We thank our collaborators for providing valuable protein samples, which contributed to some of our methods related experience and observations. G&uuml;nther Schmalzing kindly provided the opportunity to FR to join this project. Barbara Armbruster, Jacob Brink and Deryck Mills are thanked for their outstanding help and input on equipment. Funding was provided by NIH grant HL090630.

1. Grid Preparation of 2D Crystallization Trials
<ol>
<li>	Carbon-coated 400-mesh copper EM grids are prepared by negative stain. Uranyl acetate is frequently used and provides a long-lasting stain in terms of storage of the solution for several months before use as well as suitability for long-term storage of grids. In contrast, other negative stains such as uranyl formate, while providing excellent staining, need to be freshly made 1. For fast preparation of a large number of grids to be used for screening of 2D crystallization trials, a modified version of negative staining is used. A volume of 2 &mu;L of sample is pipetted onto a carbon-covered EM grid and incubated for 60 s. This is followed by blotting from the edge with a torn piece of Whatman #4 filter paper (Figure 1; video), and then 2 &mu;L of 1% uranyl acetate are applied immediately, which are again blotted from the edge of the grid after 30 s. Touching the grid on the rim with the torn edge of the filter paper ensures optimal removal of liquid without removal of proteoliposomes. Furthermore, drying at the edge of the grid ensures improved preservation of the carbon film. Care must be taken in preparation and handling of the grids, as breakage of the delicate carbon film prevents sample adhesion and can result in an inaccurate representation of the sample. While traditionally larger sample volumes of 5 &mu;L were and are routinely used for grid preparation, precious samples can be saved by reducing the volume to 2 &mu;L or less 2.</li>
<li>To produce the largest possible membranes, some of our samples require high concentrations of glycerol or sucrose (10-20%) to be present in the dialysis buffer. This can have a negative effect on grid preparation, as glycerol or sucrose is highly viscous and prevents uranyl acetate from properly penetrating the buffer, and thus incompletely staining the membranes. Consequently a possible lattice will be obscured. Either the buffer can be exchanged by centrifugation of the samples and replacement by glycerol/sucrose-free buffer (not shown), or the grids can be washed with buffer or glycerol/sucrose-free buffer in one to several cycles before negative staining similar to a technique used for cryo-EM 3,4.</li>
</ol>
2. Assessing 2D Crystallization Trials by EM
<ol>
<li>Depending on the type of sample holder, either one or multiple grids are loaded. A magnification of 2-10K, which will be referred to here as intermediate magnification, allows for a first impression of average distribution and extent of dispersion of membranes, morphology, and size, which is taken note of in the laboratory notebook 5. Suitable areas are recorded as representative overviews with the help of a CCD camera or, if a CCD camera is not available, on film.</li>
<li>Low magnification in the range of roughly 400-800x is used at times when an overview of the entire sample/grid is desired. While not employed with every grid, low magnification gives valuable information of help in the evaluation of the grid preparation in terms of several aspects: both negative staining and potential partial breakage of carbon film, sample concentration on the grid, and possibly uneven proteoliposome distribution. Individual grid squares might be viewed with the binoculars or CCD camera. With some EMs it is possible to save positions of particular interest, which can be recalled for later inspection at higher magnifications.</li>
<li>Once a grid area of interest has been identified at either low or intermediate magnification, the magnification is changed to approximately 50K-60K. Depending on membrane, crystal and unit cell size, if known, magnifications as low as 30K and as high as 80K are used. The magnification range of 30-80K will be referred to as high magnification for the purpose of screening for 2D crystals. Focusing occurs either in the focus setting of the low-dose set-up, with subsequent switch to image/photo setting, or in the vicinity of the area of interest.
<ol class="lalpha">
<li>	In cases of ambiguity in whether the area of interest is indeed a membrane, the sample is inspected for carbon-film in the size of proteoliposomes, mica, or other artifacts. For this purpose, edges reveal typical folding and morphology.</li>
<li>Now the area of interest is inspected with a CCD camera. A CCD image is collected at 30K-80K magnification, depending on membrane size, protein or unit cell size, or known crystalline area. The lattice of a smaller and/or mostly hydrophobic membrane protein is not necessarily visible by visual assessment of the CCD image itself. Either the entire image is used for an online-Fourier transform (FT, or fast FT -FFT). This FT will contain a significant amount of noise, however, if the ordered array is small. Thus, a reduced boxed image size will allow for an improved signal-to-noise ratio of a smaller crystal and easier identification. For this purpose, the box is moved over the image and a live FT is evaluated. 
