Bu çalışma Marie Curie (IRG249084) tarafından desteklenmiştir. Biz Kurant laboratuar tüm üyeleri teşekkür ederiz.

Fagositik hücreler ve apoptotik hücre: hücre iki nüfus etiketlenmelidir in vivo apoptotik hücre boşluk dinamiklerini takip etmek. Makrofajlar, glia ve ektoderm 8: biz simu-cytGFP embriyo sadece fagositik hücreleri etiketler işaretleyici içeren bir Drosophila satırını kullanın fagositik hücre popülasyonlarının işaretlemek için. Biri hemocyte özel Gal4 sürücü (CRQ-Gal4) içeren satırları veya glia özel Gal4 sürücü (repo-Gal4) ve UAS kontrol (UAS-GFP) altında genetik olarak kodlanmış floresan muhabiri de dahil olmak üzere fagositik hücreler, farklı işaretleri kullanabilirsiniz. Apoptotik hücre temizleme sırasında apoptotik hücreleri izlemek için farklı apoptoz / fagositoz işaretleri kullanın. Annexin V (Molecular Probes) 10 apoptotik hücreler için erken bir göstergesi olarak hizmet eder; Phiphilux (OncoImmunin) daha sonra apo olarak kullanılan florojenik substrat, kaspaz-3, olduğusis işaretleyici ve Lysotracker (Molecular Probes) bir phagosome göstergesi olarak çalışır. Biz mikroenjeksiyon sistemi picopump PV 820 kullanarak bu reaktifler enjekte. 1. Hazırlanmak <ol><li> Heptan tutkal: Çift taraflı bant göz önüne sermek ve bir sintilasyon flakon, 24 saat Parafilm ile flakon ve kaya mühür, heptan ile doldurabilirsiniz kadar koydu. Tutkal çok kalın ise heptan ekleyin. </li><li> Biz sinekler önceden ısıtılmış üzüm suyu agar plaka + maya 2 saat yapıştırmak bırakmaya izin ve sonra 25 plaka aktarmak ° C 10-12 saat (istenilen evresine bağlıdır) için önce mikroenjeksiyon ve zaman atlamalı kayıtları enjekte edilen embriyoların. Böylece sahne 15 veya gelişme 16 embriyo sağlayan, 25 ° C &#39;de muhafaza agar plakaları embriyolar toplamak. </li><li> İğne hazırlanması: Enjeksiyon için iğne hazırlamak için, bir &#39;Sutter aracı&#39; iğne çektirmesi ve ince duvarlı cam filamentler (FHC Kılcal boru) kullanın. Toplanmış kılcal ucu kırdı0.5-2 mikron arasında bir çapa n. </li><li> Yapıştırıcı ile lamel: Bir pipet kullanarak lamel ortasında bir satırda heptan tutkal bir damla dağıtmak. Birkaç saniye kurumasını bekleyin. Bu lamelleri birkaç hazırlayın. </li></ol> 2. Embriyo Hazırlık <ol><li> Agar embriyolar toplayın ve temiz bir boya fırçası ve su kullanarak bir hücre süzgeç (SPL Yaşam Bilimleri) aktarabilirsiniz. Süzgeç atık su toplamak için bir beher üzerinde tutulur. </li><li> Tüm maya hamur kaldırılır gelene kadar su kullanılarak hücre süzgecinden embriyolar yıkayın. </li><li> Kimwipes kullanarak süzgeç dış silerek aşırı su kurur. </li><li> Temiz bir Petri kabındaki hücre süzgeç yerleştirin ve hücre süzgecinden içinde embriyo karşılamak için yeterli% 50 çamaşır suyu ekleyin. Bazen 2 dakika (2-3 kez) karıştırarak için embriyo Dechorionate. </li><li> Embriyolar çamaşır suyu kokusu gevşek kadar yoğun su ile durulayın. </li><li> , Temiz bir hücre süzgecinden yerleştirinPetri kadar kurumasını önlemek için su ile embriyo çanak ve kapsamaktadır. </li><li> Embriyo ayar başlamadan önce, iki iğne (bazen bir iğne tıkanmış olabilir) içine istenen reaktif 1 ul yükleyin. Bu iğne ucu ulaşmak için sıvı için yaklaşık 5 dakika sürer. </li><li> Üzüm suyu agar dikdörtgen bir parça kesin ve bir mikroskop lamı üzerine yerleştirin. Petri kabı temiz bir boya fırçası kullanarak agar parça dechorionated embriyolar transfer. </li><li> Bir floresan diseksiyon mikroskop altında düzgün seçin ıslak bir boya fırçası kullanarak GFP işaretleyici ifade embriyo sahnelenen ve yakın başka bir (Şekil 1A) sonra arka arkaya birinde agar parçasının kenarına her embriyo yerleştirin. Embriyolar Santral Sinir Sistemi (SSS) glia tarafından görüntüleme fagositozu için kendi ventral yüzü ile yerleştirilmelidir. </li><li> Bir satır yaklaşık 10 embriyo ayarlayın. </li><li> Heptan bir tutkal şeridi (Şekil 1B, C orta kaplanmış bir lamel embriyolar takın </strong&gt;). </li><li> Yaklaşık 5 dakika (bu odanın nem ve enjekte edilecek miktarına bağlıdır) için dehidrasyon odasına lamel yerleştirin. </li><li> Kuruyor sonra daha dehidratasyonu önlemek için halokarbon petrol 700 (Sigma) ile embriyoların kapsamaktadır. </li><li> Yukarı bakacak şekilde embriyolar ile bir mikroskop lamı üzerine lamel yerleştirin. Bu lamel hareket önlemek için slayt üzerinde bir damla su koymak olabilir. Embriyolar artık enjeksiyon için hazır. Enjeksiyon yer embriyo ortasında yan tarafında tipik olarak. </li></ol> 3. Embriyo Enjeksiyon <ol><li> Bir micromanipulator için iğne takın. </li><li> Iğne ucu görüş alanı içinde lamel kenarına koymak ve aynı odak düzlemine iğne ayarlamak kırmak için. Bu iğne ucu vurur ve tatili kadar çok dikkatli bir şekilde lamel hareket ettirin. </li><li> Embriyoların odaklanarak, yağ içine iğne yerleştirin ve iğne bir sıvı damla olsun emin olun. Bu iğne ucu olmuştur anlamına gelirde kırık. </li><li> Dokunmadan iğne tutucu iğne içine embriyo hareket ve embriyo içine bir damla enjekte. Uzak embriyo hareket ettirin ve tüm embriyolar enjekte kadar bir sonrakine geçin. </li></ol> 4. Görüntüleme 40X veya 100X amacı ile ters bir konfokal mikroskop Biz görüntü embriyolar. Biz güçlü GFP ifade ve enjeksiyonu takiben apoptotik hücrelerin iyi bir etiketleme gösterir ortasında, merkezi sinir sistemi ile bir güzel konumlandırılmış embriyo arayın. Canlı embriyoların zaman atlamalı kayıtları için biz genellikle 5 veya 6 konfokal dilim (kalın 2 mikron her) seçin. Daha sonra, biz bütün hücreleri gözlemlemek için 3 dilim (6 mikron kalınlığında) bir projeksiyon yapmak. Biz istikrarlı ve kolayca çamaşır suyu yok apoptotik hücreler için işaretleri kullanın. Biz 60 sn aralıklarla kayıt yapmak beyazlatma GFP önlemek için. Bazı durumlarda embriyo haddeleme başlayabilirvideo kayıt döneminde. Bu nedenle, durdurmak ve gerekirse yeniden başlamak için kayıt bir arada bir göz atın.

