Data reported in this work are part of the USDA-ARS National Program 306 Project 'Values-Added Products from Cottonseed' research supported by the Agency's in-house funding. Publication of this paper is supported in part by the Journal of Visualized Experiments. Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. We acknowledge the constructive comments from JoVE science editor and peer reviewers in the review and revision process.

1. Cottonseed and Soy Meal-based Products (Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Obtain the raw materials, defatted cottonseed and soy meals, from commercially available sources.</li>
	<li>Obtain the working meal by grinding the solid defatted meal in a cyclone sample mill to pass a 0.5 mm steel screen16.</li>
	<li>Prepare water washed meals from the working meals after water extraction (25 g meal:200 ml water) to separate water soluble components in the meals21.</li>
	<li>Prepare protein isolates from the working ...

<ol>
	<li>Frihart, C. R., Hunt, C. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Wood Handbook: wood as an engineering material: General technical report FPL; GTR-190. , (2010).</li><li>Lambuth, A. L., Pizza, A., Mittal, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Handbook of Adhesive Technology. , 457-478 (2003).</li><li>Kalapathy, U., Hettiarachchy, N. S., Myers, D., Hanna, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modification+of+soy+proteins+and+their+adhesive+properties+on+woods.">Modification of soy proteins and their adhesive properties on woods.</a> J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 72 (5), 507-510 (1995).</li><li>Li, K., Peshkova, S., Geng, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+of+soy+protein-Kymene+adhesive+systems+for+wood+composites.">Investigation of soy protein-Kymene adhesive systems for wood composites.</a> J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 81 (5), 487-491 (2004).</li><li>Qi, G., Li, N., Wang, D., Sun, X. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adhesion+and+physicochemical+properties+of+soy+protein+modified+by+sodium+bisulfite.">Adhesion and physicochemical properties of soy protein modified by sodium bisulfite.</a> J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 90 (12), 1917-1926 (2013).</li><li>Cheng, H. N., Dowd, M. K., He, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Investigation+of+modified+cottonseed+protein+adhesives+for+wood+composites.">Investigation of modified cottonseed protein adhesives for wood composites.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 46, 399-403 (2013).</li><li>Pan, Z., Cathcart, A., Wang, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thermal+and+chemical+treatments+to+improve+adhesive+property+of+rice+bran.">Thermal and chemical treatments to improve adhesive property of rice bran.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 22 (3), 233-240 (2005).</li><li>Nordqvist, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Wheat+gluten+fractions+as+wood+adhesives-glutenins+versus+gliadins.">Wheat gluten fractions as wood adhesives-glutenins versus gliadins.</a> J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 123 (3), 1530-1538 (2012).</li><li>Bandara, N., Chen, L., Wu, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adhesive+properties+of+modified+triticale+distillers+grain+proteins.">Adhesive properties of modified triticale distillers grain proteins.</a> Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 44, 122-129 (2013).</li><li>Li, N., Qi, G., Sun, X. S., Stamm, M. J., Wang, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physicochemical+properties+and+adhesion+performance+of+canola+protein+modified+with+sodium+bisulfite.">Physicochemical properties and adhesion performance of canola protein modified with sodium bisulfite.</a> J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 89 (5), 897-908 (2012).