We thank Alecia Achimovich and Ting Yan for critical reading of the manuscript. We thank Ed Hall, senior staff scientist in the Advanced Research Computing Services group at the University of Virginia, for help with setting up the optimization routines used in this work. Funding for this work was provided by the University of Virginia.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

A critical factor for the successful application of the presented protocol is to ensure that single-molecule signals are well-separated from each other (i.e., they need to be sparse in space and in time (Supplementary Mov. 1)). If there is more than one fluorescing molecule in a cell at the same time, then localization could be incorrectly assigned to another molecules&#8217; trajectory. This is referred to as the linking problem30. Experimental conditions, such as protein express...

Examining the diffusive behavior of biomolecules provides insight into their biological functions. Fluorescence microscopy-based techniques have become valuable tools for observing biomolecules in their native cell environment. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS)1 provide ensemble-averaged diffusive behaviors. Conversely, single-molecule localization microscopy enables observation of individual fluorescently tagged molecules with high spatial and temporal resolution2,3,4. Observing individual molecules is advantageous since a protein of interest may exist in different diffusive states. For example, two readily distinguishable diffusive states arise when a transcriptional regulator, such as CueR in Escherichia coli, diffuses freely in the cytosol or binds to a DNA sequence and becomes immobilized on the timescale of measurement5. Single-molecule tracking provides a tool for observing these different states directly, and sophisticated analyses are not required to resolve them. However, it becomes more challenging to resolve multiple diffusive states and their population fractions in cases where their diffusive rates are more similar. For example, due to the size dependence of the diffusion coefficient, different oligomerization states of a protein manifest themselves as different diffusive states6,7,8,9,10. Such cases require an integrated approach in terms of data acquisition, processing and analysis.
A critical factor influencing diffusive rates of cytosolic molecules is the effect of confinement by the cell boundary. The restrictions placed on molecular motion by a bacterial cell boundary cause a cytosolic molecules&#8217; measured diffusion rate to appear slower than if the same motion had occurred in an unconfined space. For very slowly diffusing molecules, the effect of cellular confinement is negligible due to the lack of collisions with the boundary. In such cases, it may be possible to accurately resolve diffusive states by fitting the distributions of molecular displacements, r, or apparent diffusion coefficients, D*, using analytical models based on the equations for Brownian motion (random diffusion)11,12,13. However, for fast diffusing cytosolic molecules, the experimental distributions no longer resemble those obtained for unconfined Brownian motion due to collisions of diffusing molecules with the cell boundaries. Confinement effects must be accounted for to accurately determine the unconfined diffusion coefficients of the fluorescently labeled molecules. Several approaches have recently been developed to account for confinement effects either (semi-)analytically 5,14,15,16 or numerically through Monte Carlo simulations of Brownian diffusion6,10,16,17,18,19.
Here, we provide an integrated protocol for collecting and analyzing single-molecule localization microscopy data with a particular focus on single-molecule tracking. The end goal of the protocol is to resolve diffusive states of fluorescently labeled cytosolic proteins inside, in this case, rod-shaped bacterial cells. Our work builds on a previous protocol for single-molecule tracking, in which a DNA polymerase, PolI, was shown to exist in a DNA bound and unbound state by diffusion analysis20. Here, we expand single-molecule tracking analysis to 3D measurements and perform more realistic computational simulations to resolve and quantify multiple diffusive states simultaneously present in cells. The data is acquired using a home-built 3D super-resolution fluorescence microscope which is capable of determining the 3D position of fluorescent emitters by imaging with the double-helix point-spread-function (DHPSF)21,22. The raw single-molecule images are processed using custom-written software to extract the 3D single-molecule localizations, which are then combined into single-molecule trajectories. Thousands of trajectories are pooled to generate distributions of apparent diffusion coefficients. In a final step, the experimental distributions are fit with numerically generated distributions obtained through Monte-Carlo simulations of Brownian motion in a confined volume. We apply this protocol to resolve the diffusive states of the Type 3 secretion system protein YscQ in living Yersinia enterocolitica. Due to its modular nature, our protocol is generally applicable to any type of single-molecule or single-particle tracking experiment in arbitrary cell geometries.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2,6-diaminopimelic acid</td>
			<td>Chem Impex International</td>
			<td>5411</td>
			<td>Necessary for growth of Y. enterocolitica cells used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4f lenses</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>AC508-080-A</td>
			<td>f = 80mm, 2&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>514 nm laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td>Genesis MX514 MTM</td>
			<td>Use for fluorescence excitation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>agarose</td>
			<td>Inivtrogen</td>
			<td>16520100</td>
			<td>Used to make gel pads to mount liquid bacterial sample on microscope.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ammonium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9434</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bandpass filter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>ET510/bp</td>
			<td>Excitation pathway.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brain Heart Infusion</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>53286</td>
			<td>Growth media for Y. enterocolitica.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>calcium chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>223506</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>camera</td>
			<td>Imaging Source</td>
			<td>DMK 23UP031</td>
			<td>Camera for phase contrast imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dielectric phase mask</td>
			<td>Double Helix, LLC</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Produces DHPSF signal.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>disodium phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>795410</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S311-100</td>
			<td>Chelates Ca2+. Induces secretion in the T3SS.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>flip mirror</td>
			<td>Newport</td>
			<td>8892-K</td>
			<td>Allows for switching between fluorescence and phase contrast pathways.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>fluospheres</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>F8792</td>
			<td>Fluorescent beads. 540/560 exication and emission wavelengths. 40 nm diameter.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glass cover slip</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>16004-302</td>
			<td>#1.5, 22mmx22mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>glucose</td>
			<td>Chem Impex International</td>
			<td>811</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>immersion oil</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>Z-81025</td>
			<td>Placed on objective lens.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iron(II) sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>F0518</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>long pass filter</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>LP02-514RU-25</td>
			<td>Emission pathway.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>magnesium sulfate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S25414A</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microscope platform</td>
			<td>Mad City Labs</td>
			<td>custom</td>
			<td>Platform for inverted microscope.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nalidixic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>N4382</td>
			<td>Y. enterocolitica cells used are resistant to nalidixic acid.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>1-U2B991</td>
			<td>60X, 1.4 NA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ozone cleaner</td>
			<td>Novascan</td>
			<td>PSD-UV4</td>
			<td>Used to eliminate background fluorescence on glass cover slips.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>potassium phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>795488</td>
			<td>M2G ingredient.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Red LED</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>M625L3</td>
			<td>Illuminates sample for phase contrast imaging. 625nm.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sCMOS camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>ORCA-Flash 4.0 V2</td>
			<td>Camera for fluorescence imaging.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>short pass filter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>ET700SP-2P8</td>
			<td>Emission pathway.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tube lens</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>AC508-180-A</td>
			<td>f=180 mm, 2&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yersinia enterocolitica dHOPEMTasd</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Strain AD4442, eYFP-YscQ</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>zero-order quarter-wave plate</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>WPQ05M-514</td>
			<td>Excitation pathway.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