<ol>
	<li>Kinchen, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+model+to+die+for:+signaling+to+apoptotic+cell+removal+in+worm,+fly+and+mouse.">A model to die for: signaling to apoptotic cell removal in worm, fly and mouse.</a> Apoptosis. 15, 998-1006 (2010).</li><li>Kinchen, J. M., Ravichandran, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagosome+maturation:+going+through+the+acid+test.">Phagosome maturation: going through the acid test.</a> Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 9, 781-795 (2008).</li><li>Kinchen, J. M., Ravichandran, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagocytic+signaling:+you+can+touch,+but+you+can't+eat.">Phagocytic signaling: you can touch, but you can't eat.</a> Curr. Biol. 18, 521-524 (2008).</li><li>Stuart, L. M., Ezekowitz, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagocytosis:+elegant+complexity.">Phagocytosis: elegant complexity.</a> Immunity. 22, 539-550 (2005).</li><li>Lauber, K., Blumenthal, S. G., Waibel, M., Wesselborg, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clearance+of+apoptotic+cells:+getting+rid+of+the+corpses.">Clearance of apoptotic cells: getting rid of the corpses.</a> Mol. Cell. 14, 277-287 (2004).</li><li>Henson, P. M., Hume, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Apoptotic+cell+removal+in+development+and+tissue+homeostasis.">Apoptotic cell removal in development and tissue homeostasis.</a> Trends Immunol. 27, 244-250 (2006).</li><li>Kurant, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Keeping+the+CNS+clear:+glial+phagocytic+functions+in+Drosophila.">Keeping the CNS clear: glial phagocytic functions in Drosophila.</a> Glia. 59, 1304-1311 (2011).</li><li>Kurant, E., Axelrod, S., Leaman, D., Gaul, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Six-microns-under+acts+upstream+of+Draper+in+the+glial+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+neurons.">Six-microns-under acts upstream of Draper in the glial phagocytosis of apoptotic neurons.</a> Cell. 133, 498-509 (2008).</li><li>Mergliano, J., Minden, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caspase-independent+cell+engulfment+mirrors+cell+death+pattern+in+Drosophila+embryos.">Caspase-independent cell engulfment mirrors cell death pattern in Drosophila embryos.</a> Development. 130, 5779-5789 (2003).</li><li>van den Eijnde, S. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+surface+exposure+of+phosphatidylserine+during+apoptosis+is+phylogenetically+conserved.">Cell surface exposure of phosphatidylserine during apoptosis is phylogenetically conserved.</a> Apoptosis. 3, 9-16 (1998).</li></ol>

