Funding for this project from the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund (52488-DNI1) and the University of North Carolina at Greensboro is gratefully acknowledged. We also thank Dr. Terry Nile (UNCG) for loaning us the appropriate glassware for these experiments. Video consulting and editing by Aaron Glancy is also acknowledged.

1. Synthesis of Phenyl HIAT
<ol>
 <li>Equip a dry 100 ml round-bottom flask with a magnetic stirrer and have the flask under an argon atmosphere. Clamp the flask to a stand and place it into a cryogen bath of acetonitrile and solid carbon dioxide pellets. Note: The cryogen should be approximately -45 &deg;C. </li>
 <li>Add 10 ml of dry dichloromethane to the cold flask and allow the solvent to equilibrate to the temperature of the cryogen. Note: The excess headspace in the flask is important for adding diethyl et...

<ol>
	<li>Hyatt, I. F. D., Meza-Avi&#241;a, M. E., Croatt, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alkynes+&amp;+Azides:+Not+Just+for+Click+Reactions.">Alkynes &amp; Azides: Not Just for Click Reactions.</a> Synlett. 23 (20), 2869-2874 (2012).</li><li>Meza-Avi&#241;a, M. E., Patel, M. K., Lee, C. B., Dietz, T. J., Croatt, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Selective+Formation+of+1,5-Substituted+Sulfonyl+Triazoles+Using+Acetylides+and+Sulfonyl+Azides.">Selective Formation of 1,5-Substituted Sulfonyl Triazoles Using Acetylides and Sulfonyl Azides.</a> Organic Letters. 13 (12), 2984-2987 (2011).</li><li>Hyatt, I. F. D., Croatt, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reactions+of+Hypervalent+Iodonium+Alkynyl+Triflates+with+Azides:+Generation+of+Cyanocarbenes.">Reactions of Hypervalent Iodonium Alkynyl Triflates with Azides: Generation of Cyanocarbenes.</a> Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 51 (30), 7511-7514 (2012).</li><li>Banert, K., Hagedorn, M., Wutke, J., Ecorchard, P., Schaarschmidt, D., Lang, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elusive+ethynyl+azides:+trapping+by+1,3-dipolar+cycloaddition+and+decomposition+to+cyanocarbenes.">Elusive ethynyl azides: trapping by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition and decomposition to cyanocarbenes.</a> Chemical Communications. 46 (23), 4058-4060 (2010).</li><li>Koumbis, A., Kyzas, C., Savva, A., Varvolis, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+New+Alkynyl(phenyl)iodonium+Salts+and+Their+Use+in+the+Synthesis+of+Phenylsulfonyl+Indenes+and+Acetylenes.">Formation of New Alkynyl(phenyl)iodonium Salts and Their Use in the Synthesis of Phenylsulfonyl Indenes and Acetylenes.</a> Molecules. 10 (10), 1340-1350 (2005).</li><li>Banert, K., Arnold, R., Hagedorn, M., Thoss, P., Auer, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=1-Azido-1-Alkynes:+Synthesis+and+Spectroscopic+Characterization+of+Azidoacetylene.">1-Azido-1-Alkynes: Synthesis and Spectroscopic Characterization of Azidoacetylene.</a> Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 51 (30), 7515-7518 (2012).</li><li>Zhdankin, V. V., Stang, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chemistry+of+Polyvalent+Iodine.">Chemistry of Polyvalent Iodine.</a> Chemical Reviews. 108 (12), 5299-5358 (2008).</li><li>Br&#228;se, S., Banert, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Organic Azides - Syntheses and Applications. , (1002).</li><li>Stang, P. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alkynyl-+and+Alkenyl(phenyl)iodonium+Compounds.">Alkynyl- and Alkenyl(phenyl)iodonium Compounds.</a> Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 31 (3), 274-285 (2003).</li><li>Hembre, R. T., Scott, C. P., Norton, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conversion+of+olefins+to+ditriflates+by+&#956;-oxobis[(trifluoromethanesulfonato)(phenyl)iodine.">Conversion of olefins to ditriflates by &#956;-oxobis[(trifluoromethanesulfonato)(phenyl)iodine.</a> Journal of Organic Chemistry. 52 (16), 3650-3654 (1987).</li><li>Stang, P. J., Surber, B. W., Chen, Z., Roberts, K. A., Anderson, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Acetylenic+Esters.+Preparation+and+Mechanism+of+Formation+of+Alkynyl+Tosylates+and+Mesylates+via+Tricoordinate+Iodonium+Species.">Acetylenic Esters. Preparation and Mechanism of Formation of Alkynyl Tosylates and Mesylates via Tricoordinate Iodonium Species.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 109 (1), 228-235 (1987).</li><li>Zhdankin, V. V., Crittell, C. M., Stang, P. J., Zefirov, N. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+general+approach+to+unsymmetrical+tricoordinate+iodinanes:+Single+step+preparation+of+mixed+iodosobenzene+sulfonates+Phl(X)OSO2R,+via+reaction+of+iodosobenzene+with+Me3SiX.">A general approach to unsymmetrical tricoordinate iodinanes: Single step preparation of mixed iodosobenzene sulfonates Phl(X)OSO2R, via reaction of iodosobenzene with Me3SiX.</a> Tetrahedron Letters. 31 (34), 4821-4824 (1990).</li><li>Lee, H., Jung, Y., Yoon, Y., Kim, B. G., Kim, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Angularly+Fused+Triquinanes+from+Linear+Substrates+through+Trimethylenemethane+Diyl+[2+++3]+Cycloaddition+Reaction.">Angularly Fused Triquinanes from Linear Substrates through Trimethylenemethane Diyl [2 + 3] Cycloaddition Reaction.</a> Organic Letters. 12 (11), 2672-2674 (2010).</li><li>Beauchard, A., Phillips, V. A., Lloyd, M. D., Threadgill, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+of+2-(4-carboxybutenyl)-+and+2-(4-carboxybutynyl)-cyclopentene-1-carboxamides.">Synthesis of 2-(4-carboxybutenyl)- and 2-(4-carboxybutynyl)-cyclopentene-1-carboxamides.</a> Tetrahedron. 65 (39), 8176-8184 (2009).</li><li>Kitamura, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+Alternative+Synthesis+of+Alkynyl(phenyl)iodonium+Triflates+Using+(Diacetoxyiodo)benzene+and+Alkynylsilanes.">An Alternative Synthesis of Alkynyl(phenyl)iodonium Triflates Using (Diacetoxyiodo)benzene and Alkynylsilanes.</a> Synthesis. 10, 1416 (1998).</li><li>Bouma, M. J., Olofsson, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=General+One-Pot+Synthesis+of+Alkynyliodonium+Salts+and+Alkynyl+Benziodoxolones+from+Aryl+Iodides.">General One-Pot Synthesis of Alkynyliodonium Salts and Alkynyl Benziodoxolones from Aryl Iodides.</a> Chemistry A European Journal. 18, 14242 (2012).</li><li>Williamson, B. L., Stang, P. J., Preparation Arif, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+Structure,+and+Diels-Alder+Cycloaddition+Chemistry+of+&#946;-Functionalized+Alkynyl(phenyl)iodonium+Salts.">Molecular Structure, and Diels-Alder Cycloaddition Chemistry of &#946;-Functionalized Alkynyl(phenyl)iodonium Salts.</a> Journal of the American Chemical Society. 115 (7), 2590-2597 (1993).</li></ol>

Hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates, or HIATs, are formed and can be reacted with azide sources to form cyanocarbenes. It is very important that all necessary precautions are taken since many of the reagents and intermediates shown in this video are potentially explosive and highly toxic. Although the high level of reactivity can be dangerous if ill-prepared, it is shown in this video that the inherent reactivity of the compounds can be harnessed by capturing the cyanocarbenes in various reactions such as O-H insert...

The continued evolution of organic chemistry hinges on the design and development of new reactions. In particular, the discovery of new reactions that enable previously unimaginable synthetic routes bear ultimate significance. Towards this end, our group desired to convert two carbons of an alkyne and a nitrogen of an azide into a cyanocarbene.1 This previously unknown transformation would allow for a significant increase in molecular complexity since the reactive cyanocarbene would rapidly react further. The initial effort was to use a nucleophilic alkyne and electrophilic azide, but triazoles were efficiently formed in this case as opposed to cyanocarbenes.2 Using an umpolung approach, the second method uses an electrophilic alkyne and nucleophilic azide and products resulting from cyanocarbene reactions are fortunately formed in this case.3 There are many sources of nucleophilic azide, however, electrophilic alkynes are much less common. The group of Klaus Banert previously reported the proof-of-concept for this reaction using an alkynyl-chloride,4 but our group and the Banert group independently and contemporaneously determined that hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates (HIATs) are much better electrophiles for the reasons of stability and reactivity.3,6 We herein describe the synthesis, isolation, and reaction of these HIATs with azides to form and react in situ as cyanocarbenes.
Several safety precautions should be considered before proceeding with these experiments. Some hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates are unstable and will decompose, sometime violently, when exposed to air and light.7 To form the cyanocarbene intermediate, the procedure requires the use of azide sources. Azides are explosive and highly toxic.8 Proper personal protection equipment should be worn when handling these materials, especially organotin, and all manipulation of the reagents should take place in properly ventilated hoods. The cyanocarbene is a powerful and unstable reactive intermediate. Take care to perform experiments initially on small scales so that nitrogen gas evolution is controllable and never perform these reactions in closed systems. If scale-up of the reaction is desired, we strongly suggest the use of a safety shield.
The synthesis of many HIATs have been previously published including the use of Zefirov's reagent9,10, and Koser's reagent,9,11 however, this video will be using the cyanophenyliodonium triflate reagent9,12 (Figure 1). Cyanophenyliodonium triflate was synthesized based on a previously reported literature preparation displayed.13 The reagent reacts with trialkyl-tin modified alkynes14 to form the desired product. After the HIAT is synthesized and isolated it can be reacted with azide to form a reactive cyanocarbene intermediate (Figure 2). There are several other methods that can be used to synthesize the iodonium alkynes such as using alkynyl silanes15 and alkynyl boronic esters16 but the method in the video was chosen because, in our experience, it had better efficiency and yield.
Our proposed mechanism3,5 (Figure 3) for this reaction involves the addition of an azide source to the &beta;-carbon of the alkyne, thereby forming an iodo-ylide which decomposes to iodobenzene and a vinylidene-carbene. The vinylidene-carbene can then undergo a 1,2-rearrangement via migration of either the R-group or azide to afford an alkynyl-azide. The alkynyl-azide then extrudes dinitrogen to form a cyanocarbene which can react with a substrate. It should be noted that there can be formation of a hypervalent iodonium alkenyl triflate species, depending on conditions. The by-product is favored at lower temperatures in protic solvents where the protonation of the iodo-ylide is faster than the rearrangement to the alkynyl azide. Another possible product that occurs during O-H insertion reactions is a vinyl ether where the vinylidene-carbene is trapped before the rearrangement to the alkynyl-azide can occur. The propensity to form this vinyl ether is determined by the R group. 
One of the main advantages of this reaction is that after the carbene reacts, the resultant nitrile group is a convenient handle for further functionalization. Many synthons can be envisioned with this method and different products can be formed with the same substrates. Controlling the product mixture with temperature, concentration, and the R group of the alkyne is necessary.3 With proper insight upon how cyanocarbenes behave, the method shows a viable means to quickly adding chemical complexity to form a targeted molecule. Examples of how the cyanocarbene reacts include O-H insertion where the nucleophilic oxygen atom of the alcohol attacks the carbene and then proton transfer occurs, dimethyl sulfoxide complexation, where the carbene combines with the sulfur atom, and cyclopropanation where the carbene reacts with an alkene.

<table border="1">
<tbody>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Reagent</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Phenyl acetylene</td>
 <td>Acros</td>
 <td>AC152461000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tri-n-butyltin chloride</td>
 <td>Acros</td>
 <td>139351000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Lithium bis(trimethysilyl)amide</td>
 <td>Acros</td>
 <td>347701000</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Iodobenzene diacetate</td>
 <td>Acros</td>
 <td>176560250</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Trimethylsilyl cyanide</td>
 <td>Aldrich</td>
 <td>212849</td>
 <td>Extremely toxic. Handle this chemical only in an adequately ventilated hood with extreme caution.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Trimethylsilyl triflate</td>
 <td>Alfa Aesar</td>
 <td>A12535</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Sodium Azide</td>
 <td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
 <td>S8032</td>
 <td>Shock sensitive.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tetrabutylammonium azide</td>
 <td>Aldrich</td>
 <td>651664</td>
 <td>If possible, store and handle in a glovebox due to this compound's hygroscopic nature.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>1-Heptyne</td>
 <td>Acros</td>
 <td>223460250</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Styrene</td>
 <td>Aldrich</td>
 <td>240869</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>[header]</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td></td>
 <td>Material</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Rotary Evaporator (Hei-VAP)</td>
 <td>Heidolph</td>
 <td>517-61000-01-0</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Glovebox</td>
 <td>MBRAUN</td>
 <td>UL-018</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

