This work was supported by a Burroughs Wellcome Investigator Award to YM and by a Brown-Coxe Postdoctoral Fellowship from Yale University to MD.

Materials:
<ul>
<li>Protein sample - Lysozyme (50 mg/ mL)</li>
<li>Hanging drop 24-well tray</li>
<li>Sitting drop 24-well tray</li>
<li>Microbatch crystallization 96 well tray</li>
<li>Crystallization solutions (either commercial available or home made)</li>
<li>Silicon grease</li>
<li>5 mL syringe without Luer-lock</li>
<li>Siliconized cover slides</li>
<li>Optical sealing tape</li>
<li>Paraffin</li>
<li>0.1-2 &mu;L micropipette with low-retention tips</li>
<li>Tweezers</li>
<li>Professional wipes</li>
</ul>
1. Hanging/sitting Drop Procedure:
<ol>
<li>For an initial screen one can use commercially available screens that exploit the sparse matrix incomplete factorial method of trial conditions. The sparse matrix incomplete factorial method is biased by and selected from known crystallization conditions for macromolecules (Carter and Carter, 1979; Cudney et al., 1994; Jancarik and Kim, 1991; Jancarik et al., 1991). If the crystallization condition is already known, a narrow screen can be assembled, varying the precipitant concentration and pH around the original hit. The most commonly successful precipitant is polyethylene glycol (PEG), followed by ammonium sulfate. Together, these two precipitants account for approximately 60% of all recorded macromolecular precipitants used for crystallization (Gilliland et al., 1994; Kimber et al., 2003; Page et al., 2003).</li>
<li>Prepare your crystallization solutions. Usually these conditions are combined from a precipitating agent, salt of some kind and a buffer to set the pH. In some cases additives may be added specifically for the protein of interest. All stock solution should be filtered using 0.22 &mu;m filter. Some of the stock solution might be very viscous (50% PEGs, glycerol, PEG-MME, etc ).
<ul>
<li>Prepare 1.5 mL of 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6 M NaCl each in 0.1 M NaOAc pH 4.0, 4.3, 4.6 and 4.9 (total of 24 solutions)</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Thaw your protein sample and keep on ice. Protein stocks should be stored at -80&deg;C unless the protein of interest is sensitive to freeze/thaw cycles (if so, store at 4&deg;C). Typical protein concentrations are in the range of 5-50 mg/ mL, with higher concentrations usually giving better results.</li>
<li>Spin the sample 15min/18,000xg/4&deg;C - some proteins tend to partially aggregate and precipitate after a thaw step. These aggregates can promote amorphous precipitation of the rest of the protein molecules therefore thorough spin down will ensure you have only soluble molecules in your sample. Keep protein on ice until setting up the tray.</li>
<li>Determine the protein concentration from its absorbance at 280 nm using a UV spectrophotometer. The protein concentration can be calculated from the absorbance reading and the protein's extinction coefficient. The extinction coefficient can be calculated with the ProtParam tool on the Expasy website: <a href="http://ca.expasy.org/tools/protparam.html">http://ca.expasy.org/tools/protparam.html</a></li>
<li>Fill wells of the 24-well hanging/sitting drop tray with 500 &mu;L of precipitant solution according to the tray setup scheme (Figure 2B). Create a silicone grease ring around the edge of the well. The ring should have a small gap to prevent air pressure buildup as the well is sealed. In sitting drops, there is no need for grease since the well is sealed with tape (Figure 2A).</li>
<li>Take a cover slide and clean it with condensed air spray, or a professional wipe - avoiding dust will ease the interpretation of the crystallization drop and eliminate contaminations. For sitting drops, cover slide are not used. Instead, the well contains a shelf on which the protein and precipitant are mixed.</li>