Yazarlar hiçbir rakip mali çıkarlarının olmadığını beyan ederim.

Apoptotik hücre boşluk son derece dinamik apoptoz, kritik bir son aşamadır. Bu nedenle işlem gerçek zamanlı çalışmalar büyük önem taşımaktadır. Burada gelişmekte olan Drosophila embriyolar canlı apoptotik hücre boşluk izlenmesi sağlayan bir protokol açıklar. Apoptotik hücreleri ve fagositler: Bu prosedürde, hücrelerin iki nüfus özel işaretleri kullanılarak işaretlenmiş olmalıdır. Simu-cytGFP raportör aynı embriyo eş zamanlı olarak fagositik makrofajlar, glia ve ekt...

Apoptoz ve sonraki fagositoz yoluyla istenmeyen veya anormal hücrelerin ortadan kaldırılması uygun embriyo gelişimi için hem de yetişkin doku homeostazında için çok önemlidir. Apoptotik hücreler veya apoptotik hücre boşluk fagositoz dört adımda ilerler son derece dinamik bir süreçtir: apoptotik hücreye fagositler (1) işe (&#39;bulmak-me&#39;), fagositoz için bir hedef olarak hücrenin (2) tanıma ( &#39;-Bana yemek&#39;) ve (3) yutulmasına, apoptotik parçacık 1-5 (4) phagosome olgunlaşma ve yıkımı izledi. &#39;Profesyonel&#39; makrofajlar ve olgunlaşmamış dendritik hücreler, ve &#39;profesyonel olmayan&#39; doku yerleşik komşu hücreleri, metazoan geliştirme 6,7 sırasında apoptotik hücre izni için önemli olan: fagositler iki türü vardır. Drosophila gelişimi apoptoz yoluyla gereksiz hücrelerin giderilmesi üç m oluşurgeç embriyo için orta ilk, sonra orta pupa ve yine erken yetişkin ain aşamaları,. Embriyogenez sırasında apoptotik parçacıklar &#39;profesyonel&#39; fagositler, makrofajlar, ve &#39;profesyonel olmayan&#39; ektoderm ve glia 8,9 ile çıkarılır. Daha önceki çalışmada biz embriyogenez sırasında fagositik hücrelerde sadece ifade bir fagositik reseptör, Altı mikron-altı (SIMU), belirledik. Simu organizatörü kullanarak bize canlı bir gelişen embriyonun 8 eş zamanlı olarak makrofajlar, ektoderm ve glia izlemeniz için fagositik hücre popülasyonlarının (simu-cytGFP) için özel bir belirteç oluşturulur. Buna ek olarak, apoptoz farklı aşamalarında apoptotik hücreler için özel işaretleri kullanarak, in vivo apoptotik hücre boşluk dinamiklerini takip edebiliyoruz.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Reagent</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Annexin V </td>
 <td>Molecular Probes</td>
 <td>A35108</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PhiPhiLux G2D2</td>
 <td>OncoImmunin</td>
 <td>A304R2G-5</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>LysoTracker</td>
 <td>Molecular Probes</td>
 <td>L-7528</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Halocarbon oil 700</td>
 <td>Sigma</td>
 <td>H8898</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Material</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Capillary tubing</td>
 <td>FHC </td>
 <td>30-30-0</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cell Strainer</td>
 <td>SPL</td>
 <td>93100</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Paintbrush</td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