synthesis of hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates for the application of generating cyanocarbenes

The procedures described in this article involve the synthesis and isolation of hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates (HIATs) and their subsequent reactions with azides to form cyanocarbene intermediates. The synthesis of hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates can be facile, but difficulties stem from their isolation and reactivity. In particular, the necessity to use filtration under inert atmosphere at -45 &deg;C for some HIATs requires special care and equipment. Once isolated, the compounds can be stored and used in reactions with azides to form cyanocarbene intermediates. 
The evidence for cyanocarbene generation is shown by visible extrusion of dinitrogen as well as the characterization of products that occur from O-H insertion, sulfoxide complexation, and cyclopropanation. A side reaction of the cyanocarbene formation is the generation of a vinylidene-carbene and the conditions to control this process are discussed. There is also potential to form a hypervalent iodonium alkenyl triflate and the means of isolation and control of its generation are provided. The O-H insertion reaction involves using a HIAT, sodium azide or tetrabutylammonium azide, and methanol as solvent/substrate. The sulfoxide complexation reaction uses a HIAT, sodium azide or tetrabutylammonium azide, and dimethyl sulfoxide as solvent. The cyclopropanations can be performed with or without the use of solvent. The azide source must be tetrabutylammonium azide and the substrate shown is styrene.

Figure 1 illustrates the synthesis of a HIAT by using cyanophenyliodonium alkynyl triflate. The HIAT can then be used to generate cyanocarbenes which will undergo O-H insertion of cyclopropanation. The O-H insertion reaction with Phenyl HIAT produces 2-methoxy-2-phenylacetonitrile in up to a 75% yield. The cyclopropanation reaction with Phenyl HIAT produces 1,2-diphenylcyclopropanecarbonitrile in up to a 61% yield. Although not demonstrated in the video, dimethyl sulfoxide complexation can occur with the...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis of Hypervalent Iodonium Alkynyl Triflates for the Application of Generating Cyanocarbenes at JoVE.com

Synthesis of Hypervalent Iodonium Alkynyl Triflates for the Application of Generating Cyanocarbenes

Herein is described the synthesis, isolation, and reactions of hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates (HIATs) with azides to generate cyanocarbenes. The procedures will involve air-sensitive and cryogen techniques, including cold filtration under an inert atmosphere. Handling and safety of the synthesized compounds will also be discussed.

The procedures described in this article involve the synthesis and isolation of hypervalent iodonium alkynyl triflates (HIATs) and their subsequent ...

synthesis-hypervalent-iodonium-alkynyl-triflates-for-application

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Chemistry

Synthesis, Cellular Delivery and In vivo Application of Dendrimer-based pH Sensors

The development of fluorescent indicators represented a revolution for life sciences. Genetically encoded and synthetic fluorophores with sensing abilities allowed the visualization of biologically relevant species with high spatial and temporal resolution. Synthetic dyes are of particular interest thanks to their high tunability and the wide range of measureable analytes. However, these molecules suffer several limitations related to small molecule behavior (poor solubility, difficulties in targeting, often no ratiometric imaging allowed). In this work we introduce the development of dendrimer-based sensors and present a procedure for pH measurement in vitro, in living cells and in vivo. We choose dendrimers as ideal platform for our sensors for their many desirable properties (monodispersity, tunable properties, multivalency) that made them a widely used scaffold for several biomedical devices. The conjugation of fluorescent pH indicators to the dendrimer scaffold led to an enhancement of their sensing performances. In particular dendrimers exhibit reduced cell leakage, improved intracellular targeting and allow ratiometric measurements. These novel sensors were successfully employed to measure pH in living HeLa cells and in vivo in mouse brain.