<li>Put equal volumes of the protein sample and reservoir solution on the cover slide. Different volumes of protein and precipitant may be tried as part of optimization process. Using more protein than precipitant results in a net concentration of the protein in the drop after equilibration, which can be desirable for dilute protein samples, and to slow crystal nucleation or growth. Any other nonvolatile substance in the drop solution will also be concentrated by the same factor. When pipetting the protein and reservoir solutions onto the cover slide, be extremely careful to avoid bubble formation. This often occurs when air is blown out of the pipette.
<ul>
<li>Hanging drop: Load 2 &mu;L of 50 mg/ mL lysozyme in 0.02 M NaOAc pH 4.9 to the center of the cover slide and add to it 2 &mu;L of the reservoir solution.</li>
<li>Sitting drop: Load 2 &mu;L of 50 mg/ mL lysozyme solution to the center of the shelf and add to it 2 &mu;L of reservoir solution.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Flip the cover slide gently and lay it down on the grease ring on top of the well. Press down gently so that air can escape from the well through the notch in the grease to prevent air pressure buildup in the well and keep the well sealed. Air pressure buildup in the well can raise the cover slide, compromising the well seal. In the sitting drop method, optically clear transparent tape is used to cover the wells. Hence, in this method sealing will take place every row/column.</li>
<li>Move on to the next well until tray is complete.</li>
<li>Check the tray upon setup - eliminating dust particles and other contaminations can reduce the false positive identification of protein crystals.</li>
<li>Use a scoring sheet to document your experiment.</li>
<li>Place the tray at the desired incubation temperature, generally between 4&deg;C and room temperature. 20&deg;C is most commonly successful. Take care to handle the tray gently and avoid any shaking. Be careful while opening and closing the incubator door. Vibrations or temperature changes during transfer or incubation can prevent crystal growth or negatively affect crystal quality. A shock absorbing material (e.g. packing foam) can be used as padding under the crystal trays.</li>
<li>Check the tray for crystals the following day, and then every few days, always handling the trays with care. Document any findings and drop morphologies in a tray specific scoring sheet. Crystals typically take 2-5 days to appear, although crystals occasionally appear much sooner (almost immediately) or later (up to several months!). Once crystallization conditions have been identified and the growth rate of the crystals is known, it is best to leave the trays undisturbed until crystals have appeared and grown to at least half of their final size. Leaving the trays undisturbed can reduce the number of crystal nucleation events, hence producing smaller numbers of larger crystals.</li>
</ol>
2. Microbatch Procedure:
<ol>
<li>Protein sample and precipitant preparation are as described above.</li>
<li>Air spray a new microbatch tray to avoid dust and other large particles.</li>
<li>In the microbatch tray, fill paraffin oil up to 3 mm high (just enough to cover the wells). Remove access of oil.</li>
<li>Load 1 &mu;L of protein solution (50 mg/ mL lysozyme) into the oil pre-filled well - make sure to pipette the solution directly to the bottom of the well (Figure 2A).</li>
<li>Load 1 &mu;L of precipitant solution into the well according to the tray setup scheme (Figure 2B) - make sure the drop sinks to the bottom of the well and fuses with the protein droplet.</li>
<li>Move to the next well until tray is complete.</li>