live imaging of apoptotic cell clearance during drosophila embryogenesis

Apoptoz ve sonraki fagositoz yoluyla istenmeyen veya anormal hücrelerin uygun ortadan kaldırılması (apoptotik hücre boşluk) Tüm metazoan organizmaların normal gelişimi için çok önemlidir. Apoptotik hücre boşluk yakından hücre ölümü ile ilgili son derece dinamik bir süreçtir; unengulfed apoptotik hücrelerin ancak normal şartlar altında in vivo olarak görülür. Apoptotik hücre boşluk farklı adımları anlamak için ve &#39;profesyonel&#39; fagositler karşılaştırmak için - için makrofajlar ve dendritik hücreler &#39;profesyonel olmayan&#39; - doku yerleşik komşu hücreler, sürecin in vivo canlı görüntüleme son derece değerlidir. Burada canlı Drosophila embriyolar apoptotik hücre boşluk eğitim için bir protokol açıklar. Biz apoptotik hücreleri ve fagositler için özel işaretleri kullanmak fagositoz farklı adımların dinamiklerini takip etmek. Ayrıca, paralel olarak iki fagosit sistemleri izleyebilirsiniz: &#39;profesyonel&#39; makrofajlar ve &#39;yarı-profeGelişmekte olan merkezi sinir sisteminde ssional &#39;glial (MSS). Burada anlatılan yöntemi apoptotik hücre boşluk gerçek zamanlı çalışmalar için mükemmel bir model olarak Drosophila embriyo kullanır.

Apoptotik hücre Annexin V ile etiketlenir ve glia ektoderm ve makrofajlar simu-cytGFP ile etiketlenmiş olan bir filmden Örnek çerçeve, Şekil 2&#39;de gösterilmiştir. Her kare 3 dilim 2 mikron her bir yansımasıdır. Sahne 15 embriyo düzgün şekilde etiketlenmiş glia (g) ile ortada embriyonik MSS gösteren konumlandırılmış. MSS dışında çoğunlukla makrofajlar (m), güçlü sitoplazmik GFP ifade gösterir. Ektodermal hücreler de sitoplazmik GFP (e...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis at JoVE.com

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Burada apoptotik hücre boşluk dinamikleri eğitim için etkili bir yöntem tarif<em&gt; In vivo</em&gt;. Bu yöntem canlı istihdam<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Apoptotik hücre ve fagositlerle belirli etiketleme ile apoptotik hücrelerin fagositoz izlenmesi için güçlü bir model olarak embriyolar.

Apoptotik hücresi Temizliği görüntülenmesi sırasında Canlı<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Embriyo

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

live-imaging-apoptotic-cell-clearance-during-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

13.4K Görüntüleme.  Technion-Israel Institute of Technology. Burada apoptotik hücre boşluk dinamikleri eğitim için etkili bir yöntem tarif In vivo. Bu yöntem canlı istihdam Drosophila Apoptotik hücre ve fagositlerle belirli etiketleme ile apoptotik hücrelerin fagositoz izlenmesi için güçlü bir model olarak embriyolar.

