB, EDL, and soleus) and three of them successfully dissociated for the first time (extensor hallucis longus [EHL], peroneus longus [PL], and peroneus digiti quarti [PDQA]). The results of the present work confirm that the model of enzymatically dissociated fibers is apt for a wide range of studies and future correlations with previously published data, thus increasing the availability of models for mature skeletal muscle studies.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Absolute ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>32221</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetone</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>179124</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylamide</td>
			<td>Gibco BRL</td>
			<td>15512-015</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium persulfate</td>
			<td>Panreac</td>
			<td>141138.1610</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti myosin I antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M4276</td>
			<td>Primary antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti myosin II antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M8421</td>
			<td>Primary antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti myosin IIA antibody</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>SC-71</td>
			<td>Primary antibody. Derived from HB-277 hybridoma</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti myosin IIB antibody</td>
			<td>Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank</td>
			<td>BF-F3-c&#160;</td>
			<td>Primary antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bis-acrylamide</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>0172</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>B14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bradford reagent</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1.10306.0500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bromophenol blue</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>428658</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium carbonate</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>102066</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium dichloride (CaCl2)</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>2389</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>319988</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collagenase type 2</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td>CLS-2/LS004176</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Consul-Mount</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>9990440</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant blue R 250&#160;</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>112553</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D2650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>0281</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Edetic acid (EDTA</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>0322</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eosin Y</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>E4009</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Panreac&#160;</td>
			<td>1423291211</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Panreac</td>
			<td>151340.1067</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat serum</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G9023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>6765015</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>0511</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hoechst 33258</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>861405</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Imidazole</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>M136</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopentane</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M32631</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laminin</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>L2020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mag-Fluo-4, AM</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>M14206</td>
			<td>Prepared only in DMSO. Pluronic acid is not required and should not be used to avoid fiber deterioration.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Applichem</td>
			<td>A11080100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>Protokimica</td>
			<td>MP10043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mice</td>
			<td>Several</td>
			<td>Several</td>
			<td>For this manuscript, we only used C57BL/6 mice. However, some preliminary results have shown that the protocol works well for Swiss Webster mice of the same age and weight.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mowiol 4-88</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>81381</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N,N&#39;,N&#39;-tetramethylethane-1,2-diamine (TEMED)</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>V3161</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-benzyl-p-toluene sulphonamide (BTS)</td>
			<td>Tocris</td>
			<td>1870</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optimal cutting compound (OCT)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>6769006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>A-11001</td>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse IgG (H+L) Cross-Adsorbed Secondary Antibody, Alexa Fluor 488</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecil sulfate</td>
			<td>Panreac&#160;</td>
			<td>1323631209</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIS 0.5 M, pH 6.8&#160;</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>J832</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris(Hydroxymethyl)aminomethane</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>M151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>AMRESCO</td>
			<td>M143</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissection chamber</td>
			<td>Custom-made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Charged slides</td>
			<td>Erie Scientific</td>
			<td>5951PLUS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Experimental bath chamber</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments</td>
			<td>RC-27NE2</td>
			<td>Narrow Bath Chamber with Field Stimulation, ensembled on a heated platform PH-6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine forceps</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>500338, 500230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine scissors</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>Vannas Scissors 501778</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Pasteur pipettes</td>
			<td>Several</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fire-polished tips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass vials with cap</td>
			<td>Several</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>2-3 mL volumen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Operating scissors</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>501223-G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>SL 8R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>FV1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>CM1850</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital camera</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Erc 5s and Axio 305</td>
			<td>Axio 305, coupled to the Stemi 508 stereoscope, was used to take pictures during dissection; while Erc 5s or Axio 208, coupled to the Axio Observer A1 microscope, were used to take images of the isolated fibers and the immunofluorescence assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digitizer</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>1550A Digidata</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrophoresis chamber</td>
			<td>Bio Rad</td>
			<td>Mini-Protean IV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted microscope coupled to fluorescence</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Axio Observer A1</td>
			<td>Coupled to an appropriate light source, filters and objectives for fluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Photomultiplier</td>
			<td>Horiba</td>
			<td>R928 tube, Hamamatsu, in a D104 photometer, Horiba</td>
			<td>Coupled to the lateral port of the fluorescence microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereoscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Stemi 508</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stimulator&#160;</td>
			<td>Grass Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td>S6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath&#160;</td>
			<td>Memmert</td>
			<td>WNE-22</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xilol</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>808691</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Free software for electrophoreses analyses</td>
			<td>University of Kentucky</td>
			<td>GelBandFitter v1.7</td>
			<td>http://www.gelbandfitter.org</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Free software for image analysis and morphometry</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>ImageJ v1.54</td>
			<td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/index.html</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Licensed software for Ca2+ signals acquisition and analyses</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>pCLAMP v10.05</td>
			<td>https://www.moleculardevices.com</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Licensed software for statistical analyses and graphing</td>
			<td>OriginLab</td>
			<td>OriginPro 2019</td>
			<td>https://www.originlab.com/</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