The intensity/brightness of the beam is adjusted keeping low-dose conditions for the sample, as well as CCD camera settings in mind. Depending on the CCD camera used, the gamma of the live FT is adjusted for optimal identification of ordered arrays. An overly high value can obscure spots due to noise contributions, and an excessively low gamma value will prevent weaker spots from being identified. These weaker spots might be due to smaller crystalline arrays with spots in the FT barely above the noise level. 
While data at higher resolution has been collected of a small number of samples 6, commonly the resolution of negatively stained 2D crystals is limited to or should not be expected to be better than roughly 15&Aring; resolution. With a defocus of approximately -400 nm, not more than 1-3 orders of spots are expected to be easily identified. Samples are generally not evaluated for resolution, as cryo-EM data collection will give a proper indication of highest achievable resolution. Sharpness of spots and possible mosaicity are noted though.
</li></ol></li>
<li>Different membranes, as well as membrane morphologies, are evaluated for order at high magnification. This is particularly critical at beginning or intermediate stages of 2D crystallization trials, as smaller rather than bigger proteoliposomes or membrane patches can contain the most promising areas. Very low percentages of 2D crystals will require image acquisition and FT, or optical diffraction, of a large number of images since initial identification of ordered arrays will frequently lead to rapid improvement of size and quality 2,4,7.</li>
</ol>
3. Representative Results
Ideally ordered proteoliposomes display readily recognizable, sharp spots. Large and well-ordered crystals are easily identified by online-FT of CCD images or optical diffraction of micrographs.
The example shows 2D crystals of a small membrane protein of 18kDa that are up to several microns in size. Spots on the FT are easily identified and sharp. The movement of the live-FT box shows that the lattice is continuous without mosaicity. The lattice of a larger protein with a more extensive soluble domain can be identified on the small screen of the EM. CCD image collection and FT is necessary to provide a means of better assessment and to gain information on, e.g., possible mosaicity (show FT). When calculating an FT of a proteoliposome that is not ordered, noise can initially be mistaken for spots. While the box for the live-FT is moved, however, the spots will disappear. On the other hand, small arrays, with questionable crystallinity, will have their spots remaining stationary when the live-FT is moved even slightly over the image area. Furthermore, these small crystals can be recognized by usually having the same unit cell sizes, and distances between spots in different FTs can be measured in various ways, such as with a circle of a specific size. Lipid crystals display a distinct lattice morphology and FT.
It is not uncommon to encounter precipitation in initial trials. Here protein precipitation without reconstitution needs to be distinguished from small lipid aggregates though. Samples that appear to be precipitates at low magnification frequently turn out to be lipid aggregates when viewed at higher magnification. Upon inspection at 30-50K, the edges of these dark structures reveal them to be composed of membranes with no precipitation of the protein. These are important observations as the lipid aggregates might be increased in size to large membranes in the following experiments.
Poor results in evaluating samples are sometimes connected to a low membrane concentration that prevents proper and fast screening. This can frequently be overcome with the use of a higher protein concentration for 2D crystallization by dialysis. Alternatively, the membranes can be left to settle for a few days at the bottom of the Eppendorf tube during storage. In some cases rapid, or almost instant settling of membranes occurs and pipetting from the bottom of the tube will result in a higher membrane density on the grid. Another much faster option is centrifugation (at 3000-8000 rpm for 1-3 minutes) of samples with subsequent sampling from the bottom of the tube.
Samples under optimal conditions will contain a large percentage of 2D crystals. It is not necessary to aim for a homogeneous appearance of membranes, as the largest and most well-ordered 2D crystals are selected visually for data collection. These types of samples will be easily recognized when the crystallization trials are repeated as well as when the samples are used for cryo-EM data collection, resulting in a maximum number of high resolution images.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1846/1846fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> Figure 1. This figure shows blotting the edge of the grid with a torn piece of Whatman #4 filter paper.