<li>Follow steps 11-14 of the hanging/sitting drop procedure.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Bergfors, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Protein crystallization : techniques, strategies, and tips : a laboratory manual. , (1999).</li><li>Carter, C. W., Carter, C. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+crystallization+using+incomplete+factorial+experiments.">Protein crystallization using incomplete factorial experiments.</a> J Biol Chem. 254, 12219-12223 (1979).</li><li>Cudney, R., Patel, S., Weisgraber, K., Newhouse, Y., McPherson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Screening+and+optimization+strategies+for+macromolecular+crystal+growth.">Screening and optimization strategies for macromolecular crystal growth.</a> Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr. 50, 414-423 (1994).</li><li>Dessau, M., Chamovitz, D. A., Hirsch, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression,+purification+and+crystallization+of+a+PCI+domain+from+the+COP9+signalosome+subunit+7+(CSN7).">Expression, purification and crystallization of a PCI domain from the COP9 signalosome subunit 7 (CSN7).</a> Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun. 62, 1138-1140 (2006).</li><li>Gilliland, G. L., Tung, M., Blakeslee, D. M., Ladner, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biological+Macromolecule+Crystallization+Database,+Version+3.0:+new+features,+data+and+the+NASA+archive+for+protein+crystal+growth+data.">Biological Macromolecule Crystallization Database, Version 3.0: new features, data and the NASA archive for protein crystal growth data.</a> Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr. 50, 408-413 (1994).</li><li>Jancarik, J., Kim, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sparse+matrix+sampling:+a+screening+method+for+crystallization+of+proteins.">Sparse matrix sampling: a screening method for crystallization of proteins.</a> J Appl Cryst. 23, 409-411 (1991).</li><li>Jancarik, J., Scott, W. G., Milligan, D. L., Koshland, D. E., Kim, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystallization+and+preliminary+X-ray+diffraction+study+of+the+ligand-binding+domain+of+the+bacterial+chemotaxis-mediating+aspartate+receptor+of+Salmonella+typhimurium.">Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction study of the ligand-binding domain of the bacterial chemotaxis-mediating aspartate receptor of Salmonella typhimurium.</a> J Mol Biol. 221, 31-34 (1991).</li><li>Kimber, M. S., Vallee, F., Houston, S., Necakov, A., Skarina, T., Evdokimova, E., Beasley, S., Christendat, D., Savchenko, A., Arrowsmith, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Data+mining+crystallization+databases:+knowledge-based+approaches+to+optimize+protein+crystal+screens.">Data mining crystallization databases: knowledge-based approaches to optimize protein crystal screens.</a> Proteins. 51, 562-568 (2003).</li><li>Lorber, B., Sauter, C., Theobald-Dietrich, A., Moreno, A., Schellenberger, P., Robert, M. C., Capelle, B., Sanglier, S., Potier, N., Giege, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystal+growth+of+proteins,+nucleic+acids,+and+viruses+in+gels.">Crystal growth of proteins, nucleic acids, and viruses in gels.</a> Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 101, 13-25 (2009).</li><li>McPherson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Crystallization of biological macromolecules. , (1999).</li><li>McPherson, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Introduction+to+protein+crystallization.">Introduction to protein crystallization.</a> Methods. 34, 254-265 (2004).</li><li>Page, R., Grzechnik, S. K., Canaves, J. M., Spraggon, G., Kreusch, A., Kuhn, P., Stevens, R. C., Lesley, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shotgun+crystallization+strategy+for+structural+genomics:+an+optimized+two-tiered+crystallization+screen+against+the+Thermotoga+maritima+proteome.">Shotgun crystallization strategy for structural genomics: an optimized two-tiered crystallization screen against the Thermotoga maritima proteome.</a> Acta Crystallogr D Biol Crystallogr. 59, 1028-1037 (2003).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

