Research supported by FWO postdoctoral fellowship to AVdJ. The authors would like to thank Leen Van Aerschot and Ilse Bloemen for their technical support.

All protocols have been reviewed and approved by the animal experiments committee of the University of Leuven, Belgium, and were carried out in accordance with the European Community Council Directive (86/609/EEC).
1. Equipment, Apparatus, and Room Set Up:
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a Crawley&#39;s three-chamber box23 which consists of three chambers (19 x 45 cm, height 30 cm) with transparent dividing walls allowing free access to each chamber.</li>
	<li>Utilize two food cups made from transparent plastic (diameter of 3.8 cm, height of 3.2 cm) and place them inside fitting food cup holders consisting of a metal ramp (10x10 cm, height 7 cm), with a center hole fitting the food cups.</li>
	<li>Use a wire cup-like container large enough to hold a mouse (diameter of 12 cm, height 10 cm). Place it in the middle chamber for the demonstrator in phase 6.</li>
	<li>Clean the apparatus after each trial with 70% ethanol to prevent olfactory traces between mice and let it dry out. 
	NOTE: Behavioral testing is preferably done between 9:00 am and 6:00 pm. General room lighting in the apparatus and experimental room is 650 lux. Use a video-tracking software program to record mouse activity.</li>
</ol>
2. Flavored Food Preparation:
<ol>
	<li>Take regular food chow pellets and add 2% of celery or paprika. Mix the food well and put it in food containers for further use.</li>
</ol>
3. Motivational Phase (day 1-2):
<ol>
	<li>Put all rodents on a 23-h, food-deprivation schedule, receiving their regular chow for 1 h/day for two consecutive days in a room with a 12 h light/dark cycle with ad libitum access to water. Turn the light on 8 am. 
	NOTE: In the original protocol, during the priming phase, each demonstrator was provided, for 1 h, with food containing a novel flavor. We gave the demonstrators the flavored-food already during their 1 h feeding time, so in total 2 h instead of the original 1 h is used.</li>
	<li>For the demonstrator mouse, use a mouse of the same background, age, gender and weight, without any prior contact (not littermates) with the subject / observer mouse. 
	NOTE: The same demonstrator mice may be used between social transmission trials.</li>
</ol>
4. Buried Cookie Test (day 3):
<ol>
	<li>Before starting the STFP procedure, evaluate the olfactory function of the subjects using the buried cookie test20. Bury a chocolate chip cookie approximately 1 cm beneath the surface in a random corner of a clean individual housing cage.</li>
	<li>Next, place the observer mouse into the cage and record the latency to find the cookie with a 15 min cut-off. Do not let the mouse eat the cookie. 
	NOTE: This simple test can rule out olfaction detection deficits and prevent time-consuming unnecessary STFP testing.</li>
</ol>
5. Habituation Phase (day 3):
<ol>
	<li>Separate the right and left compartments by lowering the walls.</li>
	<li>Put two food containers, filled with food pellets (regular food chow) in each corner of the three-chamber-apparatus.</li>
	<li>Gently place the observer mouse in the center chamber.</li>
	<li>Let the subject mouse habituate to the apparatus for 10 min.</li>
	<li>After 10 min, open the sliding doors and let the subject mouse freely explore the whole apparatus for 10 min. 
	NOTE: Mice should remain on a food-deprived schedule during this phase.</li>
</ol>
6. Social Transmission Phase (day 4):
<ol>
	<li>Separate the right and left compartments by lowering the walls.</li>
	<li>Put a demonstrator mouse inside a wire containment cup, and place it in the center chamber. On the lid of the wire cup facing the mounted camera, write the abbreviation of the food which the demonstrator has been cued with.</li>
	<li>Gently put the subject mouse in the center chamber and let it freely explore the demonstrator for 30 min, while recording the duration (s) and number of contacts between the subject mouse and the containment cup housing the demonstrator mouse (within an area of 5 cm around the cup).</li>
</ol>
7. Food Preference Test Phase:
<ol>
	<li>Prepare two food pots for each mouse. Weigh each mouse and label it with observer ID and flavor.</li>
	<li>Remove the wall dividers and place the two food containers, filled with either chow containing the cued or a novel (uncued) food, in each corner of the three-chamber- apparatus (Figure 2).</li>
	<li>Gently place the subject mouse in the middle chamber and let it freely explore the whole arena for 120 min, while recording the duration (s) and number of contacts between the subject mouse and both the food cups (within an area of 5 cm around the cups).</li>
	<li>Measure the food preference by weighing the remaining food (g).</li>
	<li>If spillage occurs, put all food back into the food cup and weigh it together with the remaining food in the food cup. Spillage inside the middle chamber should be disregarded.</li>
</ol>
8. Statistical Analysis:
<ol>
	<li>Use a video-tracking program to evaluate the mouse behavior including the number of approaches, duration of approaches between subject and demonstrator mouse during phase 6 and the time that the observer mouse spent with both food cups during phase 7.</li>
	<li>Calculate the percentage of time spent within the proximity of the cued and uncued food, and the percentage of the eaten cued and uncued food.</li>
	<li>Analyze the data by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).</li>
</ol>