Synthesis, Cellular Delivery and In vivo Application of Dendrimer-based pH Sensors

Fluorescence sensors are powerful tools in life science. Here we describe a methodology to synthesize and use dendrimer-based fluorescent sensors to measure pH in living cells and in vivo. The dendritic scaffold enhances the properties of conjugated fluorescent dyes leading to improved sensing properties.

The development of  fluorescent indicators represented a revolution for life sciences. Genetically  encoded and synthetic fluorophores with sensing ...

Protocol for the Synthesis of Ortho-trifluoromethoxylated Aniline Derivatives

Molecules bearing trifluoromethoxy (OCF3) group often show desired pharmacological and biological properties. However, facile synthesis of trifluoromethoxylated aromatic compounds remains a formidable challenge in organic synthesis. Conventional approaches often suffer from poor substrate scope, or require use of highly toxic, difficult-to-handle, and/or thermally labile reagents. Herein, we report a user-friendly protocol for the synthesis of methyl 4-acetamido-3-(trifluoromethoxy)benzoate using 1-trifluoromethyl-1,2-benziodoxol-3(1H)-one (Togni reagent II). Treating methyl 4-(N-hydroxyacetamido)benzoate (1a) with Togni reagent II in the presence of a catalytic amount of cesium carbonate (Cs2CO3) in chloroform at RT afforded methyl 4-(N-(trifluoromethoxy)acetamido)benzoate (2a). This intermediate was then converted to the final product methyl 4-acetamido-3-(trifluoromethoxy)benzoate (3a) in nitromethane at 120 &#176;C. This procedure is general and can be applied to the synthesis of a broad spectrum of ortho-trifluoromethoxylated aniline derivatives, which could serve as useful synthetic building blocks for the discovery and development of new pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and functional materials.

Protocol for the Synthesis of Ortho-trifluoromethoxylated Aniline Derivatives

An operationally simple procedure for the synthesis of ortho-trifluoromethoxylated aniline derivatives via a two-step sequence of O-trifluoromethylation of N-aryl-N-hydroxyacetamide followed by thermally induced intramolecular OCF3-migration is reported.

Molecules bearing trifluoromethoxy (OCF3) group often show desired pharmacological and biological properties. However, facile synthesis of ...

HKUST-1 as a Heterogeneous Catalyst for the Synthesis of Vanillin

Vanillin (4-hydoxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is the main component of the extract of vanilla bean. The natural vanilla scent is a mixture of approximately 200 different odorant compounds in addition to vanillin. The natural extraction of vanillin (from the orchid Vanilla planifolia, Vanilla tahitiensis and Vanilla pompon) represents only 1% of the worldwide production and since this process is expensive and very long, the rest of the production of vanillin is synthesized. Many biotechnological approaches can be used for the synthesis of vanillin from lignin, phenolic stilbenes, isoeugenol, eugenol, guaicol, etc., with the disadvantage of harming the environment since these processes use strong oxidizing agents and toxic solvents. Thus, eco-friendly alternatives on the production of vanillin are very desirable and thus, under current investigation. Porous coordination polymers (PCPs) are a new class of highly crystalline materials that recently have been used for catalysis. HKUST-1 (Cu3(BTC)2(H2O)3, BTC = 1,3,5-benzene-tricarboxylate) is a very well known PCP which has been extensively studied as a heterogeneous catalyst. Here, we report a synthetic strategy for the production of vanillin by the oxidation of trans-ferulic acid using HKUST-1 as a catalyst.

The conversion of trans-ferulic acid to vanillin was achieved by heterogeneous catalysis. HKUST-1 was employed in this synthesis and the essential step in the catalytic process was the generation of unsaturated metal sites. Thus, when the catalyst was activated under vacuum, full vanillin conversion (yield of 95%) was obtained.

Vanillin (4-hydoxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is the main component of the extract of vanilla bean. The natural vanilla scent is a mixture of approximately ...