Video: Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Live Imaging of Glial Cell Migration in the Drosophila Eye Imaginal Disc

Glial cells of both vertebrate and invertebrate organisms must migrate to final target regions in order to ensheath and support associated neurons. While recent progress has been made to describe the live migration of glial cells in the developing pupal wing (1), studies of Drosophila glial cell migration have typically involved the examination of fixed tissue. Live microscopic analysis of motile cells offers the ability to examine cellular behavior throughout the migratory process, including determining the rate of and changes in direction of growth. Paired with use of genetic tools, live imaging can be used to determine more precise roles for specific genes in the process of development. Previous work by Silies et al. (2) has described the migration of glia originating from the optic stalk, a structure that connects the developing eye and brain, into the eye imaginal disc in fixed tissue. Here we outline a protocol for examining the live migration of glial cells into the Drosophila eye imaginal disc. We take advantage of a Drosophila line that expresses GFP in developing glia to follow glial cell progression in wild type and in mutant animals.

Here we describe a protocol to examine the migration of glial cells into the developing Drosophila eye using live microscopic analysis paired with GFP tagged glial cells.

Drosophila Göz hayali Disk Glial Hücre Göç Canlı Görüntüleme

Glial cells of both vertebrate and invertebrate organisms must migrate to final target regions in order to ensheath and support associated neurons.  While ...

Biyoloji

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we present a protocol for the mounting of Drosophila melanogaster embryos and subsequent live imaging of fluorescently labeled hemocytes, the embryonic macrophages of this organism. Using the Gal4-uas system1 we drive the expression of a variety of genetically encoded, fluorescently tagged markers in hemocytes to follow their developmental dispersal throughout the embryo. Following collection of embryos at the desired stage of development, the outer chorion is removed and the embryos are then mounted in halocarbon oil between a hydrophobic, gas-permeable membrane and a glass coverslip for live imaging. In addition to gross migratory parameters such as speed and directionality, higher resolution imaging coupled with the use of fluorescent reporters of F-actin and microtubules can provide more detailed information concerning the dynamics of these cytoskeletal components.

Live Imaging Of Drosophila melanogaster Embryonic Hemocyte Migrations

Drosophila hemocytes disperse over the entirety of the developing embryo. This protocol demonstrates how to mount and image these migrations using embryos with fluorescently labelled hemocytes.

Uygulamalarda Canlı Görüntüleme Drosophila melanogaster Embriyonik Hemocyte Göçler

Many studies address cell migration using in vitro methods, whereas the physiologically relevant environment is that of the organism itself. Here we ...

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three preparations of the brain and visual system that cover the range from the developing eye disc-brain complex in the developing pupae to individual eye and brain dissection from adult flies. All protocols are optimized for the live culture of the preparations. However, we also present the conditions for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry where applicable. Finally, we show live imaging conditions for these preparations using conventional and resonant 4D confocal live imaging in a perfusion chamber. Together, these protocols provide a basis for live imaging on different time scales ranging from functional intracellular assays on the scale of minutes to developmental or degenerative processes on the scale of many hours.

Preparation of Developing and Adult Drosophila Brains and Retinae for Live Imaging

This protocol describes three Drosophila preparations: 1) adult brain dissection, 2) adult retina dissection and 3) developing eye disc- brain complexes dissection. Emphasis is laid on special preparation techniques and conditions for live imaging, although all preparations can be used for fixed tissue immunohistochemistry.

Geliştirilmesi ve Yetişkin hazırlanması Drosophila Brain ve Canlı Görüntüleme için Retinae

The Drosophila brain and visual system are widely utilized model systems to study neuronal development, function and degeneration. Here we show three ...

A Reverse Genetic Approach to Test Functional Redundancy During Embryogenesis

Gene function during embryogenesis is typically defined by loss-of-function experiments, for example by targeted mutagenesis (knockout) in the mouse. In the zebrafish model, effective reverse genetic techniques have been developed using microinjection of gene-specific antisense morpholinos. Morpholinos target an mRNA through specific base-pairing and block gene function transiently by inhibiting translation or splicing for several days during embryogenesis (knockdown). However, in vertebrates such as mouse or zebrafish, some gene functions can be obscured by these approaches due to the presence of another gene that compensates for the loss. This is especially true for gene families containing sister genes that are co-expressed in the same developing tissues. In zebrafish, functional compensation can be tested in a relatively high-throughput manner, by co-injection of morpholinos that target knockdown of both genes simultaneously. Likewise, using morpholinos, a genetic interaction between any two genes can be demonstrated by knockdown of both genes together at sub-threshold levels. For example, morpholinos can be titrated such that neither individual knockdown generates a phenotype. If, under these conditions, co-injection of both morpholinos causes a phenotype, a genetic interaction is shown. Here we demonstrate how to show functional redundancy in the context of two related GATA transcription factors. GATA factors are essential for specification of cardiac progenitors, but this is revealed only by the loss of both Gata5 and Gata6. We show how to carry out microinjection experiments, validate the morpholinos, and evaluate the compensated phenotype for cardiogenesis.