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M., Hummel, T., Kratzsch, T., L&#246;tsch, J., Skarke, C., Fr&#246;lich, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Olfactory+function+in+mild+cognitive+impairment+and+Alzheimer's+disease:+an+investigation+using+psychophysical+and+electrophysiological+techniques.">Olfactory function in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: an investigation using psychophysical and electrophysiological techniques.</a> Am J Psychiat. 160 (11), 1995-2002 (2003).</li><li>Bahar-Fuchs, A., Moss, S., Rowe, C., Savage, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Awareness+of+olfactory+deficits+in+healthy+aging,+amnestic+mild+cognitive+impairment+and+Alzheimer's+disease.">Awareness of olfactory deficits in healthy aging, amnestic mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease.</a> Int Psychogeriatr. 23 (7), 1097-1106 (2011).</li><li>Serby, M., Larson, P., Kalkstein, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+nature+and+course+of+olfactory+deficits+in+Alzheimer's+disease.">The nature and course of olfactory deficits in Alzheimer's disease.</a> Am J Psychiat. 148 (3), 357-360 (1991).</li><li>Hidalgo, J., Chopard, G., Galmiche, J., Jacquot, L., Brand, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Just+noticeable+difference+in+olfaction:+discriminative+tool+between+healthy+elderly+andpatients+with+cognitive+disorders+associated+with+dementia.">Just noticeable difference in olfaction: discriminative tool between healthy elderly andpatients with cognitive disorders associated with dementia.</a> Rhinology. 49 (5), 513-518 (2011).</li><li>S&#225;nchez-Andrade, G., James, B. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

An animal behavioral repertoire can be broadly tracked back to four basic reasons, locating food and water, avoiding predators, socially interacting, and reproducing. Implementation of a behavioral pattern produced by one individual of a social group that directly promotes adoption and exhibition by another is coined social transmission24. This kind of behavior can profoundly impact a species&#39; ecology because behavior initiated by (some) individual(s) may quickly extend out to others in the so...