In this article we describe and demonstrate general current protocols for protein crystallization. Since it a multi-step procedure there are few considerations one needs to be aware of. When working with very small volumes (0.5-2 &mu;L), drying of the drop due to evaporation is a major concern. Hence, it is recommended to work in a well-controlled environment (with low air flow, high humidity and tight temperature control) and to adopt a technique that minimizes exposure of the drop to the open air. For this reason, it ...

<table border="1">
		<tbody>
<tr>
<td>New Item</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Lysozyme</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-aldrich</td>
<td>L6876-1G</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>24 well VDX Plate</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-142</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>24 well Cryschem Plate</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-158</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Dow Corning Vacuum Grease</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-510</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Siliconized glass circle coverslides</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-231</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>100% paraffin oil</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-411</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1.88 inch wide Crystal Clear Sealing Tape</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-511</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>96 Well Imp@ct Plate (Microbatch plate)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hampton research</td>
<td>HR3-098</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>	</tr>	</tbody>
		</table>

protein crystallization for x-ray crystallography

Using the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules to infer how they function is one of the most important fields of modern biology. The availability of atomic resolution structures provides a deep and unique understanding of protein function, and helps to unravel the inner workings of the living cell. To date, 86% of the Protein Data Bank (rcsb-PDB) entries are macromolecular structures that were determined using X-ray crystallography.
To obtain crystals suitable for crystallographic studies, the macromolecule (e.g. protein, nucleic acid, protein-protein complex or protein-nucleic acid complex) must be purified to homogeneity, or as close as possible to homogeneity. The homogeneity of the preparation is a key factor in obtaining crystals that diffract to high resolution (Bergfors, 1999; McPherson, 1999).
Crystallization requires bringing the macromolecule to supersaturation. The sample should therefore be concentrated to the highest possible concentration without causing aggregation or precipitation of the macromolecule (usually 2-50 mg/ mL). Introducing the sample to precipitating agent can promote the nucleation of protein crystals in the solution, which can result in large three-dimensional crystals growing from the solution. There are two main techniques to obtain crystals: vapor diffusion and batch crystallization. In vapor diffusion, a drop containing a mixture of precipitant and protein solutions is sealed in a chamber with pure precipitant. Water vapor then diffuses out of the drop until the osmolarity of the drop and the precipitant are equal (Figure 1A). The dehydration of the drop causes a slow concentration of both protein and precipitant until equilibrium is achieved, ideally in the crystal nucleation zone of the phase diagram. The batch method relies on bringing the protein directly into the nucleation zone by mixing protein with the appropriate amount of precipitant (Figure 1B). This method is usually performed under a paraffin/mineral oil mixture to prevent the diffusion of water out of the drop.
Here we will demonstrate two kinds of experimental setup for vapor diffusion, hanging drop and sitting drop, in addition to batch crystallization under oil.

Crystallization is usually referred to as the bottleneck of X-ray crystallography. A sparse matrix incomplete factorial screen of precipitating conditions typically produces many different types of protein aggregation and precipitation, among them large single crystals. If the protein or precipitant concentrations are too high one can see brown matter with no distinct shape and size (amorphous precipitation). When the solution is undersaturated, the drop will often be completely clear and devoid of any kind of precipitat...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Protein Crystallization for X-ray Crystallography at JoVE.com

Protein Crystallization for X-ray Crystallography

The 3-D structure of a molecule provides a unique understanding of how the molecule functions. The principal method for structure determination at near-atomic resolution is X-ray crystallography. Here, we demonstrate the current methods for obtaining three-dimensional crystals of any given macromolecule that are suitable for structure determination by X-ray crystallography.

Using the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules to infer how they function is one of the most important fields of modern biology. The ...

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62.8K Views.  Yale University. The 3-D structure of a molecule provides a unique understanding of how the molecule functions. The principal method for structure determination at near-atomic resolution is X-ray crystallography. Here, we demonstrate the current methods for obtaining three-dimensional crystals of any given macromolecule that are suitable for structure determination by X-ray crystallography.

Video: Protein Crystallization for X-ray Crystallography

Non-invasive 3D-Visualization with Sub-micron Resolution Using Synchrotron-X-ray-tomography

Little is known about the internal organization of many micro-arthropods with body sizes below 1 mm. The reasons for that are the small size and the hard cuticle which makes it difficult to use protocols of classical histology. In addition, histological sectioning destroys the sample and can therefore not be used for unique material. Hence, a non-destructive method is desirable which allows to view inside small samples without the need of sectioning.
We used synchrotron X-ray tomography at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble (France) to non-invasively produce 3D tomographic datasets with a pixel-resolution of 0.7&micro;m. Using volume rendering software, this allows us to reconstruct the internal organization in its natural state without the artefacts produced by histological sectioning. These date can be used for quantitative morphology, landmarks, or for the visualization of animated movies to understand the structure of hidden body parts and to follow complete organ systems or tissues through the samples.

We used synchrotron X-ray tomography at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) to non-invasively produce 3D tomographic datasets with a pixel-resolution of 0.7&micro;m. Using volume rendering software, this allows the reconstruction of internal structures in their natural state without the artefacts produced by histological sectioning.