Synthesis of Protein Bioconjugates via Cysteine-maleimide Chemistry

The chemical linking or bioconjugation of proteins to fluorescent dyes, drugs, polymers and other proteins has a broad range of applications, such as the development of antibody drug conjugates (ADCs) and nanomedicine, fluorescent microscopy and systems chemistry. For many of these applications, specificity of the bioconjugation method used is of prime concern. The Michael addition of maleimides with cysteine(s) on the target proteins is highly selective and proceeds rapidly under mild conditions, making it one of the most popular methods for protein bioconjugation.
We demonstrate here the modification of the only surface-accessible cysteine residue on yeast cytochrome c with a ruthenium(II) bisterpyridine maleimide. The protein bioconjugation is verified by gel electrophoresis and purified by aqueous-based fast protein liquid chromatography in 27% yield of isolated protein material. Structural characterization with MALDI-TOF MS and UV-Vis is then used to verify that the bioconjugation is successful. The protocol shown here is easily applicable to other cysteine - maleimide coupling of proteins to other proteins, dyes, drugs or polymers.

Synthesis of Protein Bioconjugates via Cysteine-maleimide Chemistry

This protocol details the important steps required for the bioconjugation of a cysteine containing protein to a maleimide, including reagent purification, reaction conditions, bioconjugate purification and bioconjugate characterization.

The chemical linking or bioconjugation of proteins to fluorescent dyes, drugs, polymers and other proteins has a broad range of applications, such as the ...

Facile Synthesis of Worm-like Micelles by Visible Light Mediated Dispersion Polymerization Using Photoredox Catalyst

Presented herein is a protocol for the facile synthesis of worm-like micelles by visible light mediated dispersion polymerization. This approach begins with the synthesis of a hydrophilic poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) (POEGMA) homopolymer using reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Under mild visible light irradiation (&#955; = 460 nm, 0.7 mW/cm2), this macro-chain transfer agent (macro-CTA) in the presence of a ruthenium based photoredox catalyst, Ru(bpy)3Cl2 can be chain extended with a second monomer to form a well-defined block copolymer in a process known as Photoinduced Electron Transfer RAFT (PET-RAFT). When PET-RAFT is used to chain extend POEGMA with benzyl methacrylate (BzMA) in ethanol (EtOH), polymeric nanoparticles with different morphologies are formed in situ according to a polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) mechanism. Self-assembly into nanoparticles presenting POEGMA chains at the corona and poly(benzyl methacrylate) (PBzMA) chains in the core occurs in situ due to the growing insolubility of the PBzMA block in ethanol. Interestingly, the formation of highly pure worm-like micelles can be readily monitored by observing the onset of a highly viscous gel in situ due to nanoparticle entanglements occurring during the polymerization. This process thereby allows for a more reproducible synthesis of worm-like micelles simply by monitoring the solution viscosity during the course of the polymerization. In addition, the light stimulus can be intermittently applied in an ON/OFF manner demonstrating temporal control over the nanoparticle morphology.

This article describes a process for producing polymeric self-assembled nanoparticles using visible light mediated dispersion polymerization. Using low energy visible light to control the polymerization allows for the reproducible formation of self-assembled worm-like micelles at high solids content.

Presented herein is a protocol for the facile synthesis of worm-like micelles by visible light mediated dispersion polymerization. This approach begins ...

Synthesis and Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Oligo-peptoids

Peptoids are sequence-controlled peptide-mimicking oligomers consisting of N-alkylated glycine units. Among many potential applications, peptoids have been thought of as a type of molecular information storage. Mass spectrometry analysis has been considered the method of choice for sequencing peptoids. Peptoids can be synthesized via solid phase chemistry using a repeating two-step reaction cycle. Here we present a method to manually synthesize oligo-peptoids and to analyze the sequence of the peptoids using tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) techniques. The sample peptoid is a nonamer consisting of alternating N-(2-methyloxyethyl)glycine (Nme) and N-(2-phenylethyl)glycine (Npe), as well as an N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (Nae) at the N-terminus. The sequence formula of the peptoid is Ac-Nae-(Npe-Nme)4-NH2, where Ac is the acetyl group. The synthesis takes place in a commercially available solid-phase reaction vessel. The rink amide resin is used as the solid support to yield the peptoid with an amide group at the C-terminus. The resulting peptoid product is subjected to sequence analysis using a triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer coupled to an electrospray ionization source. The MS/MS measurement produces a spectrum of fragment ions resulting from the dissociation of charged peptoid. The fragment ions are sorted out based on the values of their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). The m/z values of the fragment ions are compared against the nominal masses of theoretically predicted fragment ions, according to the scheme of peptoid fragmentation. The analysis generates a fragmentation pattern of the charged peptoid. The fragmentation pattern is correlated to the monomer sequence of the neutral peptoid. In this regard, MS analysis reads out the sequence information of the peptoids.