Olfactory recognition deficits are suggested to serve as clinical marker to differentiate Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) subjects from normal aging groups1,2,3,4. A range of neuropsychiatric disorders are characterized by disturbances in olfactory recognition and memory, including AD and Parkinson&#39;s5,6. Several behavioral tests and protocols have been established to assess olfactory recognition and discrimination in animal models7. As such, translational research using appropriate and validated animal models and tests for olfactory memory may advance better diagnosis and treatment for neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, the social transmission of food preference (STFP) test that was originally invented in the early 80&#39;s8 was adapted. In this task, animals are evaluated on their innate ability to learn about food safety from their conspecifics. Underlying select-reject decision, processes involve assessment of the sensory characteristics of the food and an animal must be able to review and ingrate different features (i.e., taste and odor).
The STFP test consists of a rather simple phenomenon: after interaction of the naive &#39;observer&#39; rodent with a &#39;demonstrator&#39; that previously consumed a food, the observer normally demonstrates a greater preference for this food8,9,10. Analyzing necessary conditions resulting in this preference, showed that direct subject &#8211; demonstrator exposure (eaten or dusted with a food) is enough to boost the observer&#39;s preference. However, purely smelling nor eating a food are not sufficient to induce this type of preference11,12.
The STFP protocol consists of four steps over five days. The first step consists of increasing the motivation of the animals to make them eat a novel food. To do so, all rodents are put on a 23-h, food-deprivation schedule, receiving regular chow for 1 h/day for two consecutive days. In the second step, the priming phase, each demonstrator is provided for 1 h with food containing a novel flavor (chow mixed with either cocoa or cinnamon in the original experiments). In the third step, the social interaction phase, each demonstrator is placed into the cage of a subject observer rodent for 30 min. In the fourth step, 24 h after the social interaction, each subject is offered the choice of both flavored diets. The observer&#39;s intake of both foods and preference percentages of both diets eaten by the subject are assessed.
Selective neurotoxic lesions of hippocampus-subiculum are shown to impair performance on this task13. Also, mutations affecting hippocampal function in mice have been reported to prevent food preferences14,15,16,17. Importantly, STFP performance does not exclusively rely on proper hippocampal functioning. It was reported in several pharmacological, genetic manipulations, and lesion studies that other brain structures beside hippocampus may play a role in mediating different aspects of socially-induced diet choice learning and memory. For instance, cholinergic neurons of the medial septum/vertical limb of the diagonal band or nucleus basalis magnocellularis/substantia innominata are suggested to possess different roles in acquiring and retrieving non-spatial social memory of olfactory cues18. Furthermore, orbitofrontal cortex has been implicated in odor-guided learning, and cholinergic depletion of the entire neocortex resulted in STFP deficits, indicating that these brain regions are essential for this type of associative learning19.
Possible confounding factors were avoided as much as possible, such as spreading of the odors or dragging of the food outside the cups. An additional habituation step to the apparatus and a supplementary test before the actual STFP task were added, to assess if the rodents can actually smell and are willing to eat novel foods, the buried cookie test20. Also, by including automated video-tracking, the time spent exploring both the demonstrator during the social interaction as well as the food during the test phase could also be measured. The exploration of the path for each subject is recorded using a camera connected to a video tracking-software equipped computer. As such, different aspects of exploration performance, such as time in each zone, and number of zone visits can be calculated. This gives more detailed information about the animals&#39; activity during the test phase, besides the amount of consumed food as in the original STFP protocol.
In previous experiments with an AD mouse model, the THY-Tau22 model, it was found that impairment in this STFP memory from the age of 9-10 months could be picked up, and these co-occurred with deficits in hippocampal synaptic plasticity and tau pathology in the hippocampus16. Since tau pathology occurs late in disease progression, according to the amyloid cascade hypothesis after the disposition of amyloidal plaques21, it was hypothesized that STFP deficits could be detected at an earlier age in amyloid transgenic mice. Therefore, the STFP test was applied in 3 months old APP/PS1 mice22, the most common used model of AD. This type of socially-induced food choice was indeed found to be impaired in the APP/PS1 mice. It is important that these mice, at least at this age, were devoid of general olfactory, locomotor, or social exploration impairments. To conclude, olfactory recognition dysfunction could be an important early screening method for AD in humans and mice alike. This reliable, cheap and easy screening for early AD could be useful for therapeutic research. If we could screen for early AD more effectively, we could interfere earlier on in the disease process.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3-chamber apparatus</td>
			<td>custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>19 x 45 cm, height 30 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>wire cages to hold mouse</td>
			<td>custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>diameter of 12 cm, height 10 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ramp to hold food cup</td>
			<td>custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>10 x 10 cm, height 7 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>food cups</td>
			<td>sunlessbody via ebay</td>
			<td>http://www.ebay.com.au/itm/Plastic-Sample-Jars-Pots-Cups-Containers-with-Hinged-Lid-x-200-Small-25ml-/251708415240</td>
			<td>diameter of 3.8 cm, height 3.2 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>lux meter</td>
			<td>Volcraft</td>
			<td>BL-10 L 0 - 40000 lx</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>paprika herb</td>
			<td>Delhaize</td>
			<td>ID:716703</td>
			<td>Gemalen paprika,| 40 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>celery herb</td>
			<td>Delhaize</td>
			<td>ID:716301</td>
			<td>Selderzout, 57 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vide-tracking software</td>
			<td>Ethovision (Noldus)</td>
			<td>http://www.noldus.com/animal-behavior-research/products/ethovision-xt</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>ANYmaze (Stoelting)</td>
			<td>https://www.stoeltingco.com/any-maze-video-tracking-software-1218.html</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessment of social transmission of food preferences behaviors

Olfactory recognition deficits are suggested to be able to serve as clinical marker to differentiate Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) subjects from healthy aging groups. For example, olfactory dysfunction in AD can present as impairment in olfactory recognition, emerging during early stages of the disease and worsening while the disease progresses. The social transmission of food preferences (STFP) task is based on a rudimentary form of communication between rodents concerning distant foods dependent on the transmission of olfactory cues. Healthy wild-type mice would prefer to eat a novel, flavored food that was previously cued by a conspecific, and this food preference would be hampered in transgenic AD mice, such as the APP/PS1 model. Indeed, a strong preference for the cued food in C57Bl6/J mice of 3 months of age was found, and this was reduced in 3 months old transgenic APP/PS1 mice. In summary, STFP task could be a powerful measure to be integrated in present subclinical detection assays of AD.