Little is known about the internal organization of many micro-arthropods with body sizes below 1 mm. The reasons for that are the small size and the hard ...

Staining of Proteins in Gels with Coomassie G-250 without Organic Solvent and Acetic Acid

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents (Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol) and acetic acid are used for fixation, staining and destaining of proteins in a gel after SDS-PAGE. To speed up the procedure, heating the staining solution in the microwave oven for a short time is frequently used. This usually results in evaporation of toxic or hazardous Methanol, Ethanol or 2-Propanol and a strong smell of acetic acid in the lab which should be avoided due to safety considerations. In a protocol originally published in two patent applications by E.M. Wondrak (US2001046709 (A1), US6319720 (B1)), an alternative composition of the staining solution is described in which no organic solvent or acid is used. The CBB is dissolved in bidistilled water (60-80mg of CBB G-250 per liter) and 35 mM HCl is added as the only other compound in the staining solution. The CBB staning of the gel is done after SDS-PAGE and thorough washing of the gel in bidistilled water. By heating the gel during the washing and staining steps, the process can be finished faster and no toxic or hazardous compunds are evaporating. The staining of proteins occurs already within 1 minute after heating the gel in staining solution and is fully developed after 15-30 min with a slightly blue background that is destained completely by prolonged washing of the stained gel in bidistilled water, without affecting the stained protein bands.

A short protocol for protein staining with Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) G-250 in polyacrylamide gels is described without using organic solvents or acetic acid as in the classical staining procedures with CBB.

In classical protein staining protocols using Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB), solutions with high contents of toxic and flammable organic solvents ...

Using the GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System for Molecular Weight-Based Fractionation with Liquid Phase Recovery

The GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System is a novel protein fractionation system designed to maximize protein recovery during molecular weight based fractionation. The system is comprised of single-use, 8-sample capacity cartridges and a benchtop GELFREE Fractionation Instrument. During separation, a constant voltage is applied between the anode and cathode reservoirs, and each protein mixture is electrophoretically driven from a loading chamber into a specially designed gel column gel. Proteins are concentrated into a tight band in a stacking gel, and separated based on their respective electrophoretic mobilities in a resolving gel. As proteins elute from the column, they are trapped and concentrated in liquid phase in the collection chamber, free of the gel. The instrument is then paused at specific time intervals, and fractions are collected using a pipette. This process is repeated until all desired fractions have been collected. If fewer than 8 samples are run on a cartridge, any unused chambers can be used in subsequent separations.
This novel technology facilitates the quick and simple separation of up to 8 complex protein mixtures simultaneously, and offers several advantages when compared to previously available fractionation methods. This system is capable of fractionating up to 1mg of total protein per channel, for a total of 8mg per cartridge. Intact proteins over a broad mass range are separated on the basis of molecular weight, retaining important physiochemical properties of the analyte. The liquid phase entrapment provides for high recovery while eliminating the need for band or spot cutting, making the fractionation process highly reproducible1.

The accompanying video describes the use of the GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System, which partitions complex protein samples on the basis of molecular weight and recovers the fractions in liquid phase. The video describes how the technology works, how it is used, and provides resultant data, with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of fractionated bovine liver homogenate.

The GELFREE 8100 Fractionation System is a novel protein fractionation system designed to maximize protein recovery during molecular weight based ...

Assessing Two-dimensional Crystallization Trials of Small Membrane Proteins for Structural Biology Studies by Electron Crystallography