Gene function can be obscured in loss-of-function experiments if there is compensation by another gene. The zebrafish model provides a relatively high-throughput means to reveal such functional redundancy in living embryos.

Embriyo sırasında Fonksiyonel Artıklık Test Ters Genetik Yaklaşım

Gene function during embryogenesis is typically defined by loss-of-function experiments, for example by targeted mutagenesis (knockout) in the mouse. In ...

Preparing Individual Drosophila Egg Chambers for Live Imaging

Live cell imaging is an important technique applied to a number of Drosophila tissues used as models to investigate topics such as axis specification, cell differentiation and organogenesis 1. Correct preparation of the experimental samples is a crucial, often neglected, step. The goal of preparation is to ensure physiological relevance and to establish optimal imaging conditions. To maintain tissue viability, it is critical to avoid dehydration, hypoxia, overheating or medium deterioration 2. 
 The Drosophila egg chamber is a well established system for examining questions relating, but not limited, to body patterning, mRNA localization and cytoskeletal organization 3,4. For early- and mid-stage egg chambers, mounting in halocarbon oil is good for survival in that it allows free diffusion of oxygen, prevents dehydration and hypoxia and has superb optical properties for microscopy. Imaging of fluorescent proteins is possible through the introduction of transgenes into the egg chamber or physical injection of labeled RNA, protein or antibodies 5-7. For example, addition of MS2 constructs to the genome of animals enables real time observation of mRNAs in the oocyte 8. These constructs allow for in vivo labeling of mRNA through utilization of the MS2 bacteriophage RNA stem loop interaction with its coat protein 9. 
 Here, we present a protocol for the extraction of ovaries as well as isolating individual ovarioles and egg chambers from the female Drosophila. For a detailed description of Drosophila oogenesis see Allan C. Spradling (1993, reprinted 2009) 10.

Preparing Individual Drosophila Egg Chambers for Live Imaging

The Drosophila egg chamber is an excellent model for studying the mechanisms of mRNA localization. In order to capture the dynamic events that underpin the processes of localization, rapid high resolution imaging of live tissue is required. Here, we present a protocol for dissection and imaging of live samples with minimal disruption.

Bireysel hazırlanması Drosophila</emCanlı Görüntüleme için> Yumurta Chambers

Live cell imaging is an important technique applied to a number of Drosophila tissues used as models to investigate topics such as axis specification, ...

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

The Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell organization, and organelle structure and function. The availability of various GFP-tagged proteins means that many cellular processes can be monitored in living cells over the course of minutes or hours, and using this technique, processes such as RNP transport, epithelial morphogenesis, and tissue remodeling have been described in great detail in Drosophila oocytes1,2.
The ability to perform video imaging combined with a rich repertoire of mutants allows an enormous variety of genes and processes to be examined in incredible detail. One such example is the process of ooplasmic streaming, which initiates at mid-oogenesis3,4. This vigorous movement of cytoplasmic vesicles is microtubule and kinesin-dependent5 and provides a useful system for investigating cytoskeleton function at these stages.
Here I present a protocol for time lapse imaging of living oocytes using virtually any confocal microscopy setup.

Live Imaging of GFP-labeled Proteins in Drosophila Oocytes

A protocol for live imaging of GFP-tagged proteins or autofluorescent structures in individual Drosophila oocytes is described.

GFP etiketli Proteinlerin Görüntüleme Canlı<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Oosit

The  Drosophila oocyte has been established as a versatile system for investigating  fundamental questions such as cytoskeletal function, cell ...