intact short, intermediate, and long skeletal muscle fibers obtained by enzymatic dissociation of six hindlimb muscles of mice: beyond flexor digitorum brevis

Skeletal muscle fibers obtained by enzymatic dissociation of mouse muscles are a useful model for physiological experiments. However, most papers deal with the short fibers of the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB), which restrains the scope of results dealing with fiber types, limits the amount of biological material available, and impedes a clear connection between cellular physiological phenomena and previous biochemical and dynamical knowledge obtained in other muscles.
This paper describes how to obtain intact fibers from six muscles with different fiber type profiles and lengths. Using C57BL/6 adult mice, we show the muscle dissection and fiber isolation protocol and demonstrate the suitability of the fibers for Ca2+ transient studies and their morphometric characterization. The fiber type composition of the muscles is also presented. When dissociated, all muscles rendered intact, living fibers that contract briskly for more than 24 h. FDB gave short (&#60;1 mm), peroneus digiti quarti (PDQA) and peroneus longus (PL) gave intermediate (1-3 mm), while extensor digitorum longus (EDL), extensor hallucis longus (EHL), and soleus muscles released long (3-6 mm) fibers.
When recorded with the fast dye Mag-Fluo-4, Ca2+ transients of PDQA, PL, and EHL fibers showed the fast, narrow kinetics reminiscent of the morphology type II (MT-II), known to correspond to type IIX and IIB fibers. This is consistent with the fact that these muscles have over 90% of type II fibers compared with FDB (~80%) and soleus (~65%). Moving beyond FDB, we demonstrate for the first time the dissociation of several muscles, which render fibers spanning a range of lengths between 1 and 6 mm. These fibers are viable and give fast Ca2+ transients, indicating that the MT-II can be generalized to IIX and IIB fast fibers, regardless of their muscle source. These results increase the availability of models for mature skeletal muscle studies.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Intact Short, Intermediate, and Long Skeletal Muscle Fibers Obtained by Enzymatic Dissociation of Six Hindlimb Muscles of Mice: Beyond Flexor Digitorum Brevis

Author Spotlight: Isolation of Long Muscle Fibers from Mouse Hindlimb Muscles for Studying Excitation-Contraction Coupling Across Fiber Types

We describe a protocol to obtain enzymatically dissociated fibers of different lengths and types from six muscles of adult mice: three of them already described (flexor digitorum brevis, extensor digitorum longus, soleus) and three of them successfully dissociated for the first time (extensor hallucis longus, peroneus longus, peroneus digiti quarti).

Intact Short, Intermediate, and Long Skeletal Muscle Fibers Obtained by Enzymatic Dissociation of Six Hindlimb Muscles of Mice: Beyond Flexor Digitorum Brevis

Skeletal muscle fibers obtained by enzymatic dissociation of mouse muscles are a useful model for physiological experiments. However, most papers deal ...

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Universidad San Sebastian

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

1.5K Views.  University of Antioquia. We describe a protocol to obtain enzymatically dissociated fibers of different lengths and types from six muscles of adult mice: three of them already described (flexor digitorum brevis, extensor digitorum longus, soleus) and three of them successfully dissociated for the first time (extensor hallucis longus, peroneus longus, peroneus digiti quarti).