An example of the social exploration phase is shown in Figure 1A-B. This phase allows estimation of social exploration of the subject mouse with the demonstrator mouse that just consumed a flavored food. In the original protocol, mice were allowed to explore each other freely. In the protocol described in this paper, the demonstrator mouse was contained in a wire cup allowing nose and ano-genital contact. Also, the arena where the mice encoun...

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Assessment of Social Transmission of Food Preferences Behaviors

This paper presents a protocol for the investigation of social transmission of food preference in mice. The advantages and possible applications for this procedure, for instance, in detecting early changes in AD mouse models, are highlighted. To conclude, interpretation of the results in light of critical details are discussed.

Olfactory recognition deficits are suggested to be able to serve as clinical marker to differentiate Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) subjects from healthy ...

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7.8K Views.  KU Leuven. This paper presents a protocol for the investigation of social transmission of food preference in mice. The advantages and possible applications for this procedure, for instance, in detecting early changes in AD mouse models, are highlighted. To conclude, interpretation of the results in light of critical details are discussed.

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Studying Food Reward and Motivation in Humans

A key challenge in studying reward processing in humans is to go beyond subjective self-report measures and quantify different aspects of reward such as hedonics, motivation, and goal value in more objective ways. This is particularly relevant for the understanding of overeating and obesity as well as their potential treatments. In this paper are described a set of measures of food-related motivation using handgrip force as a motivational measure. These methods can be used to examine changes in food related motivation with metabolic (satiety) and pharmacological manipulations and can be used to evaluate interventions targeted at overeating and obesity. However to understand food-related decision making in the complex food environment it is essential to be able to ascertain the reward goal values that guide the decisions and behavioral choices that people make. These values are hidden but it is possible to ascertain them more objectively using metrics such as the willingness to pay and a method for this is described. Both these sets of methods provide quantitative measures of motivation and goal value that can be compared within and between individuals.

This article describes a set of methods for the measurement of food related motivation and food related goal values in humans.

A key challenge in studying reward processing in humans is to go beyond subjective self-report measures and quantify different aspects of reward such as ...

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device (ALDM) Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys maintained in semi-free ranging conditions. Data accumulated during the last five years have consistently demonstrated the efficiency of this protocol to investigate individual/physical cognition in monkeys, and have further shown that this procedure reduces stress level during animal testing3. This paper demonstrates that networks of ALDM can also be used to investigate different facets of social cognition and in-group expressed behaviors in monkeys, and describes three illustrative protocols developed for that purpose. The first study demonstrates how ethological assessments of social behavior and computerized assessments of cognitive performance could be integrated to investigate the effects of socially exhibited moods on the cognitive performance of individuals. The second study shows that batteries of ALDM running in parallel can provide unique information on the influence of the presence of others on task performance. Finally, the last study shows that networks of ALDM test units can also be used to study issues related to social transmission and cultural evolution. Combined together, these three studies demonstrate clearly that ALDM testing is a highly promising experimental tool for bridging the gap in the animal literature between research on individual cognition and research on social cognition.

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device ALDM Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) aimed at testing individual cognitive abilities in semi-free ranging monkeys. The main goal of our protocol is to use a network of ALDM test units to study social cognition in non-human primates.

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys ...

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

Nowadays, the increasing incidence of eating disorders due to poor self-control has given rise to increased obesity and other chronic weight problems, and ultimately, to reduced life expectancy. The capacity to refrain from automatic responses is usually high in situations in which making errors is highly likely. The protocol described here aims at reducing imprudent preference in women during hypothetical intertemporal choices about appetitive food by associating it with errors. First, participants undergo an error task where two different edible stimuli are associated with two different error likelihoods (high and low). Second, they make intertemporal choices about the two edible stimuli, separately. As a result, this method decreases the discount rate for future amounts of the edible reward that cued higher error likelihood, selectively. This effect is under the influence of the self-reported hunger level. The present protocol demonstrates that errors, well known as motivationally salient events, can induce the recruitment of cognitive control, thus being ultimately useful in reducing impatient choices for edible commodities.