<ol>
	<li>Johansen, B. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bright+field+electron+microscopy+of+biological+specimens+V.+A+low+dose+pre-irradiation+procedure+reducing+beam+damage.">Bright field electron microscopy of biological specimens V. A low dose pre-irradiation procedure reducing beam damage.</a> Micron. 7, 145-156 (1976).</li><li>Schmidt-Krey, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+crystallography+of+membrane+proteins:+Two-dimensional+crystallization+and+screening+by+electron+microscopy.">Electron crystallography of membrane proteins: Two-dimensional crystallization and screening by electron microscopy.</a> Methods. 41, 417-426 (2007).</li><li>Wang, D. N., K&#252;hlbrandt, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+electron+crystallography+of+light-harvesting+chlorophyll+a/b-protein+complex+in+three+different+media.">High-resolution electron crystallography of light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-protein complex in three different media.</a> J Mol Biol. 217, 691-699 (1991).</li><li>Schmidt-Krey, I., Rubinstein, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+cryomicroscopy+of+membrane+proteins:+specimen+preparation+for+two-dimensional+crystals+and+single+particles.">Electron cryomicroscopy of membrane proteins: specimen preparation for two-dimensional crystals and single particles.</a> Micron. , (2010).</li><li>Schmidt-Krey, I., Mutucumarana, V., Haase, W., Stafford, D. W., K&#252;hlbrandt, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-dimensional+crystallization+of+human+vitamin+K-dependent+&amp;gamma;-glutamyl+carboxylase.">Two-dimensional crystallization of human vitamin K-dependent &amp;gamma;-glutamyl carboxylase.</a> J Struct Biol. 157, 437-442 (2007).</li><li>Trachtenberg, S., DeRosier, D. J., Zemlin, F., Beckmann, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-helical+perturbations+of+the+flagellar+filament:+Salmonella+typhimurium+SJW117+at+9.6+&amp;Aring;+resolution.">Non-helical perturbations of the flagellar filament: Salmonella typhimurium SJW117 at 9.6 &amp;Aring; resolution.</a> J Mol Biol. 276, 759-773 (1998).</li><li>Zhao, G., Johnson, M. C., Schnell, J. R., Kanaoka, Y., Irikura, D., Lam, B. K., Austen, K. F., Schmidt-Krey, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-dimensional+crystallization+conditions+of+human+leukotriene+C4+synthase+requiring+a+particularly+large+combination+of+specific+parameters.">Two-dimensional crystallization conditions of human leukotriene C4 synthase requiring a particularly large combination of specific parameters.</a> J Struct Biol. 169, 450-454 (2010).</li><li>Cheng, A., Leung, A., Fellmann, D., Quispe, J., Suloway, C., Pulokas, J., Abeyrathne, P. D., Lam, J. S., Carragher, B., Potter, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+automated+screening+of+two-dimensional+crystals.">Towards automated screening of two-dimensional crystals.</a> J Struct Biol. 160, 324-331 (2007).</li><li>Vink, M., Derr, K. D., Love, J., Stokes, D. L., Ubarretxena-Belandia, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+high-throughput+strategy+to+screen+2D+crystallization+trials+of+membrane+proteins.">A high-throughput strategy to screen 2D crystallization trials of membrane proteins.</a> J Struct Biol. 160, 295-304 (2007).</li></ol>

Proper evaluation of samples requires careful assessment of a sufficient number of membranes. For example, samples with as low as 2% crystalline arrays out of over 180 imaged proteoliposomes gave critical information for quick optimization of 2D crystallization conditions 7.
When precipitation of the protein occurs, a grid might be abandoned from further screening after inspection at low magnification, although occasional partial precipitation of protein occurs. Even very small m...