single-molecule tracking microscopy - a tool for determining the diffusive states of cytosolic molecules

Single-molecule localization microscopy probes the position and motions of individual molecules in living cells with tens of nanometer spatial and millisecond temporal resolution. These capabilities make single-molecule localization microscopy ideally suited to study molecular level biological functions in physiologically relevant environments. Here, we demonstrate an integrated protocol for both acquisition and processing/analysis of single-molecule tracking data to extract the different diffusive states a protein of interest may exhibit. This information can be used to quantify molecular complex formation in living cells. We provide a detailed description of a camera-based 3D single-molecule localization experiment, as well as the subsequent data processing steps that yield the trajectories of individual molecules. These trajectories are then analyzed using a numerical analysis framework to extract the prevalent diffusive states of the fluorescently labeled molecules and the relative abundance of these states. The analysis framework is based on stochastic simulations of intracellular Brownian diffusion trajectories that are spatially confined by an arbitrary cell geometry. Based on the simulated trajectories, raw single-molecule images are generated and analyzed in the same way as experimental images. In this way, experimental precision and accuracy limitations, which are difficult to calibrate experimentally, are explicitly incorporated into the analysis workflow. The diffusion coefficient and relative population fractions of the prevalent diffusive states are determined by fitting the distributions of experimental values using linear combinations of simulated distributions. We demonstrate the utility of our protocol by resolving the diffusive states of a protein that exhibits different diffusive states upon forming homo- and hetero-oligomeric complexes in the cytosol of a bacterial pathogen.

Under the experimental conditions described here (20,000 frames, trajectory length minimum of 4 localizations) and depending on the expression levels of the fluorescently labeled fusion proteins, approximately 200-3,000 localizations yielding 10-150 trajectories can be generated per cell (Figure 2a,b). A large number of trajectories is necessary to produce a well-sampled distribution of apparent diffusion coefficients. The size of FOV collect...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single-Molecule Tracking Microscopy - A Tool for Determining the Diffusive States of Cytosolic Molecules at JoVE.com

Single-Molecule Tracking Microscopy - A Tool for Determining the Diffusive States of Cytosolic Molecules

3D single-molecule localization microscopy is utilized to probe the spatial positions and motion trajectories of fluorescently labeled proteins in living bacterial cells. The experimental and data analysis protocol described herein determines the prevalent diffusive behaviors of cytosolic proteins based on pooled single-molecule trajectories.