Giving in to temptation of tasty food may result in long-term overweight problems. This protocol describes how to reduce imprudent preference for edible commodities during hypothetical intertemporal choices in women by associating them with errors.

Nowadays, the increasing incidence of eating disorders due to poor self-control has given rise to increased obesity and other chronic weight problems, and ...

Assessing Working Memory in Children: The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children &#8211; Working Memory (CABC-WM)

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of working memory in young school-age children. Working memory deficits have been identified in children with language-based learning disabilities, including dyslexia1,2 and language impairment3,4, but it is not clear whether these children exhibit deficits in subcomponents of working memory, such as visuospatial or phonological working memory. The CABC-WM is administered on a desktop computer with a touchscreen interface and was specifically developed to be engaging and motivating for children. Although the long-term goal of the CABC-WM is to provide individualized working memory profiles in children, the present study focuses on the initial success and utility of the CABC-WM for measuring central executive, visuospatial, phonological loop, and binding constructs in children with typical development. Immediate next steps are to administer the CABC-WM to children with specific language impairment, dyslexia, and comorbid specific language impairment and dyslexia.

Working memory predicts a significant amount of variance for a variety of cognitive tasks, including speaking, reading, and writing. However, few tools are available to assess working memory in children. We present an innovative, computer-based battery that comprehensively assesses different components of working memory in school-age children.

The Comprehensive Assessment Battery for Children - Working Memory (CABC-WM) is a computer-based battery designed to assess different components of ...

Use of a Video Scoring Anchor for Rapid Serial Assessment of Social Communication in Toddlers

Reciprocal social behavior (RSB), an early-emerging capacity to engage in social contingency&#8212;which is foundational for both social learning and social competency&#8212;is hypothesized to be disrupted in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The ability to quantify the full range of RSB during the toddler period, when core symptoms of ASD often arise, is pivotal for evaluating early risk for ASD, characterizing social development, and tracking response to early interventions. However, important parameters of variation in RSB&#8212;especially prior to the development of verbal language&#8212;can be nuanced and difficult to characterize using questionnaire-based methods. To address this challenge, we developed a system for measuring quantitative variation in RSB in toddlers (ages 18 - 30 months) that incorporated not only standard questionnaire data from caregivers but also a novel set of video-referenced items, through which a respondent compares the behavior of a subject to that observed in a short video of a young child manifesting a highly competent level of social communication. Testing of this measure in a general population sample of twins confirmed that both the video-referenced items and the RSB Total Score (video-referenced items plus non-video-referenced items) displayed unimodal, continuous distributions, strong internal consistency, marked preservation of individual differences, and extremely high heritability. In addition, video-referenced items were particularly sensitive to quantifying incremental changes in social communication, a major element of RSB, over the course of early childhood development. Scores on the vrRSB clearly differentiated children with and without ASD and these data comprise an initial validation of this promising method for quantifying early RSB&#8212;cross-sectionally, over time, and as a function of early intervention.

Here we present a protocol for administration of the video-referenced rating of reciprocal social behavior (vrRSB) using a paper or online version. This survey quantifies RSB, a prerequisite for social competence, in toddlers through &#34;video-referenced&#34; items whereby a subject is compared to a reference child shown in a three-minute video.

Reciprocal social behavior (RSB), an early-emerging capacity to engage in social contingency&#8212;which is foundational for both social learning and ...

Assessment of Sexual Behavior of Male Mice

Sexual behavior is highly species-specific. Although rodents have slightly different sexual behaviors, mice and rats have a similar sexual behavioral pattern. The purpose of this article is to describe the hormone-induced estrus ovariectomized female model and the experimental procedure for the assessment of sexual behavior of male mice. The most important sexual behavioral elements are demonstrated in the video and illustrations. The critical steps, advantages, and limitations of the sexual behavior test are explained as well. Finally, the behavior parameters are presented, and mounting, intromission, and ejaculation processes in mating are distinguished. Behavioral parameters are assessed in terms of the occurred duration and counts during the test period.

This article describes how to perform sexual behavior tests in male mice.

Sexual behavior is highly species-specific. Although rodents have slightly different sexual behaviors, mice and rats have a similar sexual behavioral ...