A protocol is described for the manual synthesis of oligo-peptoids followed by sequence analysis by mass spectrometry.

Peptoids are sequence-controlled peptide-mimicking oligomers consisting of N-alkylated glycine units. Among many potential applications, peptoids have ...

Synthesis of Substrate-Bound Au Nanowires Via an Active Surface Growth Mechanism

Advancing synthetic capabilities is important for the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The synthesis of nanowires has always been a challenge, as it requires asymmetric growth of symmetric crystals. Here, we report a distinctive synthesis of substrate-bound Au nanowires. This template-free synthesis employs thiolated ligands and substrate adsorption to achieve the continuous asymmetric deposition of Au in solution at ambient conditions. The thiolated ligand prevented the Au deposition on the exposed surface of the seeds, so the Au deposition only occurs at the interface between the Au seeds and the substrate. The side of the newly deposited Au nanowires is immediately covered with the thiolated ligand, while the bottom facing the substrate remains ligand-free and active for the next round of Au deposition. We further demonstrate that this Au nanowire growth can be induced on various substrates, and different thiolated ligands can be used to regulate the surface chemistry of the nanowires. The diameter of the nanowires can also be controlled with mixed ligands, in which another &#34;bad&#34; ligand could turn on the lateral growth. With the understanding of the mechanism, Au nanowire-based nanostructures can be designed and synthesized.

We report a solution-based method to synthesize substrate-bound Au nanowires. By tuning the molecular ligands used during the synthesis, the Au nanowires can be grown from various substrates with different surface properties. Au nanowire-based nanostructures can also be synthesized by adjusting the reaction parameters.

Advancing synthetic capabilities is important for the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The synthesis of nanowires has always been a ...

Synthesis of Soft Polysiloxane-urea Elastomers for Intraocular Lens Application

This study discusses a synthesis route for soft polysiloxane-based urea (PSU) elastomers for their applications as accommodating intraocular lenses (a-IOLs). Aminopropyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS) were previously prepared via the ring-chain equilibration of the cyclic siloxane octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) and 1,3-bis(3-aminopropyl)-tetramethyldisiloxane (APTMDS). Phenyl groups were introduced into the siloxane backbone via the copolymerization of D4 and 2,4,6,8-tetramethyl-2,4,6,8-tetraphenyl-cyclotetrasiloxane (D4Me,Ph). These polydimethyl-methyl-phenyl-siloxane-block copolymers were synthesized for increasing the refractive indices of polysiloxanes. For applications as an a-IOL, the refractive index of the polysiloxanes must be equivalent to that of a young human eye lens. The polysiloxane molecular weight is controlled by the ratio of the cyclic siloxane to the endblocker APTMDS. The transparency of the PSU elastomers is examined by the transmittance measurement of films between 200 and 750 nm, using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer. Transmittance values at 750 nm (upper end of the visible spectrum) are plotted against the PDMS molecular weight, and &#62; 90% of the transmittance is observed until a molecular weight of 18,000 g&#183;mol&#8722;1. Mechanical properties of the PSU elastomers are investigated using stress-strain tests on die-cut dog-bone-shaped specimens. For evaluating mechanical stability, mechanical hysteresis is measured by repeatedly stretching (10x) the specimens to 5% and 100% elongation. Hysteresis considerably decreases with the increase in the PDMS molecular weight. In vitro cytotoxicity of some selected PSU elastomers is evaluated using an MTS cell viability assay. The methods described herein permit the synthesis of a soft, transparent, and noncytotoxic PSU elastomer with a refractive index approximately equal to that of a young human eye lens.

This study describes synthetic routes for aminopropyl-terminated polydimethylsiloxanes and polydimethyl-methyl-phenyl-siloxane-block copolymers and for soft polysiloxane-based urea (PSU) elastomers. It presents the application of PSUs as accommodating an intraocular lens. An evaluation method for in vitro cytotoxicity is also described.