Video: Author Spotlight: Isolation of Long Muscle Fibers from Mouse Hindlimb Muscles for Studying Excitation-Contraction Coupling Across Fiber Types

Ex Vivo Assessment of Contractility, Fatigability and Alternans in Isolated Skeletal Muscles

Described here is a method to measure contractility of isolated skeletal muscles. Parameters such as muscle force, muscle power, contractile kinetics, fatigability, and recovery after fatigue can be obtained to assess specific aspects of the excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) process such as excitability, contractile machinery and Ca2+ handling ability. This method removes the nerve and blood supply and focuses on the isolated skeletal muscle itself. We routinely use this method to identify genetic components that alter the contractile property of skeletal muscle though modulating Ca2+ signaling pathways. Here, we describe a newly identified skeletal muscle phenotype, i.e., mechanic alternans, as an example of the various and rich information that can be obtained using the in vitro muscle contractility assay. Combination of this assay with single cell assays, genetic approaches and biochemistry assays can provide important insights into the mechanisms of ECC in skeletal muscle.

Ex Vivo Assessment of Contractility, Fatigability and Alternans in Isolated Skeletal Muscles

We describe a method to directly measure muscle force, muscle power, contractile kinetics and fatigability of isolated skeletal muscles in an in vitro system using field stimulation. Valuable information on Ca2+ handling properties and contractile machinery of the muscle can be obtained using different stimulating protocols.

 
Described here is a method to measure contractility of isolated skeletal muscles. Parameters such as muscle force, muscle power, contractile kinetics, ...

Evaluation of Muscle Function of the Extensor Digitorum Longus Muscle Ex vivo and Tibialis Anterior Muscle In situ in Mice

Body movements are mainly provided by mechanical function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is composed of numerous bundles of myofibers that are sheathed by intramuscular connective tissues. Each myofiber contains many myofibrils that run longitudinally along the length of the myofiber. Myofibrils are the contractile apparatus of muscle and they are composed of repeated contractile units known as sarcomeres. A sarcomere unit contains actin and myosin filaments that are spaced by the Z discs and titin protein. Mechanical function of skeletal muscle is defined by the contractile and passive properties of muscle. The contractile properties are used to characterize the amount of force generated during muscle contraction, time of force generation and time of muscle relaxation. Any factor that affects muscle contraction (such as interaction between actin and myosin filaments, homeostasis of calcium, ATP/ADP ratio, etc.) influences the contractile properties. The passive properties refer to the elastic and viscous properties (stiffness and viscosity) of the muscle in the absence of contraction. These properties are determined by the extracellular and the intracellular structural components (such as titin) and connective tissues (mainly collagen) 1-2. The contractile and passive properties are two inseparable aspects of muscle function. For example, elbow flexion is accomplished by contraction of muscles in the anterior compartment of the upper arm and passive stretch of muscles in the posterior compartment of the upper arm. To truly understand muscle function, both contractile and passive properties should be studied.
The contractile and/or passive mechanical properties of muscle are often compromised in muscle diseases. A good example is Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), a severe muscle wasting disease caused by dystrophin deficiency 3. Dystrophin is a cytoskeletal protein that stabilizes the muscle cell membrane (sarcolemma) during muscle contraction 4. In the absence of dystrophin, the sarcolemma is damaged by the shearing force generated during force transmission. This membrane tearing initiates a chain reaction which leads to muscle cell death and loss of contractile machinery. As a consequence, muscle force is reduced and dead myofibers are replaced by fibrotic tissues 5. This later change increases muscle stiffness 6. Accurate measurement of these changes provides important guide to evaluate disease progression and to determine therapeutic efficacy of novel gene/cell/pharmacological interventions. Here, we present two methods to evaluate both contractile and passive mechanical properties of the extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle and the contractile properties of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle.

Evaluation of Muscle Function of the Extensor Digitorum Longus Muscle Ex vivo and Tibialis Anterior Muscle In situ in Mice

Changes in limb muscle contractile and passive mechanical properties are important biomarkers for muscle diseases. This manuscript describes physiological assays to measure these properties in the murine extensor digitorum longus and tibialis anterior muscles.

Body  movements are mainly provided by mechanical function of skeletal muscle. Skeletal  muscle is composed of numerous bundles of myofibers that are ...