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<td>400-mesh copper TEM grids coated with carbon film</td>
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<td>forceps: regular and anti-capillary </td>
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<td>Dumont #5 and Dumont N5AC or similar</td>
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<td>Micropipette and pipette tips</td>
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<td>Whatman #4 filter paper</td>
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<td>1% uranyl acetate</td>
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<td>Dialysis sample to be screened for 2D crystals</td>
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<td>Glycerol/sucrose-free dialysis buffer</td>
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<td>Optional</td>
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<td>JEOL-1400 transmission electron microscope (TEM)</td>
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<td>similar 80 &#x2013; 120kV TEM equipped with an Lab6 or tungsten filament and film and/or CCD cameras (Gatan Orius SC1000 and/or UltraScan1000 CCD cameras and Gatan Digitial Micrograph software package or Tietz cameras (TVIPS)) </td>
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assessing two-dimensional crystallization trials of small membrane proteins for structural biology studies by electron crystallography

Electron crystallography has evolved as a method that can be used either alternatively or in combination with three-dimensional crystallization and X-ray crystallography to study structure-function questions of membrane proteins, as well as soluble proteins. Screening for two-dimensional (2D) crystals by transmission electron microscopy (EM) is the critical step in finding, optimizing, and selecting samples for high-resolution data collection by cryo-EM. Here we describe the fundamental steps in identifying both large and ordered, as well as small 2D arrays, that can potentially supply critical information for optimization of crystallization conditions.
By working with different magnifications at the EM, data on a range of critical parameters is obtained. Lower magnification supplies valuable data on the morphology and membrane size. At higher magnifications, possible order and 2D crystal dimensions are determined. In this context, it is described how CCD cameras and online-Fourier Transforms are used at higher magnifications to assess proteoliposomes for order and size.
While 2D crystals of membrane proteins are most commonly grown by reconstitution by dialysis, the screening technique is equally applicable for crystals produced with the help of monolayers, native 2D crystals, and ordered arrays of soluble proteins. In addition, the methods described here are applicable to the screening for 2D crystals of even smaller as well as larger membrane proteins, where smaller proteins require the same amount of care in identification as our examples and the lattice of larger proteins might be more easily identifiable at earlier stages of the screening.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessing Two-dimensional Crystallization Trials of Small Membrane Proteins for Structural Biology Studies by Electron Crystallography at JoVE.com

Assessing Two-dimensional Crystallization Trials of Small Membrane Proteins for Structural Biology Studies by Electron Crystallography

Evaluating two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials for the formation of ordered membrane protein arrays is a highly critical and difficult task in electron crystallography. Here we describe our approach in screening for and identifying 2D crystals of predominantly small membrane proteins in the range of 15 &#x2013; 90kDa.

Electron crystallography has evolved as a method that can be used either alternatively or in combination with three-dimensional crystallization and X-ray ...

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11.2K Views.  Georgia Institute of Technology. Evaluating two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials for the formation of ordered membrane protein arrays is a highly critical and difficult task in electron crystallography. Here we describe our approach in screening for and identifying 2D crystals of predominantly small membrane proteins in the range of 15 – 90kDa.

Video: Assessing Two-dimensional Crystallization Trials of Small Membrane Proteins for Structural Biology Studies by Electron Crystallography

Microcontact Printing of Proteins for Cell Biology

The ability to pattern proteins and other biomolecules onto substrates is important for capturing the spatial complexity of the extracellular environment. Development of microcontact printing by the Whitesides group (<a href="http://gmwgroup.harvard.edu/">http://gmwgroup.harvard.edu/</a>) in the mid-1990s revolutionalized this field by making microelectronics/microfabrication techniques accessible to laboratories focused on the life sciences. Initial implementations of this method used polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) stamps to create patterns of functionalized chemicals on material surfaces1. Since then, a range of innovative approaches have been developed to pattern other molecules, including proteins2. This video demonstrates the basic process of creating PDMS stamps and uses them to pattern proteins, as these steps are difficult to accurately express in words. We focus on patterning the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin onto glass coverslips as a specific example of patterning.
An important component of the microcontact printing process is a topological master, from which the stamps are cast; the raised and lowered regions of the master are mirrored into the stamp and define the final pattern. Typically, a master consists of a silicon wafer coated with photoresist and then patterned by photolithography, as is done here. Creation of masters containing a specific pattern requires specialized equipment, and is best approached in consultation with a fabrication center or facility. However, almost any substrate with topology can be used as a master, such as plastic diffraction gratings (see Reagents for one example), and such serendipitous masters provide readily available, simple patterns. This protocol begins at the point of having a master in hand.

Microcontact printing is used extensively to pattern proteins and other molecules on material surfaces. We demonstrate the basic steps of this process, stamping patterns of fibronectin onto glass.