4D Imaging of Protein Aggregation in Live Cells

One of the key tasks of any living cell is maintaining the proper folding of newly synthesized proteins in the face of ever-changing environmental conditions and an intracellular environment that is tightly packed, sticky, and hazardous to protein stability1. The ability to dynamically balance protein production, folding and degradation demands highly-specialized quality control machinery, whose absolute necessity is observed best when it malfunctions. Diseases such as ALS, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and certain forms of Cystic Fibrosis have a direct link to protein folding quality control components2, and therefore future therapeutic development requires a basic understanding of underlying processes. Our experimental challenge is to understand how cells integrate damage signals and mount responses that are tailored to diverse circumstances.
The primary reason why protein misfolding represents an existential threat to the cell is the propensity of incorrectly folded proteins to aggregate, thus causing a global perturbation of the crowded and delicate intracellular folding environment1. The folding health, or "proteostasis," of the cellular proteome is maintained, even under the duress of aging, stress and oxidative damage, by the coordinated action of different mechanistic units in an elaborate quality control system3,4. A specialized machinery of molecular chaperones can bind non-native polypeptides and promote their folding into the native state1, target them for degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system5, or direct them to protective aggregation inclusions6-9.
In eukaryotes, the cytosolic aggregation quality control load is partitioned between two compartments8-10: the juxtanuclear quality control compartment (JUNQ) and the insoluble protein deposit (IPOD) (Figure 1 - model). Proteins that are ubiquitinated by the protein folding quality control machinery are delivered to the JUNQ, where they are processed for degradation by the proteasome. Misfolded proteins that are not ubiquitinated are diverted to the IPOD, where they are actively aggregated in a protective compartment.
Up until this point, the methodological paradigm of live-cell fluorescence microscopy has largely been to label proteins and track their locations in the cell at specific time-points and usually in two dimensions. As new technologies have begun to grant experimenters unprecedented access to the submicron scale in living cells, the dynamic architecture of the cytosol has come into view as a challenging new frontier for experimental characterization. We present a method for rapidly monitoring the 3D spatial distributions of multiple fluorescently labeled proteins in the yeast cytosol over time. 3D timelapse (4D imaging) is not merely a technical challenge; rather, it also facilitates a dramatic shift in the conceptual framework used to analyze cellular structure.
We utilize a cytosolic folding sensor protein in live yeast to visualize distinct fates for misfolded proteins in cellular aggregation quality control, using rapid 4D fluorescent imaging. The temperature sensitive mutant of the Ubc9 protein10-12 (Ubc9ts) is extremely effective both as a sensor of cellular proteostasis, and a physiological model for tracking aggregation quality control. As with most ts proteins, Ubc9ts is fully folded and functional at permissive temperatures due to active cellular chaperones. Above 30 &deg;C, or when the cell faces misfolding stress, Ubc9ts misfolds and follows the fate of a native globular protein that has been misfolded due to mutation, heat denaturation, or oxidative damage. By fusing it to GFP or other fluorophores, it can be tracked in 3D as it forms Stress Foci, or is directed to JUNQ or IPOD.

Cellular viability depends on timely and efficient management of protein misfolding. Here we describe a method for visualizing the different potential fates of a misfolded protein: refolding, degradation, or sequestration in inclusions. We demonstrate the use of a folding sensor, Ubc9ts, for monitoring proteostasis and aggregation quality control in live cells using 4D microscopy.

Canlı Hücrelerde Protein Aggregation 4D Görüntüleme

One of the key tasks of any living cell is maintaining the proper folding of newly synthesized proteins in the face of ever-changing environmental ...

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT Method for Live Imaging of Mosaic Adult Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells

The Drosophila eye is widely used as a model for studies of development and neuronal degeneration. With the powerful mitotic recombination technique, elegant genetic screens based on clonal analysis have led to the identification of signaling pathways involved in eye development and photoreceptor (PR) differentiation at larval stages. We describe here the Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT method, which can be used for rapid clonal analysis in the eye of living adult Drosophila. Fluorescent photoreceptor cells are imaged with the cornea neutralization technique, on retinas with mosaic clones generated by flipase-mediated recombination. This method has several major advantages over classical histological sectioning of the retina: it can be used for high-throughput screening and has proved an effective method for identifying the factors regulating PR survival and function. It can be used for kinetic analyses of PR degeneration in the same living animal over several weeks, to demonstrate the requirement for specific genes for PR survival or function in the adult fly. This method is also useful for addressing cell autonomy issues in developmental mutants, such as those in which the establishment of planar cell polarity is affected.