</li><li>Wang, C., Wu, J., Bernard, G. M., Wasylishen, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+and+characterization+of+canola+protein+isolate+-poly(glycidyl+methacrylate)+conjugates:+a+bio-based+adhesive.">Preparation and characterization of canola protein isolate -poly(glycidyl methacrylate) conjugates: a bio-based adhesive.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 57, 124-131 (2014).</li><li>Kong, X., Liu, G., Curtis, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+canola+oil+based+polyurethane+wood+adhesives.">Characterization of canola oil based polyurethane wood adhesives.</a> Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 31 (6), 559-564 (2011).</li><li>Xiao, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Utilization+of+sorghum+lignin+to+improve+adhesion+strength+of+soy+protein+adhesives+on+wood+veneer.">Utilization of sorghum lignin to improve adhesion strength of soy protein adhesives on wood veneer.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 50, 501-509 (2013).</li><li>Moubarik, A., Grimi, N., Boussetta, N., Pizzi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+characterization+of+lignin+from+Moroccan+sugar+cane+bagasse:+Production+of+lignin-phenol-formaldehyde+wood+adhesive.">Isolation and characterization of lignin from Moroccan sugar cane bagasse: Production of lignin-phenol-formaldehyde wood adhesive.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 45, 296-302 (2013).</li><li>Patel, A. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+chitosan-based+adhesive.+Application+to+wood+bonding.">Development of a chitosan-based adhesive. Application to wood bonding.</a> J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 127 (6), 5014-5021 (2013).</li><li>He, Z., Cao, H., Cheng, H. N., Zou, H., Hunt, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+vigorous+blending+on+yield+and+quality+of+protein+isolates+extracted+from+cottonseed+and+soy+flours.">Effects of vigorous blending on yield and quality of protein isolates extracted from cottonseed and soy flours.</a> Modern Appl. Sci. 7 (10), 79-88 (2013).</li><li>Amico, S., Hrabalova, M., Muller, U., Berghofer, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bonding+of+spruce+wood+with+wheat+flour+glue-Effect+of+press+temperature+on+the+adhesive+bond+strength.">Bonding of spruce wood with wheat flour glue-Effect of press temperature on the adhesive bond strength.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 31, 255-260 (2010).</li><li>Gao, Q., Shi, S. Q., Li, J., Liang, K., Zhang, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Soybean+meal-based+wood+adhesives+enhanced+by+modified+polyacrylic+acid+solution.">Soybean meal-based wood adhesives enhanced by modified polyacrylic acid solution.</a> BioResources. 7 (1), 946-956 (2011).</li><li>Chen, N., Lin, Q., Rao, J., Zeng, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Water+resistances+and+bonding+strengths+of+soy-based+adhesives+containing+different+carbohydrates.">Water resistances and bonding strengths of soy-based adhesives containing different carbohydrates.</a> Ind. Crop. Prod. 50, 44-49 (2013).</li><li>He, Z., Chapital, D. C., Cheng, H. N., Dowd, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+adhesive+properties+of+water-+and+phosphate+buffer-washed+cottonseed+meals+with+cottonseed+protein+isolate+on+maple+and+poplar+veneers.">Comparison of adhesive properties of water- and phosphate buffer-washed cottonseed meals with cottonseed protein isolate on maple and poplar veneers.</a> Int. J. Adhes. Adhes. 50, 102-106 (2014).</li><li>He, Z., Cheng, H. N., Chapital, D. C., Dowd, M. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+fractionation+of+cottonseed+meal+to+improve+its+wood+adhesive+properties.">Sequential fractionation of cottonseed meal to improve its wood adhesive properties.</a> J. Am. Oil Chem. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