Online Explorative Study on the Learning Uses of Virtual Reality Among Early Adopters

Virtual reality (VR) has shown great educational potential because it makes it possible to simulate any desired situation or event, thus playing an important role in addressing current educational challenges. Despite the unlimited learning possibilities that VR may offer, unless users are willing to apply virtual devices to education, the investment of time, money, and effort will be fruitless. It is therefore crucial to assess the educational interest of the first generation of VR users and to identify their current needs. To this end, in this study we designed an online questionnaire and applied it through the SaaS (Software as a service) of a private server. The sample consisted of 117 early VR adopters recruited via a main portal of communication and information technologies in Spain. In order to engage participants, we posted a thread in the main forum, which is dedicated to the advances and potential uses of VR. Once the responses were gathered, we analyzed the relationship between 12 variables (mean contrasts with Snedecor&#39;s F, and contingency analysis with chi-square and Sommer&#39;s d). The results showed that the current profile of a VR user is a male over 35 years old, with university studies, and who has purchased his viewer recently (&#60;1 year). As for the learning and teaching applications that these users were interested in, only 13.7% of the participants in this study use VR for educational purposes, although 28.2% were interested, indicating that perhaps the lack of applications or learning experiences may be hampering the use of VR within education. Almost half of the early adopters surveyed would like to learn using VR technology and are somehow optimistic about the relationship between VR and education, particularly those who are younger.

This article describes the profile of Spanish early adopters of virtual reality and their interests and preferences regarding learning and educational applications for this technology. To this aim, we designed an online questionnaire and interviewed 117 users of the main virtual reality forum on the Internet.

Virtual reality (VR) has shown great educational potential because it makes it possible to simulate any desired situation or event, thus playing an ...

Assessment of Midline Lingual Point-Pressure Somatosensation Using Von Frey Hair Monofilaments

Detection and discrimination threshold estimates for oral point pressure are assessed using Von Frey Hair monofilaments. Consistent with previously published protocols, threshold estimates are determined using a two-interval forced choice (2-IFC) paradigm with a three down/one up approach. Detection threshold estimates determine the mean force in which a participant can identify the presence of pressure. During the detection threshold procedure, the participant is instructed to choose which of two sequentially presented observation intervals contained the tactile test stimulus. If the participant performs three correct detections in a row (i.e., 3 &#39;hits&#39;), the researcher decreases the stimulus to the next lower target force level. With one incorrect detection (a &#39;miss&#39;), the researcher increases the force delivered to the next higher level. This threshold estimation approach is known as a 3-down/1-up adaptive staircase. Reponses are recorded on a paper ballot, and a participant&#39;s estimated threshold is defined as the geometric mean of five reversals. During the discrimination threshold procedure, the participant is asked to make a choice between two serially presented stimuli as to which is the &#34;harder&#34; or &#34;stronger&#34; pressure. The same scoring of &#39;hits&#39;, &#39;misses&#39;, and stopping points are used. Detection and discrimination testing for oral point pressure at tongue midline takes approximately 20 min to complete. Using these commercially-available clinical tools, individual touch sensation profiles for the midline tongue can be achieved in a relatively time and cost effective means.

This work describes a standard method to assess tactile sensation at the midline of the tongue tip. Using Von Frey Hair (VFH) monofilaments, this protocol provides estimates of detection and discrimination threshold estimates for oral point pressure (OPP).

Detection and discrimination threshold estimates for oral point pressure are assessed using Von Frey Hair monofilaments. Consistent with previously ...

Working Memory Training for Older Participants: A Control Group Training Regimen and Initial Intellectual Functioning Assessment

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. Also, individual characteristics as predictors of training outcome are still being investigated. In this article, we show the attempt to address this issue by examining not only the impact of working memory (WM) training on cognitive effectiveness in older adults but also the influence of the initial WM capacity (WMC) on the training&#39;s outcome. We describe in detail how to perform 5 weeks of an adaptive dual n-back training with an active control group (memory quiz). We are focusing here on technical aspects of the training as well as on the initial assessment of participants&#39; WMC. The evaluation of pre and post training performance of other cognitive dimensions was based on the results of tests of memory updating, inhibition, attention shifting, short-term memory (STM) and reasoning. We have found that the initial level of WMC predicts the efficiency of the n-back training intervention. We have also noticed the post training improvement in almost all aspects of cognitive functioning we measured, but those effects were mostly intervention independent.

A cognitive training intervention in elderly population together with the assessment of the pre training cognitive abilities is presented. We show two versions of training - experimental and active control - and demonstrate their effects on the array of cognitive tests.

The efficacy of cognitive training interventions is recently highly debated. There is no consensus on what kind of training regimen is the most effective. ...