The ability to pattern proteins and other biomolecules onto substrates is important for capturing the spatial complexity of the extracellular environment. ...

Crystallizing Membrane Proteins for Structure Determination using Lipidic Mesophases

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the lipidic cubic phase or in meso method. The method has been shown to be quite versatile in that it has been used to solve X-ray crystallographic structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins, proteins that are monomeric, homo- and hetero-multimeric, chromophore-containing and chromophore-free, and alpha-helical and beta-barrel proteins. Recent successes using in meso crystallization are the human engineered beta2-adrenergic and adenosine A2a G protein-coupled receptors. Protocols are presented for reconstituting the membrane protein into the monoolein-based mesophase, and for setting up crystallizations in the manual mode. Additional steps in the overall process, such as crystal harvesting, are to be addressed in future video articles. The time required to prepare the protein-loaded mesophase and to set up a crystallization plate manually is about one hour.

Herein is described the procedure implemented in the Caffrey Membrane Structural and Functional Biology Group to set up manually crystallization trials of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases.

A detailed protocol for crystallizing membrane proteins by using lipidic mesophases is described. This method has variously been referred to as the ...

Protein Crystallization for X-ray Crystallography

Using the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules to infer how they function is one of the most important fields of modern biology. The availability of atomic resolution structures provides a deep and unique understanding of protein function, and helps to unravel the inner workings of the living cell. To date, 86% of the Protein Data Bank (rcsb-PDB) entries are macromolecular structures that were determined using X-ray crystallography.
To obtain crystals suitable for crystallographic studies, the macromolecule (e.g. protein, nucleic acid, protein-protein complex or protein-nucleic acid complex) must be purified to homogeneity, or as close as possible to homogeneity. The homogeneity of the preparation is a key factor in obtaining crystals that diffract to high resolution (Bergfors, 1999; McPherson, 1999).
Crystallization requires bringing the macromolecule to supersaturation. The sample should therefore be concentrated to the highest possible concentration without causing aggregation or precipitation of the macromolecule (usually 2-50 mg/ mL). Introducing the sample to precipitating agent can promote the nucleation of protein crystals in the solution, which can result in large three-dimensional crystals growing from the solution. There are two main techniques to obtain crystals: vapor diffusion and batch crystallization. In vapor diffusion, a drop containing a mixture of precipitant and protein solutions is sealed in a chamber with pure precipitant. Water vapor then diffuses out of the drop until the osmolarity of the drop and the precipitant are equal (Figure 1A). The dehydration of the drop causes a slow concentration of both protein and precipitant until equilibrium is achieved, ideally in the crystal nucleation zone of the phase diagram. The batch method relies on bringing the protein directly into the nucleation zone by mixing protein with the appropriate amount of precipitant (Figure 1B). This method is usually performed under a paraffin/mineral oil mixture to prevent the diffusion of water out of the drop.
Here we will demonstrate two kinds of experimental setup for vapor diffusion, hanging drop and sitting drop, in addition to batch crystallization under oil.

The 3-D structure of a molecule provides a unique understanding of how the molecule functions. The principal method for structure determination at near-atomic resolution is X-ray crystallography. Here, we demonstrate the current methods for obtaining three-dimensional crystals of any given macromolecule that are suitable for structure determination by X-ray crystallography.

Using the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules to infer how they function is one of the most important fields of modern biology. The ...

Crystallization of Membrane Proteins in Lipidic Mesophases

Membrane proteins perform critical functions in living cells related to signal transduction, transport and energy transformations, and, as such, are implicated in a multitude of malfunctions and diseases. However, a structural and functional understanding of membrane proteins is strongly lagging behind that of their soluble partners, mainly, due to difficulties associated with their solubilization and generation of diffraction quality crystals. Crystallization in lipidic mesophases (also known as in meso or LCP crystallization) is a promising technique which was successfully applied to obtain high resolution structures of microbial rhodopsins, photosynthetic proteins, outer membrane beta barrels and G protein-coupled receptors. In meso crystallization takes advantage of a native-like membrane environment and typically produces crystals with lower solvent content and better ordering as compared to traditional crystallization from detergent solutions. The method is not difficult, but requires an understanding of lipid phase behavior and practice in handling viscous mesophase materials. Here we demonstrate a simple and efficient way of making LCP and reconstituting a membrane protein in the lipid bilayer of LCP using a syringe mixer, followed by dispensing nanoliter portions of LCP into an assay or crystallization plate, conducting pre-crystallization assays and harvesting crystals from the LCP matrix. These protocols provide a basic guide for approaching in meso crystallization trials; however, as with any crystallization experiment, extensive screening and optimization are required, and a successful outcome is not necessarily guaranteed.