This paper presents a basic procedure to prepare and test plant seed-based products as wood adhesives. The adhesive slurries exampled in this protocol are simply the defatted seed meal product and water. Various adhesive formulations can be reached by addition of testing reagents (such as sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium bisulfite or tung oil)5,6,23 and/or changes in mixing conditions (such as pH, ratio of solid and water)3,24,25. Adjustment of the adhesive formulation is also needed if the rheologica...

Adhesive bonding of wood plays an increasing role in the forest product industry and is a key factor for efficiently utilizing timber resources1. Interest in the use of natural product-based adhesives for wood increased steadily from the 1930s to reach a peak around 19602. After this period, the price of petroleum-based adhesives became so low that they displaced protein adhesives from several traditional markets. In the past two decades, this trend has reversed with renewed interest in the use of materials that are renewable, biodegradable, and more environmentally acceptable. These natural resources include, but are not limited to, soy protein3-5, cottonseed protein6, rice bran7, wheat gluten8, distillers grain protein9, canola protein and oil10-12, lignin from sorghum and sugar cane bagasse13,14, and polysaccharides derived from shrimp shells15.
Whereas seed protein isolates have been widely evaluated as potential wood adhesives, the isolation procedure involves corrosive alkaline and acidic reagents and it makes isolate-based adhesives relatively expensive and less environment-friendly16. Thus, some defatted seed meals (flours) with or without treatment have also been tested for the adhesive purpose, even though the adhesive properties of these meals do not perform as well as protein isolates17-19. We have sequentially fractionated cottonseed meal (CM) into different fractions, and examined their adhesive strength in bonding wood veneers20,21. The water-insoluble solid fraction (hereinafter washed cottonseed meal-WCM) could be used as wood adhesives, comparable to cottonseed protein isolate (CSPI), and would be less costly to prepare than CSPI.
Adhesive strength and water resistance are two critical parameters in evaluating the performance of a potential adhesive material. Here, the adhesive strength is reported as the shear strength at break of the lap bond of each wood specimen. Water resistance of the adhesive is measured by the change in lap shear strength of the bonded wood specimen at break due to water soaking. Using defatted cottonseed and soy meals as raw materials, this protocol provides a simple and straightforward way to prepare and test plant seed-based products as wood adhesives. This protocol would be helpful in facilitating the effort in seeking more economic and environment-friendly formulations of natural product-based wood adhesives.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="927">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:265px;">Material and Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Supplier/Manufacturer</td>
			<td style="width:227px;"></td>
			<td style="width:211px;">Address</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:23px;">defatted cottonseed meal</td>
			<td>Kentwood Co-op</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Kentwood, LA, USA&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">defatted soy meal</td>
			<td>Kentwood Co-op</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Kentwood, LA, USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">wood veneers</td>
			<td>Certainly Wood, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>East Aurora, NY, USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">cyclone sample mill (model 3010-014)</td>
			<td>UDY Corporation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fort Collins, CO, USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Benchtop Heated Press&#160; (Model 3856)</td>
			<td>Carver, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Wabash, IN. USA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Materials Tester</td>
			<td>Zwick GmbH &#38; Co.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ulm, Germany</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

preparation and testing of plant seed meal-based wood adhesives

Recently, the interest in plant seed meal-based products as wood adhesives has steadily increased, as these plant raw materials are considered renewable and environment-friendly. These natural products may serve as alternatives to petroleum-based adhesives to ease environmental and sustainability concerns. This work demonstrates the preparation and testing of the plant seed-based wood adhesives using cottonseed and soy meal as raw materials. In addition to untreated meals, water washed meals and protein isolates are prepared and tested. Adhesive slurries are prepared by mixing a freeze-dried meal product with deionized water (3:25 w/w) for 2 hr. Each adhesive preparation is applied to one end of 2 wood veneer strips using a brush. The tacky adhesive coated areas of the wood veneer strips are lapped and glued by hot-pressing. Adhesive strength is reported as the shear strength of the bonded wood specimen at break. Water resistance of the adhesives is measured by the change in shear strength of the bonded wood specimens at break after water soaking. This protocol allows one to assess plant seed-based agricultural products as suitable candidates for substitution of synthetic-based wood adhesives. Adjustments to the adhesive formulation with or without additives and bonding conditions could optimize their adhesive properties for various practical applications.

Each adhesive formulation&#8217;s performance is determined by the shear strength of the bonded wood specimen at break and the values vary depending on the dimensions of the wood veneer used. For example, in Table 1, the dry and soaked adhesive strength values of the bonded specimens are lower when thinner and narrower maple strips are used (see Cottonseed-1), as opposed to the thicker and wider strips of Cottonseed-2 recommended in the protocol, using the same cottonseed-based adhesive formulation. Also...

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Preparation and Testing of Plant Seed Meal-based Wood Adhesives

To facilitate the effort in seeking more economic and environment-friendly formulations of natural product-based wood adhesives, this work demonstrates the preparation and testing of plant seed-based wood adhesives. This protocol allows one to assess plant seed-based agricultural products as suitable candidates for the substitution of synthetic-based wood adhesives.

Recently, the interest in plant seed meal-based products as wood adhesives has steadily increased, as these plant raw materials are considered renewable ...

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8.6K Görüntüleme.  United States Department of Agriculture. To facilitate the effort in seeking more economic and environment-friendly formulations of natural product-based wood adhesives, this work demonstrates the preparation and testing of plant seed-based wood adhesives. This protocol allows one to assess plant seed-based agricultural products as suitable candidates for the substitution of synthetic-based wood adhesives.