Assessment of Calcium Sparks in Intact Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Maintaining homeostatic Ca2+ signaling is a fundamental physiological process in living cells. Ca2+ sparks are the elementary units of Ca2+ signaling in the striated muscle fibers that appear as highly localized Ca2+ release events mediated by ryanodine receptor (RyR) Ca2+ release channels on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membrane. Proper assessment of muscle Ca2+ sparks could provide information on the intracellular Ca2+&#160;handling properties of healthy and diseased striated muscles. Although Ca2+ sparks events are commonly seen in resting cardiomyocytes, they are rarely observed in resting skeletal muscle fibers; thus there is a need for methods to generate and analyze sparks in skeletal muscle fibers.
Detailed here is an experimental protocol for measuring Ca2+ sparks in isolated flexor digitorm brevis (FDB) muscle fibers using fluorescent Ca2+ indictors and laser scanning confocal microscopy. In this approach, isolated FDB fibers are exposed to transient hypoosmotic stress followed by a return to isotonic physiological solution. Under these conditions, a robust Ca2+ sparks response is detected adjacent to the sarcolemmal membrane in young healthy FDB muscle fibers. Altered Ca2+ sparks response is detected in dystrophic or aged skeletal muscle fibers. This approach has recently demonstrated that membrane-delimited signaling involving cross-talk between inositol (1,4,5)-triphosphate receptor (IP3R) and RyR contributes to Ca2+ spark activation in skeletal muscle. In summary, our studies using osmotic stress induced Ca2+ sparks showed that this intracellular response reflects a muscle signaling mechanism in physiology and aging/disease states, including mouse models of muscle dystrophy (mdx mice) or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS model).

Described here is a method to directly measure calcium sparks, the elementary units of Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum&#160;in intact skeletal muscle fibers. This method utilizes osmotic-stress-mediated triggering of Ca2+ release from ryanodine receptor in isolated muscle fibers. The dynamics and homeostatic capacity of intracellular Ca2+ signaling can be employed to assess muscle function in health and disease.

Maintaining homeostatic Ca2+ signaling is a fundamental physiological process in living cells. Ca2+ sparks are the elementary units of Ca2+ signaling in ...

Generation of Myospheres From hESCs by Epigenetic Reprogramming

Generation of a homogeneous and abundant population of skeletal muscle cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) is a requirement for cell-based therapies and for a "disease in a dish" model of human neuromuscular diseases. Major hurdles, such as low abundance and heterogeneity of the population of interest, as well as a lack of protocols for the formation of three-dimensional contractile structures, have limited the applications of stem cells for neuromuscular disorders. We have designed a protocol that overcomes these limits by ectopic introduction of defined factors in hESCs - the muscle determination factor MyoD and SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex component BAF60C - that are able to reprogram hESCs into skeletal muscle cells. Here we describe the protocol established to generate hESC-derived myoblasts and promote their clustering into tridimensional miniaturized structures (myospheres) that functionally mimic miniaturized skeletal muscles7.

Here, we describe a protocol based on epigenetic reprogramming of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) toward generating a homogeneous population of skeletal muscle progenitors that under permissive culture conditions form three-dimensional clusters of contractile myofibers (myospheres), which recapitulate biological features of human skeletal muscles.

Generation of a homogeneous and abundant population of skeletal muscle cells from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) is a requirement for cell-based ...

Isolation of Intact Mitochondria from Skeletal Muscle by Differential Centrifugation for High-resolution Respirometry Measurements

Mitochondria are involved in cellular energy metabolism and use oxygen to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Differential centrifugation at low- and high-speed is commonly used to isolate mitochondria from tissues and cultured cells. Crude mitochondrial fractions obtained by differential centrifugation are used for respirometry measurements. The differential centrifugation technique is based on the separation of organelles according to their size and sedimentation velocity. The isolation of mitochondria is performed immediately after tissue harvesting. The tissue is immersed in an ice-cold homogenization medium, minced using scissors and homogenized in a glass homogenizer with a loose-fitting pestle. The differential centrifugation technique is efficient, fast and inexpensive and the mitochondria obtained by differential centrifugation are pure enough for respirometry assays. Some of the limitations and disadvantages of isolated mitochondria, based on differential centrifugation, are that the mitochondria can be damaged during the homogenization and isolation procedure and that large amounts of the tissue biopsy or cultured cells are required for the mitochondrial isolation.