Electron crystallography has evolved as a method that can be used either alternatively or in combination with three-dimensional crystallization and X-ray crystallography to study structure-function questions of membrane proteins, as well as soluble proteins. Screening for two-dimensional (2D) crystals by transmission electron microscopy (EM) is the critical step in finding, optimizing, and selecting samples for high-resolution data collection by cryo-EM. Here we describe the fundamental steps in identifying both large and ordered, as well as small 2D arrays, that can potentially supply critical information for optimization of crystallization conditions.
By working with different magnifications at the EM, data on a range of critical parameters is obtained. Lower magnification supplies valuable data on the morphology and membrane size. At higher magnifications, possible order and 2D crystal dimensions are determined. In this context, it is described how CCD cameras and online-Fourier Transforms are used at higher magnifications to assess proteoliposomes for order and size.
While 2D crystals of membrane proteins are most commonly grown by reconstitution by dialysis, the screening technique is equally applicable for crystals produced with the help of monolayers, native 2D crystals, and ordered arrays of soluble proteins. In addition, the methods described here are applicable to the screening for 2D crystals of even smaller as well as larger membrane proteins, where smaller proteins require the same amount of care in identification as our examples and the lattice of larger proteins might be more easily identifiable at earlier stages of the screening.

Evaluating two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials for the formation of ordered membrane protein arrays is a highly critical and difficult task in electron crystallography. Here we describe our approach in screening for and identifying 2D crystals of predominantly small membrane proteins in the range of 15 &#x2013; 90kDa.

Electron crystallography has evolved as a method that can be used either alternatively or in combination with three-dimensional crystallization and X-ray ...

Crystallization of Membrane Proteins in Lipidic Mesophases

Membrane proteins perform critical functions in living cells related to signal transduction, transport and energy transformations, and, as such, are implicated in a multitude of malfunctions and diseases. However, a structural and functional understanding of membrane proteins is strongly lagging behind that of their soluble partners, mainly, due to difficulties associated with their solubilization and generation of diffraction quality crystals. Crystallization in lipidic mesophases (also known as in meso or LCP crystallization) is a promising technique which was successfully applied to obtain high resolution structures of microbial rhodopsins, photosynthetic proteins, outer membrane beta barrels and G protein-coupled receptors. In meso crystallization takes advantage of a native-like membrane environment and typically produces crystals with lower solvent content and better ordering as compared to traditional crystallization from detergent solutions. The method is not difficult, but requires an understanding of lipid phase behavior and practice in handling viscous mesophase materials. Here we demonstrate a simple and efficient way of making LCP and reconstituting a membrane protein in the lipid bilayer of LCP using a syringe mixer, followed by dispensing nanoliter portions of LCP into an assay or crystallization plate, conducting pre-crystallization assays and harvesting crystals from the LCP matrix. These protocols provide a basic guide for approaching in meso crystallization trials; however, as with any crystallization experiment, extensive screening and optimization are required, and a successful outcome is not necessarily guaranteed.

The protocols describe the essential steps for obtaining diffraction quality crystals of a membrane protein starting from reconstitution of the protein in a lipidic cubic phase (LCP), finding initial conditions with LCP-FRAP pre-crystallization assays, setting up LCP crystallization trials and harvesting crystals.

Membrane proteins perform critical functions in living cells related to signal transduction, transport and energy transformations, and, as such, are ...

High-throughput Crystallization of Membrane Proteins Using the Lipidic Bicelle Method