Single-molecule localization microscopy probes the position and motions of individual molecules in living cells with tens of nanometer spatial and ...

single-molecule-tracking-microscopy-tool-for-determining-diffusive

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

8.1K Views.  University of Virginia. 3D single-molecule localization microscopy is utilized to probe the spatial positions and motion trajectories of fluorescently labeled proteins in living bacterial cells. The experimental and data analysis protocol described herein determines the prevalent diffusive behaviors of cytosolic proteins based on pooled single-molecule trajectories.

Video: Single-Molecule Tracking Microscopy - A Tool for Determining the Diffusive States of Cytosolic Molecules

A Simple, Robust, and High Throughput Single Molecule Flow Stretching Assay Implementation for Studying Transport of Molecules Along DNA

We describe a simple, robust and high throughput single molecule flow-stretching assay for studying 1D diffusion of molecules along DNA. In this assay, glass coverslips are functionalized in a one-step reaction with silane-PEG-biotin. Flow cells are constructed by sandwiching an adhesive tape with pre-cut channels between a functionalized coverslip and a PDMS slab containing inlet and outlet holes. Multiple channels are integrated into one flow cell and the flow of reagents into each channel can be fully automated, which significantly increases the assay throughput and reduces hands-on time per assay. Inside each channel, biotin-&#955;-DNAs are immobilized on the surface and a laminar flow is applied to flow-stretch the DNAs. The DNA molecules are stretched to &#62;80% of their contour length and serve as spatially extended templates for studying the binding and transport activity of fluorescently labeled molecules. The trajectories of single molecules are tracked by time-lapse Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) imaging. Raw images are analyzed using streamlined custom single particle tracking software to automatically identify trajectories of single molecules diffusing along DNA and estimate their 1D diffusion constants.

This protocol demonstrates a simple, robust and high throughput single molecule flow-stretching assay for studying one-dimensional (1D) diffusion of molecules along DNA.

We describe a simple, robust and high throughput single molecule flow-stretching assay for studying 1D diffusion of molecules along DNA. In this assay, ...

Single-molecule Manipulation of G-quadruplexes by Magnetic Tweezers

Non-canonical nucleic acid secondary structure G-quadruplexes (G4) are involved in diverse cellular processes, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA processing, and telomere elongation. During these processes, various proteins bind and resolve G4 structures to perform their function. As the function of G4 often depends on the stability of its folded structure, it is important to investigate how G4 binding proteins regulate the stability of G4. This work presents a method to manipulate single G4 molecules using magnetic tweezers, which enables studies of the regulation of G4 binding proteins on a single G4 molecule in real time. In general, this method is suitable for a wide scope of applications in studies for proteins/ligands interactions and regulations on various DNA or RNA secondary structures.

A single-molecule magnetic tweezers platform to manipulate G-quadruplexes is reported, which allows for the study of G4 stability and regulation by various proteins.

Non-canonical nucleic acid secondary structure G-quadruplexes (G4) are involved in diverse cellular processes, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA ...

Covalent Immobilization of Proteins for the Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and functions. It gave us the opportunity to explore a multiplicity of biophysical mechanisms, e.g., how bacterial adhesins bind to host surface receptors in more detail. Among other factors, the success of SMFS experiments depends on the functional and native immobilization of the biomolecules of interest on solid surfaces and AFM tips. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the covalent coupling of proteins to silicon surfaces using silane-PEG-carboxyls and the well-established N-hydroxysuccinimid/1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimid (EDC/NHS) chemistry in order to explore the interaction of pilus-1 adhesin RrgA from the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (Fn). Our results show that the surface functionalization leads to a homogenous distribution of Fn on the glass surface and to an appropriate concentration of RrgA on the AFM cantilever tip, apparent by the target value of up to 20% of interaction events during SMFS measurements and revealed that RrgA binds to Fn with a mean force of 52 pN. The protocol can be adjusted to couple via site specific free thiol groups. This results in a predefined protein or molecule orientation and is suitable for other biophysical applications besides the SMFS.

This protocol describes the covalent immobilization of proteins with a heterobifunctional silane coupling agent to silicon-oxide surfaces designed for the atomic force microscopy based single molecule force spectroscopy which is exemplified by the interaction of RrgA (pilus-1 tip adhesin of S. pneumoniae) with fibronectin.

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and ...