The protocols describe the essential steps for obtaining diffraction quality crystals of a membrane protein starting from reconstitution of the protein in a lipidic cubic phase (LCP), finding initial conditions with LCP-FRAP pre-crystallization assays, setting up LCP crystallization trials and harvesting crystals.

Membrane proteins perform critical functions in living cells related to signal transduction, transport and energy transformations, and, as such, are ...

High-throughput Crystallization of Membrane Proteins Using the Lipidic Bicelle Method

Membrane proteins (MPs) play a critical role in many physiological processes such as pumping specific molecules across the otherwise impermeable membrane bilayer that surrounds all cells and organelles. Alterations in the function of MPs result in many human diseases and disorders; thus, an intricate understanding of their structures remains a critical objective for biological research. However, structure determination of MPs remains a significant challenge often stemming from their hydrophobicity. 
MPs have substantial hydrophobic regions embedded within the bilayer. Detergents are frequently used to solubilize these proteins from the bilayer generating a protein-detergent micelle that can then be manipulated in a similar manner as soluble proteins. Traditionally, crystallization trials proceed using a protein-detergent mixture, but they often resist crystallization or produce crystals of poor quality. These problems arise due to the detergent&prime;s inability to adequately mimic the bilayer resulting in poor stability and heterogeneity. In addition, the detergent shields the hydrophobic surface of the MP reducing the surface area available for crystal contacts. To circumvent these drawbacks MPs can be crystallized in lipidic media, which more closely simulates their endogenous environment, and has recently become a de novo technique for MP crystallization.
Lipidic cubic phase (LCP) is a three-dimensional lipid bilayer penetrated by an interconnected system of aqueous channels1. Although monoolein is the lipid of choice, related lipids such as monopalmitolein and monovaccenin have also been used to make LCP2. MPs are incorporated into the LCP where they diffuse in three dimensions and feed crystal nuclei. A great advantage of the LCP is that the protein remains in a more native environment, but the method has a number of technical disadvantages including high viscosity (requiring specialized apparatuses) and difficulties in crystal visualization and manipulation3,4. Because of these technical difficulties, we utilized another lipidic medium for crystallization-bicelles5,6 (Figure 1). Bicelles are lipid/amphiphile mixtures formed by blending a phosphatidylcholine lipid (DMPC) with an amphiphile (CHAPSO) or a short-chain lipid (DHPC). Within each bicelle disc, the lipid molecules generate a bilayer while the amphiphile molecules line the apolar edges providing beneficial properties of both bilayers and detergents. Importantly, below their transition temperature, protein-bicelle mixtures have a reduced viscosity and are manipulated in a similar manner as detergent-solubilized MPs, making bicelles compatible with crystallization robots. 
Bicelles have been successfully used to crystallize several membrane proteins5,7-11 (Table 1). This growing collection of proteins demonstrates the versatility of bicelles for crystallizing both alpha helical and beta sheet MPs from prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. Because of these successes and the simplicity of high-throughput implementation, bicelles should be part of every membrane protein crystallographer&prime;s arsenal. In this video, we describe the bicelle methodology and provide a step-by-step protocol for setting up high-throughput crystallization trials of purified MPs using standard robotics.

Bicelles are lipid/amphiphile mixtures that maintain membrane proteins (MPs) within a lipid bilayer but have unique phase behavior that facilitates high-throughput screening by crystallization robots. This technique has successfully produced a number of high-resolution structures from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. This video describes protocols for generating the lipidic bicelle mixture, incorporating MPs into the bicelle mixture, setting up crystallizations trials (manually as well as robotically) and harvesting crystals from the medium.