Here, a quadriceps muscle specimen is taken from an anaesthetized pig and mitochondria are isolated by differential centrifugation. Then, the respiratory rates of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes I, II and IV are determined using high-resolution respirometry.

Mitochondria are involved in cellular energy metabolism and use oxygen to produce energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Differential ...

Isolation and Characterization of Exosomes from Skeletal Muscle Fibroblasts

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles released by virtually all cells and secreted in all biological fluids. Many methods have been developed for the isolation of these vesicles, including ultracentrifugation, ultrafiltration, and size exclusion chromatography. However, not all are suitable for large scale exosome purification and characterization. Outlined here is a protocol for establishing cultures of primary fibroblasts isolated from adult mouse skeletal muscles, followed by purification and characterization of exosomes from the culture media of these cells. The method is based on the use of sequential centrifugation steps followed by sucrose density gradients. Purity of the exosomal preparations is then validated by western blot analyses using a battery of canonical markers (i.e., Alix, CD9, and CD81). The protocol describes how to isolate and concentrate bioactive exosomes for electron microscopy, mass spectrometry, and uptake experiments for functional studies. It can easily be scaled up or down and adapted for exosome isolation from different cell types, tissues, and biological fluids.

This protocol illustrates the 1) the isolation and culture of primary fibroblasts from the adult mouse gastrocnemius muscle as well as 2) purification and characterization of exosomes using a differential ultracentrifugation method combined with sucrose density gradients followed by western blot analyses.

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles released by virtually all cells and secreted in all biological fluids. Many methods have been developed for the ...

Electroporation of Plasmid DNA into Mouse Skeletal Muscle

Transient gene expression modulation in murine skeletal muscle by plasmid electroporation is a useful tool for assessing normal and pathological physiology. Overexpression or knockdown of target genes enables investigators to manipulate individual molecular events and, thus, better understand the mechanisms that impact muscle mass, muscle metabolism, and contractility. In addition, electroporation of DNA plasmids that encode fluorescent tags allows investigators to measure changes in subcellular localization of proteins in skeletal muscle in vivo. A key functional assessment of skeletal muscle includes the measurement of muscle contractility. In this protocol, we demonstrate that whole muscle contractility studies are still possible after plasmid DNA injection, electroporation, and gene expression modulation. The goal of this instructional procedure is to demonstrate the step-by-step method of DNA plasmid electroporation into mouse skeletal muscle to facilitate uptake and expression in the myofibers of the tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus muscles, as well as to demonstrate that skeletal muscle contractility is not compromised by injection and electroporation.

Electroporation of plasmid DNA into skeletal muscle is a viable method to modulate gene expression without compromising muscle contractility in mice.

Transient gene expression modulation in murine skeletal muscle by plasmid electroporation is a useful tool for assessing normal and pathological ...

Isolation of Quiescent Stem Cell Populations from Individual Skeletal Muscles

Skeletal muscle harbors distinct populations of adult stem cells that contribute to the homeostasis and repair of the tissue. Skeletal muscle stem cells (MuSCs) have the ability to make new muscle, whereas fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) contribute to stromal supporting tissues and have the ability to make fibroblasts and adipocytes. Both MuSCs and FAPs reside in a state of prolonged reversible cell cycle exit, called quiescence. The quiescent state is key to their function. Quiescent stem cells are commonly purified from multiple muscle tissues pooled together in a single sample. However, recent studies have revealed distinct differences in the molecular profiles and quiescence depth of MuSCs isolated from different muscles. The present protocol describes the isolation and study of MuSCs and FAPs from individual skeletal muscles and presents strategies to perform molecular analysis of stem cell activation. It details how to isolate and digest muscles of different developmental origin, thicknesses, and functions, such as the diaphragm, triceps, gracilis, tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius (GA), soleus, extensor digitorum longus (EDL), and the masseter muscles. MuSCs and FAPs are purified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and analyzed by immunofluorescence staining and 5-ethynyl-2&#180;-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation assay.

This protocol describes the isolation of muscle stem cells and fibro-adipogenic progenitors from individual skeletal muscles in mice. The protocol involves single muscle dissection, stem cell isolation by fluorescence activated cell sorting, purity assessment by immunofluorescence staining, and quantitative measurement of S-phase entry by 5-ethynyl-2&#180;-deoxyuridine incorporation assay.