Proteome-wide Quantification of Labeling Homogeneity at the Single Molecule Level

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a fluorescent dye and are spotted by a photodetector following their separation. Single molecule fluorescence imaging can provide ultrasensitive protein detection with its ability for visualizing individual fluorescent molecules. However, the application of this powerful imaging method to electrophoresis assays is hampered by the lack of ways to characterize the homogeneity of fluorescent labeling of each protein species across the proteome. Here, we developed a method to evaluate the labeling homogeneity across the proteome based on a single molecule fluorescence imaging assay. In our measurement using a HeLa cell sample, the proportion of proteins labeled with at least one dye, which we termed &#8216;labeling occupancy&#8217; (LO), was determined to range from 50% to 90%, supporting the high potential of the application of single molecule imaging to sensitive and precise proteome analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to assess the labeling homogeneity for each protein species in a complex protein sample at the single molecule level.

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a ...

Production of Dynein and Kinesin Motor Ensembles on DNA Origami Nanostructures for Single Molecule Observation

Cytoskeletal motors are responsible for a wide variety of functions in eukaryotic cells, including mitosis, cargo transport, cellular motility, and others. Many of these functions require motors to operate in ensembles. Despite a wealth of knowledge about the mechanisms of individual cytoskeletal motors, comparatively less is known about the mechanisms and emergent behaviors of motor ensembles, examples of which include changes to ensemble processivity and velocity with changing motor number, location, and configuration. Structural DNA nanotechnology, and the specific technique of DNA origami, enables the molecular construction of well-defined architectures of motor ensembles. The shape of cargo structures as well as the type, number and placement of motors on the structure can all be controlled. Here, we provide detailed protocols for producing these ensembles and observing them using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. Although these techniques have been specifically applied for cytoskeletal motors, the methods are generalizable to other proteins that assemble in complexes to accomplish their tasks. Overall, the DNA origami method for creating well-defined ensembles of motor proteins provides a powerful tool for dissecting the mechanisms that lead to emergent motile behavior.

The goal of this protocol is to form ensembles of molecular motors on DNA origami nanostructures and observe the ensemble motility using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy.

Cytoskeletal motors are responsible for a wide variety of functions in eukaryotic cells, including mitosis, cargo transport, cellular motility, and ...

Conventional BODIPY Conjugates for Live-Cell Super-Resolution Microscopy and Single-Molecule Tracking

Single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) techniques overcome the optical diffraction limit of conventional fluorescence microscopy and can resolve intracellular structures and the dynamics of biomolecules with ~20 nm precision. A prerequisite for SMLM are fluorophores that transition from a dark to a fluorescent state in order to avoid spatio-temporal overlap of their point spread functions in each of the thousands of data acquisition frames. BODIPYs are well-established dyes with numerous conjugates used in conventional microscopy. The transient formation of red-shifted BODIPY ground-state dimers (DII) results in bright single molecule emission enabling single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM). Here we present a simple but versatile protocol for SMLM with conventional BODIPY conjugates in living yeast and mammalian cells. This procedure can be used to acquire super-resolution images and to track single BODIPY-DII states to extract spatio-temporal information of BODIPY conjugates. We apply this procedure to resolve lipid droplets (LDs), fatty acids, and lysosomes in living yeast and mammalian cells at the nanoscopic length scale. Furthermore, we demonstrate the multi-color imaging capability with BODIPY dyes when used in conjunction with other fluorescent&#160;probes. Our representative results show the differential spatial distribution and mobility of BODIPY-fatty acids and neutral lipids in yeast under fed and fasted conditions. This optimized protocol for SMLM can be used with hundreds of commercially available BODIPY conjugates and is a useful resource to study biological processes at the nanoscale far beyond the applications of this work.&#160;

Conventional BODIPY conjugates can be used for live-cell single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) through exploitation of their transiently forming, red-shifted ground state dimers. We present an optimized SMLM protocol to track and resolve subcellular neutral lipids and fatty acids in living mammalian and yeast cells at the nanoscopic length scale.

Single molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) techniques overcome the optical diffraction limit of conventional fluorescence microscopy and can resolve ...