Membrane proteins (MPs) play a critical role in many physiological processes such as pumping specific molecules across the otherwise impermeable membrane ...

Use of a Robot for High-throughput Crystallization of Membrane Proteins in Lipidic Mesophases

Structure-function studies of membrane proteins greatly benefit from having available high-resolution 3-D structures of the type provided through macromolecular X-ray crystallography (MX). An essential ingredient of MX is a steady supply of ideally diffraction-quality crystals. The in meso or lipidic cubic phase (LCP) method for crystallizing membrane proteins is one of several methods available for crystallizing membrane proteins. It makes use of a bicontinuous mesophase in which to grow crystals. As a method, it has had some spectacular successes of late and has attracted much attention with many research groups now interested in using it. One of the challenges associated with the method is that the hosting mesophase is extremely viscous and sticky, reminiscent of a thick toothpaste. Thus, dispensing it manually in a reproducible manner in small volumes into crystallization wells requires skill, patience and a steady hand. A protocol for doing just that was developed in the Membrane Structural &amp; Functional Biology (MS&amp;FB) Group1-3. JoVE video articles describing the method are available1,4. 
The manual approach for setting up in meso trials has distinct advantages with specialty applications, such as crystal optimization and derivatization. It does however suffer from being a low throughput method. Here, we demonstrate a protocol for performing in meso crystallization trials robotically. A robot offers the advantages of speed, accuracy, precision, miniaturization and being able to work continuously for extended periods under what could be regarded as hostile conditions such as in the dark, in a reducing atmosphere or at low or high temperatures. An in meso robot, when used properly, can greatly improve the productivity of membrane protein structure and function research by facilitating crystallization which is one of the slow steps in the overall structure determination pipeline. 
In this video article, we demonstrate the use of three commercially available robots that can dispense the viscous and sticky mesophase integral to in meso crystallogenesis. The first robot was developed in the MS&amp;FB Group5,6. The other two have recently become available and are included here for completeness.	
An overview of the protocol covered in this article is presented in Figure 1. All manipulations were performed at room temperature (~20 &deg;C) under ambient conditions.

Herein is described a robotic approach to high-throughput crystallization of membrane proteins in lipidic mesophases for use in structure determination using macromolecular X-ray crystallography. Three robots capable of handling the viscous and sticky protein-laden mesophase integral to the method are introduced.

Structure-function studies of membrane proteins greatly benefit from having available high-resolution 3-D structures of the type provided through ...

Harvesting and Cryo-cooling Crystals of Membrane Proteins Grown in Lipidic Mesophases for Structure Determination by Macromolecular Crystallography

An important route to understanding how proteins function at a mechanistic level is to have the structure of the target protein available, ideally at atomic resolution. Presently, there is only one way to capture such information as applied to integral membrane proteins (Figure 1), and the complexes they form, and that method is macromolecular X-ray crystallography (MX). To do MX diffraction quality crystals are needed which, in the case of membrane proteins, do not form readily. A method for crystallizing membrane proteins that involves the use of lipidic mesophases, specifically the cubic and sponge phases1-5, has gained considerable attention of late due to the successes it has had in the G protein-coupled receptor field6-21 (<a href="http://www.mpdb.tcd.ie" target="_blank">www.mpdb.tcd.ie</a>). However, the method, henceforth referred to as the in meso or lipidic cubic phase method, comes with its own technical challenges. These arise, in part, due to the generally viscous and sticky nature of the lipidic mesophase in which the crystals, which are often micro-crystals, grow. Manipulating crystals becomes difficult as a result and particularly so during harvesting22,23. Problems arise too at the step that precedes harvesting which requires that the glass sandwich plates in which the crystals grow (Figure 2)24,25 are opened to expose the mesophase bolus, and the crystals therein, for harvesting, cryo-cooling and eventual X-ray diffraction data collection.
The cubic and sponge mesophase variants (Figure 3) from which crystals must be harvested have profoundly different rheologies4,26. The cubic phase is viscous and sticky akin to a thick toothpaste. By contrast, the sponge phase is more fluid with a distinct tendency to flow. Accordingly, different approaches for opening crystallization wells containing crystals growing in the cubic and the sponge phase are called for as indeed different methods are required for harvesting crystals from the two mesophase types. Protocols for doing just that have been refined and implemented in the Membrane Structural and Functional Biology (MS&amp;FB) Group, and are described in detail in this JoVE article (Figure 4). Examples are given of situations where crystals are successfully harvested and cryo-cooled. We also provide examples of cases where problems arise that lead to the irretrievable loss of crystals and describe how these problems can be avoided. In this article the Viewer is provided with step-by-step instructions for opening glass sandwich crystallization wells, for harvesting and for cryo-cooling crystals of membrane proteins growing in cubic and in sponge phases.