Skeletal muscle harbors distinct populations of adult stem cells that contribute to the homeostasis and repair of the tissue. Skeletal muscle stem cells ...

High-Throughput Contractile Measurements of Hydrogel-Embedded Intact Mouse Muscle Fibers Using an Optics-Based System

In vitro cell culture is a powerful tool to assess cellular processes and test therapeutic strategies. For skeletal muscle, the most common approaches involve either differentiating myogenic progenitor cells into immature myotubes or the short-term ex vivo culture of isolated individual muscle fibers. A key benefit of ex vivo culture over in vitro is the retention of the complex cellular architecture and contractile characteristics. Here, we detail an experimental protocol for the isolation of intact flexor digitorum brevis muscle fibers from mice and their subsequent ex vivo culture. In this protocol, muscle fibers are embedded in a fibrin-based and basement membrane matrix hydrogel to immobilize the fibers and maintain their contractile function. We then describe methods to assess the muscle fiber contractile function using an optics-based, high-throughput contractility system. The embedded muscle fibers are electrically stimulated to induce contractions, after which their functional properties, such as sarcomere shortening and contractile velocity, are assessed using optics-based quantification. Coupling muscle fiber culture with this&#160;system allows for high-throughput testing of the effects of pharmacological agents on contractile function and ex vivo studies of genetic muscle disorders. Finally, this protocol can also be adapted to study dynamic cellular processes in muscle fibers using live-cell microscopy.

Skeletal muscle function can be assessed by quantifying the contractility of isolated muscle fibers, traditionally using laborious, low-throughput approaches. Here, we describe an optics-based, high-throughput method to quantify the contractility of hydrogel-embedded muscle fibers. This approach has applications for drug screening and therapeutic development.

In vitro cell culture is a powerful tool to assess cellular processes and test therapeutic strategies. For skeletal muscle, the most common approaches ...

Single-Cell CyTOF Analysis of Myogenic Progenitors in Muscle Regeneration

Identification and Analysis of Myogenic Progenitors In Vivo During Acute Skeletal Muscle Injury by High-Dimensional Single-Cell Mass Cytometry

Skeletal muscle regeneration is a dynamic process driven by adult muscle stem cells and their progeny. Mostly quiescent at a steady state, adult muscle stem cells become activated upon muscle injury. Following activation, they proliferate, and most of their progeny differentiate to generate fusion-competent muscle cells while the remaining self-renews to replenish the stem cell pool. While the identity of muscle stem cells was defined more than a decade ago, based on the co-expression of cell surface markers, myogenic progenitors were identified only recently using high-dimensional single-cell approaches. Here, we present a single-cell mass cytometry (cytometry by time of flight [CyTOF]) method to analyze stem cells and progenitor cells in acute muscle injury to resolve the cellular and molecular dynamics that unfold during muscle regeneration. This approach is based on the simultaneous detection of novel cell surface markers and key myogenic transcription factors whose dynamic expression enables the identification of activated stem cells and progenitor cell populations that represent landmarks of myogenesis. Importantly, a sorting strategy based on detecting cell surface markers CD9 and CD104 is described, enabling prospective isolation of muscle stem and progenitor cells using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for in-depth studies of their function. Muscle progenitor cells provide a critical missing link to study the control of muscle stem cell fate, identify novel therapeutic targets for muscle diseases, and develop cell therapy applications for regenerative medicine. The approach presented here can be applied to study muscle stem and progenitor cells in vivo in response to perturbations, such as pharmacological interventions targeting specific signaling pathways. It can also be used to investigate the dynamics of muscle stem and progenitor cells in animal models of muscle diseases, advancing our understanding of stem cell diseases and accelerating the development of therapies.

Author Spotlight: Investigating Cellular and Molecular Dynamics During Muscle Regeneration Using Cutting-Edge Single-Cell Technologies

The protocol presented here enables the identification and high-dimensional analysis of muscle stem and progenitor cells by single-cell mass cytometry and their purification by FACS for in-depth studies of their function. This approach can be applied to study regeneration dynamics in disease models and test the efficacy of pharmacological interventions.

Skeletal muscle regeneration is a dynamic process driven by adult muscle stem cells and their progeny. Mostly quiescent at a steady state, adult muscle ...