This study discusses a synthesis route for soft polysiloxane-based urea (PSU) elastomers for their applications as accommodating intraocular lenses ...

Synthesis and Bioconjugation of Thiol-Reactive Reagents for the Creation of Site-Selectively Modified Immunoconjugates

Maleimide-bearing bifunctional probes have been employed for decades for the site-selective modification of thiols in biomolecules, especially antibodies. Yet maleimide-based conjugates display limited stability in vivo because the succinimidyl thioether linkage can undergo a retro-Michael reaction. This, of course, can lead to the release of the radioactive payload or its exchange with thiol-bearing biomolecules in circulation. Both of these processes can produce elevated activity concentrations in healthy organs as well as decreased activity concentrations in target tissues, resulting in reduced imaging contrast and lower therapeutic ratios. In 2018, we reported the creation of a modular, stable, and easily accessible phenyloxadiazolyl methyl sulfone reagent &#8212; dubbed &#8216;PODS&#8217; &#8212; as a platform for thiol-based bioconjugations. We have clearly demonstrated that PODS-based site-selective bioconjugations reproducibly and robustly create homogenous, well-defined, highly immunoreactive, and highly stable radioimmunoconjugates. Furthermore, preclinical experiments in murine models of colorectal cancer have shown that these site-selectively labeled radioimmunoconjugates exhibit far superior in vivo performance compared to radiolabeled antibodies synthesized via maleimide-based conjugations. In this protocol, we will describe the four-step synthesis of PODS, the creation of a bifunctional PODS-bearing variant of the ubiquitous chelator DOTA (PODS-DOTA), and the conjugation of PODS-DOTA to the HER2-targeting antibody trastuzumab.

In this protocol, we will describe the synthesis of PODS, a phenyoxadiazolyl methyl sulfone-based reagent for the site-selective attachment of cargos to the thiols of biomolecules, particularly antibodies. In addition, we will describe the synthesis and characterization of a PODS-bearing bifunctional chelator and its conjugation to a model antibody.

Maleimide-bearing bifunctional probes have been employed for decades for the site-selective modification of thiols in biomolecules, especially antibodies. ...

Efficient Synthesis of All-Carbon Quaternary Centers via the Conjugate Addition of Functionalized Monoorganozinc Bromides

The conjugate addition of organometallic reagents to &#945;,&#946;-unsaturated carbonyls represents an important method to generate C&#8211;C bonds in the preparation of all-carbon quaternary centers. Though conjugate additions of organometallic reagents are typically performed utilizing highly reactive organolithium or Grignard reagents, organozinc reagents have garnered attention for their enhanced chemoselectivity and mild reactivity. Despite numerous recent advances with more reactive diorganozinc and mixed diorganozinc reagents, the generation of all-carbon quaternary centers via the conjugate addition of functionalized monoorganozinc reagents remains a challenge. This protocol details a convenient and mild &#8220;one-pot&#8221; preparation and copper mediated conjugate addition of functionalized monoorganozinc bromides to cyclic &#945;,&#946;-unsaturated carbonyls to afford a broad scope of all-carbon quaternary centers in generally excellent yield and diastereoselectivity. Key to the development of this technology is the utilization of DMA as a reaction solvent with TMSCl as a Lewis acid. Notable advantages to this methodology include the operational simplicity of the organozinc reagent preparation afforded by the utilization of DMA as a solvent, as well as an efficient conjugate addition mediated by various Cu(I) and Cu(II) salts. Moreover, an intermediate silyl enol ether can be isolated utilizing a modified workup procedure. The substrate scope is limited to cyclic unsaturated ketones, and the conjugate addition is impeded by stabilized (e.g., allyl, enolate, homoenolate) and sterically encumbered (e.g., neopentyl, o-aryl) monoorganozinc reagents. Conjugate additions to five- and seven-membered rings were effective, albeit in lower yields compared with six-membered ring substrates.

A simple and practical protocol for the efficient conjugate addition of functionalized monoorganozinc bromides to cyclic &#945;,&#946;-unsaturated carbonyls to furnish all-carbon quaternary centers was developed.

The conjugate addition of organometallic reagents to &#945;,&#946;-unsaturated carbonyls represents an important method to generate C&#8211;C bonds in the ...