Membrane proteins (MPs) play a critical role in many physiological processes such as pumping specific molecules across the otherwise impermeable membrane bilayer that surrounds all cells and organelles. Alterations in the function of MPs result in many human diseases and disorders; thus, an intricate understanding of their structures remains a critical objective for biological research. However, structure determination of MPs remains a significant challenge often stemming from their hydrophobicity. 
MPs have substantial hydrophobic regions embedded within the bilayer. Detergents are frequently used to solubilize these proteins from the bilayer generating a protein-detergent micelle that can then be manipulated in a similar manner as soluble proteins. Traditionally, crystallization trials proceed using a protein-detergent mixture, but they often resist crystallization or produce crystals of poor quality. These problems arise due to the detergent&prime;s inability to adequately mimic the bilayer resulting in poor stability and heterogeneity. In addition, the detergent shields the hydrophobic surface of the MP reducing the surface area available for crystal contacts. To circumvent these drawbacks MPs can be crystallized in lipidic media, which more closely simulates their endogenous environment, and has recently become a de novo technique for MP crystallization.
Lipidic cubic phase (LCP) is a three-dimensional lipid bilayer penetrated by an interconnected system of aqueous channels1. Although monoolein is the lipid of choice, related lipids such as monopalmitolein and monovaccenin have also been used to make LCP2. MPs are incorporated into the LCP where they diffuse in three dimensions and feed crystal nuclei. A great advantage of the LCP is that the protein remains in a more native environment, but the method has a number of technical disadvantages including high viscosity (requiring specialized apparatuses) and difficulties in crystal visualization and manipulation3,4. Because of these technical difficulties, we utilized another lipidic medium for crystallization-bicelles5,6 (Figure 1). Bicelles are lipid/amphiphile mixtures formed by blending a phosphatidylcholine lipid (DMPC) with an amphiphile (CHAPSO) or a short-chain lipid (DHPC). Within each bicelle disc, the lipid molecules generate a bilayer while the amphiphile molecules line the apolar edges providing beneficial properties of both bilayers and detergents. Importantly, below their transition temperature, protein-bicelle mixtures have a reduced viscosity and are manipulated in a similar manner as detergent-solubilized MPs, making bicelles compatible with crystallization robots. 
Bicelles have been successfully used to crystallize several membrane proteins5,7-11 (Table 1). This growing collection of proteins demonstrates the versatility of bicelles for crystallizing both alpha helical and beta sheet MPs from prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. Because of these successes and the simplicity of high-throughput implementation, bicelles should be part of every membrane protein crystallographer&prime;s arsenal. In this video, we describe the bicelle methodology and provide a step-by-step protocol for setting up high-throughput crystallization trials of purified MPs using standard robotics.

Bicelles are lipid/amphiphile mixtures that maintain membrane proteins (MPs) within a lipid bilayer but have unique phase behavior that facilitates high-throughput screening by crystallization robots. This technique has successfully produced a number of high-resolution structures from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic sources. This video describes protocols for generating the lipidic bicelle mixture, incorporating MPs into the bicelle mixture, setting up crystallizations trials (manually as well as robotically) and harvesting crystals from the medium.

Membrane proteins (MPs) play a critical role in many physiological processes such as pumping specific molecules across the otherwise impermeable membrane ...

3D Printing of Preclinical X-ray Computed Tomographic Data Sets

Three-dimensional printing allows for the production of highly detailed objects through a process known as additive manufacturing. Traditional, mold-injection methods to create models or parts have several limitations, the most important of which is a difficulty in making highly complex products in a timely, cost-effective manner.1 However, gradual improvements in three-dimensional printing technology have resulted in both high-end and economy instruments that are now available for the facile production of customized models.2 These printers have the ability to extrude high-resolution objects with enough detail to accurately represent in vivo images generated from a preclinical X-ray CT scanner. With proper data collection, surface rendering, and stereolithographic editing, it is now possible and inexpensive to rapidly produce detailed skeletal and soft tissue structures from X-ray CT data. Even in the early stages of development, the anatomical models produced by three-dimensional printing appeal to both educators and researchers who can utilize the technology to improve visualization proficiency. 3, 4 The real benefits of this method result from the tangible experience a researcher can have with data that cannot be adequately conveyed through a computer screen. The translation of pre-clinical 3D data to a physical object that is an exact copy of the test subject is a powerful tool for visualization and communication, especially for relating imaging research to students, or those in other fields. Here, we provide a detailed method for printing plastic models of bone and organ structures derived from X-ray CT scans utilizing an Albira X-ray CT system in conjunction with PMOD, ImageJ, Meshlab, Netfabb, and ReplicatorG software packages.

Using modern plastic extrusion and printing technologies, it is now possible to quickly and inexpensively produce physical models of X-ray CT data taken in a laboratory. The three -dimensional printing of tomographic data is a powerful visualization, research, and educational tool that may now be accessed by the preclinical imaging community.

Three-dimensional printing allows for the production of highly detailed objects through a process known as additive manufacturing.  Traditional, ...