Single Cell Analysis Of Transcriptionally Active Alleles By Single Molecule FISH

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk population methods (Northern blot, PCR, and RNAseq) that measure mRNA levels lack the ability to provide information on cell-to-cell variation in responses. Precise single cell and allelic visualization and quantification is possible via single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH). RNA-FISH is performed by hybridizing target RNAs with labeled oligonucleotide probes. These can be imaged in medium/high throughput modalities, and, through image analysis pipelines, provide quantitative data on both mature and nascent RNAs, all at the single cell level. The fixation, permeabilization, hybridization and imaging steps have been optimized in the lab over many years using the model system described herein, which results in successful and robust single cell analysis of smFISH labeling. The main goal with sample preparation and processing is to produce high quality images characterized by a high signal-to-noise ratio to reduce false positives and provide data that are more accurate. Here, we present a protocol describing the pipeline from sample preparation to data analysis in conjunction with suggestions and optimization steps to tailor to specific samples.&#160;

Single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a method to accurately quantify levels and localization of specific RNAs at the single cell level. Here, we report our validated lab protocols for wet-bench processing, imaging and image analysis for single cell quantification of specific RNAs.

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk ...

Making Precise and Accurate Single-Molecule FRET Measurements using the Open-Source smfBox

The smfBox is a recently developed cost-effective, open-source instrument for single-molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET), which makes measurements on freely diffusing biomolecules more accessible. This overview includes a step-by-step protocol for using this instrument to make measurements of precise FRET efficiencies in duplex DNA samples, including details of the sample preparation, instrument setup and alignment, data acquisition, and complete analysis routines. The presented approach, which includes how to determine all the correction factors required for accurate FRET-derived distance measurements, builds on a large body of recent collaborative work across the FRET Community, which aims to establish standard protocols and analysis approaches. This protocol, which is easily adaptable to a range of biomolecular systems, adds to the growing efforts in democratising smFRET for the wider scientific community.

This article provides step-by-step instructions for making fully-corrected accurate FRET measurements on individual, freely diffusing biomolecules using the open-source, inexpensive smfBox, from switch on, through alignment and focusing, to data collection and analysis.

The smfBox is a recently developed cost-effective, open-source instrument for single-molecule F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET), which makes ...

An Optimized Single-Molecule Pull-Down Assay for Quantification of Protein Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation is a necessary posttranslational modification that regulates protein function and directs cell signaling outcomes. Current methods to measure protein phosphorylation cannot preserve the heterogeneity in phosphorylation across individual proteins. The single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) assay was developed to investigate the composition of macromolecular complexes via immunoprecipitation of proteins on a glass coverslip followed by single-molecule imaging. The current technique is an adaptation of SiMPull that provides robust quantification of the phosphorylation state of full-length membrane receptors at the single-molecule level. Imaging thousands of individual receptors in this way allows for quantifying protein phosphorylation patterns. The present protocol details the optimized SiMPull procedure, from sample preparation to imaging. Optimization of glass preparation and antibody fixation protocols further enhances data quality. The current protocol provides code for the single-molecule data analysis that calculates the fraction of receptors phosphorylated within a sample. While this work focuses on phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), the protocol can be generalized to other membrane receptors and cytosolic signaling molecules.

The present protocol describes sample preparation and data analysis to quantify protein phosphorylation using an improved single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) assay.

Phosphorylation is a necessary posttranslational modification that regulates protein function and directs cell signaling outcomes. Current methods to ...

In Situ Nucleosome Reconstitution for Single-Molecule Studies

In Situ Nucleosome Assembly for Single-Molecule Correlative Force and Fluorescence Microscopy

Nucleosomes constitute the primary unit of eukaryotic chromatin and have been the focus of numerous informative single-molecule investigations regarding their biophysical properties and interactions with chromatin-binding proteins. Nucleosome reconstitution on DNA for these studies typically involves a salt dialysis procedure that provides precise control over the placement and number of nucleosomes formed along a DNA tether. However, this protocol is time-consuming and requires a substantial amount of DNA and histone octamers as inputs. To offer an alternative strategy, an in situ nucleosome reconstitution method for single-molecule force and fluorescence microscopy that utilizes the histone chaperone Nap1 is described. This method enables users to assemble nucleosomes on any DNA template without the need for strong nucleosome positioning sequences, adjust nucleosome density on demand, and use fewer reagents. In situ nucleosome formation occurs within seconds, offering a simpler experimental workflow and a convenient transition into single-molecule measurements. Examples of two downstream assays for probing nucleosome mechanics and visualizing the behavior of individual proteins on chromatin are further described.

Author Spotlight: Efficient Nucleosome Reconstitution for Single-Molecule Techniques

This article presents a detailed experimental procedure for reconstituting nucleosome-containing DNA tethers for single-molecule correlative force and fluorescence microscopy. It further describes several downstream experiments that can be conducted to visualize the binding behavior of chromatin-interacting proteins and analyze changes in the physical properties of nucleosomes.

Nucleosomes constitute the primary unit of eukaryotic chromatin and have been the focus of numerous informative single-molecule investigations regarding ...