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT Method for Live Imaging of Mosaic Adult Drosophila Photoreceptor Cells

The Tomato/GFP-FLP/FRT method involves visualizing mosaic photoreceptor cells in living Drosophila. It can be used to follow individual photoreceptor cell fates in the retina for days or weeks. This method is ideal for studies of retinal degeneration and neurodegenerative diseases or photoreceptor cell development.

Mozaik Yetişkin Canlı Görüntüleme Domates / GFP-FLP / FRT Yöntemi<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Fotoreseptör Hücreler

The Drosophila eye is widely used as a model  for studies of development and neuronal degeneration. With the powerful mitotic  recombination technique, ...

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model system that has been widely used to elucidate a variety of biological processes. For example, studies of both the female and male germ lines of Drosophila have contributed greatly to the current understanding of meiosis as well as stem cell biology. Excellent protocols are available in the literature for the isolation and imaging of Drosophila ovaries&#160;and testes3-12. Herein, methods for the dissection and preparation of Drosophila testes for microscopic analysis are described with an accompanying video demonstration. A protocol for isolating testes from the abdomen of adult males and preparing slides of live tissue for analysis by phase-contrast microscopy as well as a protocol for fixing and immunostaining testes for analysis by fluorescence microscopy are presented. These techniques can be applied in the characterization of Drosophila mutants that exhibit defects in spermatogenesis as well as in the visualization of subcellular localizations of proteins.

Cytological Analysis of Spermatogenesis: Live and Fixed Preparations of Drosophila Testes

Methods for isolating and preparing Drosophila testes samples (live and fixed) for imaging by phase-contrast and fluorescence microscopy are described herein.&#160;

Spermatogenez sitolojik analizi: Canlı ve Sabit Hazırlıklar<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Testisler

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful model system that has been widely used to elucidate a variety of biological processes. For example, studies of both ...

In Vivo Biosensor Tracks Non-apoptotic Caspase Activity in Drosophila

Caspases are the key mediators of apoptotic cell death via their proteolytic activity. When caspases are activated in cells to levels detectable by available technologies, apoptosis is generally assumed to occur shortly thereafter. Caspases can cleave many functional and structural components to cause rapid and complete cell destruction within a few minutes. However, accumulating evidence indicates that in normal healthy cells the same caspases have other functions, presumably at lower enzymatic levels. Studies of non-apoptotic caspase activity have been hampered by difficulties with detecting low levels of caspase activity and with tracking ultimate cell fate in vivo. Here, we illustrate the use of an ultrasensitive caspase reporter, CaspaseTracker, which permanently labels cells that have experienced caspase activity in whole animals. This in vivo dual color CaspaseTracker biosensor for Drosophila melanogaster transiently expresses red fluorescent protein (RFP) to indicate recent or on-going caspase activity, and permanently expresses green fluorescent protein (GFP) in cells that have experienced caspase activity at any time in the past yet did not die. Importantly, this caspase-dependent in vivo biosensor readily reveals the presence of non-apoptotic caspase activity in the tissues of organ systems throughout the adult fly. This is demonstrated using whole mount dissections of individual flies to detect biosensor activity in healthy cells throughout the brain, gut, malpighian tubules, cardia, ovary ducts and other tissues. CaspaseTracker detects non-apoptotic caspase activity in long-lived cells, as biosensor activity is detected in adult neurons and in other tissues at least 10 days after caspase activation. This biosensor serves as an important tool to uncover the roles and molecular mechanisms of non-apoptotic caspase activity in live animals.

In Vivo Biosensor Tracks Non-apoptotic Caspase Activity in Drosophila

To detect healthy cells in whole animals that contain low levels of caspase activity, the highly sensitive biosensor designated CaspaseTracker was generated for Drosophila. Caspase-dependent biosensor activity is detected in long-lived healthy cells throughout the internal organs of adult animals reared under optimized conditions in the absence of death stimuli.

In Vivo Biyosensör Drosophila olmayan apoptotik Kaspaz Aktivite Tracks

Caspases are the key mediators of apoptotic cell death via their proteolytic activity. When caspases are activated in cells to levels detectable by ...