Herein is described procedures implemented in the Caffrey Membrane Structural and Functional Biology Group to harvest and cryo-cool membrane protein crystals grown in lipidic cubic and sponge phases for use in structure determination using macromolecular X-ray crystallography.

An important route to understanding how proteins function at a mechanistic level is to have the structure of the target protein available, ideally at ...

Visualization of ATP Synthase Dimers in Mitochondria by Electron Cryo-tomography

Electron cryo-tomography is a powerful tool in structural biology, capable of visualizing the three-dimensional structure of biological samples, such as cells, organelles, membrane vesicles, or viruses at molecular detail. To achieve this, the aqueous sample is rapidly vitrified in liquid ethane, which preserves it in a close-to-native, frozen-hydrated state. In the electron microscope, tilt series are recorded at liquid nitrogen temperature, from which 3D tomograms are reconstructed. The signal-to-noise ratio of the tomographic volume is inherently low. Recognizable, recurring features are enhanced by subtomogram averaging, by which individual subvolumes are cut out, aligned and averaged to reduce noise. In this way, 3D maps with a resolution of 2 nm or better can be obtained. A fit of available high-resolution structures to the 3D volume then produces atomic models of protein complexes in their native environment. Here we show how we use electron cryo-tomography to study the in situ organization of large membrane protein complexes in mitochondria. We find that ATP synthases are organized in rows of dimers along highly curved apices of the inner membrane cristae, whereas complex I is randomly distributed in the membrane regions on either side of the rows. By subtomogram averaging we obtained a structure of the mitochondrial ATP synthase dimer within the cristae membrane.

We present a protocol of how to collect and process electron cryo-tomograms of whole mitochondria. The technique provides detailed insights into the structure, function, and organization of large membrane protein complexes in native biological membranes.

Electron cryo-tomography is a powerful tool in structural biology, capable of visualizing the three-dimensional structure of biological samples, such as ...

Immunodetection of Outer Membrane Proteins by Flow Cytometry of Isolated Mitochondria

Methods to detect and monitor mitochondrial outer membrane protein components in animal tissues are vital to study mitochondrial physiology and pathophysiology. This protocol describes a technique where mitochondria isolated from rodent tissue are immunolabeled and analyzed by flow cytometry. Mitochondria are isolated from rodent spinal cords and subjected to a rapid enrichment step so as to remove myelin, a major contaminant of mitochondrial fractions prepared from nervous tissue. Isolated mitochondria are then labeled with an antibody of choice and a fluorescently conjugated secondary antibody. Analysis by flow cytometry verifies the relative purity of mitochondrial preparations by staining with a mitochondrial specific dye, followed by detection and quantification of immunolabeled protein. This technique is rapid, quantifiable and high-throughput, allowing for the analysis of hundreds of thousands of mitochondria per sample. It is applicable to assess novel proteins at the mitochondrial surface under normal physiological conditions as well as the proteins that may become mislocalized to this organelle during pathology. Importantly, this method can be coupled to fluorescent indicator dyes to report on certain activities of mitochondrial subpopulations and is feasible for mitochondria from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) as well as liver.

Described here is a method to detect and quantify mitochondrial outer membrane proteins by immunolabeling of mitochondria isolated from rodent tissue and analysis by flow cytometry. This method can be extended to assess functional aspects of mitochondrial subpopulations.

Methods to detect and monitor mitochondrial outer membrane protein components in animal tissues are vital to study mitochondrial physiology and ...

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membrane proteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membrane proteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membrane protein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membrane proteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membrane proteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation.

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

A streamlined approach to screening for the expression of recombinant membrane proteins in Escherichia coli based on fusion to green fluorescent protein is presented.

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and ...