Improving the Success Rate of Protein Crystallization by Random Microseed Matrix Screening

Random microseed matrix screening (rMMS) is a protein crystallization technique in which seed crystals are added to random screens. By increasing the likelihood that crystals will grow in the metastable zone of a protein's phase diagram, extra crystallization leads are often obtained, the quality of crystals produced may be increased, and a good supply of crystals for data collection and soaking experiments is provided. Here we describe a general method for rMMS that may be applied to either sitting drop or hanging drop vapor diffusion experiments, established either by hand or using liquid handling robotics, in 96-well or 24-well tray format.

Here we describe a general method for random microseed matrix screening. This technique is shown to significantly increase the success rate of protein crystallization screening experiments, reduce the need for optimization, and provide a reliable supply of crystals for data collection and ligand-soaking experiments.

Random microseed matrix screening  (rMMS) is a protein crystallization technique in which seed crystals are added  to random screens. By increasing the ...

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and the inherent instability of many membrane proteins once solubilized in detergents. A protocol is described that combines ligation independent cloning of membrane proteins as GFP fusions with expression in Escherichia coli detected by GFP fluorescence. This enables the construction and expression screening of multiple membrane protein/variants to identify candidates suitable for further investment of time and effort. The GFP reporter is used in a primary screen of expression by visualizing GFP fluorescence following SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Membrane proteins that show both a high expression level with minimum degradation as indicated by the absence of free GFP, are selected for a secondary screen. These constructs are scaled and a total membrane fraction prepared and solubilized in four different detergents. Following ultracentrifugation to remove detergent-insoluble material, lysates are analyzed by fluorescence detection size exclusion chromatography (FSEC). Monitoring the size exclusion profile by GFP fluorescence provides information about the mono-dispersity and integrity of the membrane proteins in different detergents. Protein: detergent combinations that elute with a symmetrical peak with little or no free GFP and minimum aggregation are candidates for subsequent purification. Using the above methodology, the heterologous expression in E. coli of SED (shape, elongation, division, and sporulation) proteins from 47 different species of bacteria was analyzed. These proteins typically have ten transmembrane domains and are essential for cell division. The results show that the production of the SEDs orthologues in E. coli was highly variable with respect to the expression levels and integrity of the GFP fusion proteins. The experiment identified a subset for further investigation.

Green Fluorescent Protein-based Expression Screening of Membrane Proteins in Escherichia coli

A streamlined approach to screening for the expression of recombinant membrane proteins in Escherichia coli based on fusion to green fluorescent protein is presented.

The production of recombinant membrane proteins for structural and functional studies remains technically challenging due to low levels of expression and ...

Efficient Mammalian Cell Expression and Single-step Purification of Extracellular Glycoproteins for Crystallization

Production of secreted mammalian proteins for structural and biophysical studies can be challenging, time intensive, and costly. Here described is a time and cost efficient protocol for secreted protein expression in mammalian cells and one step purification using nickel affinity chromatography. The system is based on large scale transient transfection of mammalian cells in suspension, which greatly decreases the time to produce protein, as it eliminates steps, such as developing expression viruses or generating stable expressing cell lines. This protocol utilizes cheap transfection agents, which can be easily made by simple chemical modification, or moderately priced transfection agents, which increase yield through increased transfection efficiency and decreased cytotoxicity. Careful monitoring and maintaining of media glucose levels increases protein yield. Controlling the maturation of native glycans at the expression step increases the final yield of properly folded and functional mammalian proteins, which are ideal properties to pursue X-ray crystallography. In some cases, single step purification produces protein of sufficient purity for crystallization, which is demonstrated here as an example case.

This is a quick, cost-efficient protocol for the production of secreted, glycosylated mammalian proteins and subsequent single-step purification with sufficient yields of homogenous protein for X-ray crystallography and other biophysical studies.

Production of secreted mammalian proteins for structural and biophysical studies can be challenging, time intensive, and costly. Here described is a time ...