Name: a ferret model of inflammation-sensitized late preterm hypoxic-ischemic brain injury
Uploaded: 2019-11-19T12:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Ferret Model of Inflammation-sensitized Late Preterm Hypoxic-ischemic Brain Injury at JoVE.com

Development of the model was funded Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, as well as by NIH grant 5R21NS093154-02 (NICHD).

Procedures were performed in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and as part of an approved protocol by the University of Washington Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Preparation and LPS Administration
NOTE: Refer to Figure 1 for a timeline of the procedures.
<ol>
	<li>Prior to commencing the procedure, seal, sterilize and autoclave all surgical instruments and surgic...

<ol>
	<li>Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Osterman, M. J. K., Driscoll, A. K., Drake, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Births:+Final+Data+for+2017.">Births: Final Data for 2017.</a> National Vital Statistics Report. 67 (8), 1-49 (2018).</li><li>Vanhaesebrouck, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+EPIBEL+study:+outcomes+to+discharge+from+hospital+for+extremely+preterm+infants+in+Belgium.">The EPIBEL study: outcomes to discharge from hospital for extremely preterm infants in Belgium.</a> Pediatrics. 114 (3), 663-675 (2004).</li><li>Raju, T. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-Term+Healthcare+Outcomes+of+Preterm+Birth:+An+Executive+Summary+of+a+Conference+Sponsored+by+the+National+Institutes+of+Health.">Long-Term Healthcare Outcomes of Preterm Birth: An Executive Summary of a Conference Sponsored by the National Institutes of Health.</a> Journal of Pediatrics. , (2016).</li><li>Raju, T. N. K., Buist, A. S., Blaisdell, C. J., Moxey-Mims, M., Saigal, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adults+born+preterm:+a+review+of+general+health+and+system-specific+outcomes.">Adults born preterm: a review of general health and system-specific outcomes.</a> Acta Paediatrica. 106 (9), 1409-1437 (2017).</li><li>Bennet, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+inflammation+and+impaired+development+of+the+preterm+brain.">Chronic inflammation and impaired development of the preterm brain.</a> Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 125, 45-55 (2018).</li><li>Reich, B., Hoeber, D., Bendix, I., Felderhoff-Mueser, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyperoxia+and+the+Immature+Brain.">Hyperoxia and the Immature Brain.</a> Developmental Neuroscience. 38 (5), 311-330 (2016).</li><li>Galinsky, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complex+interactions+between+hypoxia-ischemia+and+inflammation+in+preterm+brain+injury.">Complex interactions between hypoxia-ischemia and inflammation in preterm brain injury.</a> Developmental Medicine &amp; Child Neurology. 60 (2), 126-133 (2018).</li><li>Empie, K., Rangarajan, V., Juul, S. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Is+the+ferret+a+suitable+species+for+studying+perinatal+brain+injury.">Is the ferret a suitable species for studying perinatal brain injury.</a> International Journal of Developlemental Neuroscience. 45, 2-10 (2015).</li><li>Snyder, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ontogeny+of+white+matter,+toll-like+receptor+expression,+and+motor+skills+in+the+neonatal+ferret.">Ontogeny of white matter, toll-like receptor expression, and motor skills in the neonatal ferret.</a> International Journal of Developlemental Neuroscience. , (2018).</li><li>Schwerin, S. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progression+of+histopathological+and+behavioral+abnormalities+following+mild+traumatic+brain+injury+in+the+male+ferret.">Progression of histopathological and behavioral abnormalities following mild traumatic brain injury in the male ferret.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Research. 96 (4), 556-572 (2018).</li><li>Rafaels, K. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain+injury+risk+from+primary+blast.">Brain injury risk from primary blast.</a> Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery. 73 (4), 895-901 (2012).</li><li>Wood, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Ferret+Model+of+Encephalopathy+of+Prematurity.">A Ferret Model of Encephalopathy of Prematurity.</a> Developlemental Neuroscience. , (2019).</li><li>Barnette, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+Brain+Development+in+the+Ferret+via+Magnetic+Resonance+Imaging.">Characterization of Brain Development in the Ferret via Magnetic Resonance Imaging.</a> Pediatric Research. 66 (1), 80-84 (2009).</li><li>Kroenke, C. D., Mills, B. D., Olavarria, J. F., Neil, J. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biology and Diseases of the Ferret. , (2014).</li><li>Eklind, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacterial+endotoxin+sensitizes+the+immature+brain+to+hypoxic--ischaemic+injury.">Bacterial endotoxin sensitizes the immature brain to hypoxic--ischaemic injury.</a> European Journal of Neuroscience. 13 (6), 1101-1106 (2001).</li><li>Falck, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neonatal+Systemic+Inflammation+Induces+Inflammatory+Reactions+and+Brain+Apoptosis+in+a+Pathogen-Specific+Manner.">Neonatal Systemic Inflammation Induces Inflammatory Reactions and Brain Apoptosis in a Pathogen-Specific Manner.</a> Neonatology. 113 (3), 212-220 (2018).</li><li>Osredkar, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hypothermia+Does+Not+Reverse+Cellular+Responses+Caused+by+Lipopolysaccharide+in+Neonatal+Hypoxic-Ischaemic+Brain+Injury.">Hypothermia Does Not Reverse Cellular Responses Caused by Lipopolysaccharide in Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischaemic Brain Injury.</a> Developmental Neuroscience. 37 (4-5), 390-397 (2015).</li><li>Nakata, M., Itou, T., Sakai, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantitative+analysis+of+inflammatory+cytokines+expression+in+peripheral+blood+mononuclear+cells+of+the+ferret+(Mustela+putorius+furo)+using+real-time+PCR.">Quantitative analysis of inflammatory cytokines expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of the ferret (Mustela putorius furo) using real-time PCR.</a> Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 130 (1-2), 88-91 (2009).</li><li>Christensson, M., Garwicz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time+course+of+postnatal+motor+development+in+ferrets:+ontogenetic+and+comparative+perspectives.">Time course of postnatal motor development in ferrets: ontogenetic and comparative perspectives.</a> Behavioral Brain Research. 158 (2), 231-242 (2005).</li><li>Li, Y., Dugyala, S. R., Ptacek, T. S., Gilmore, J. H., Frohlich, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maternal+Immune+Activation+Alters+Adult+Behavior,+Gut+Microbiome+and+Juvenile+Brain+Oscillations+in+Ferrets.">Maternal Immune Activation Alters Adult Behavior, Gut Microbiome and Juvenile Brain Oscillations in Ferrets.</a> eNeuro. 5 (5), (2018).</li><li>Rice, J. E., Vannucci, R. C., Brierley, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+influence+of+immaturity+on+hypoxic-ischemic+brain+damage+in+the+rat.">The influence of immaturity on hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in the rat.</a> Annals of Neurolology. 9 (2), 131-141 (1981).</li></ol>

Due to the physical and developmental similarities shared between the ferret brain and human brain, the ferret is increasingly being used to model both adult and developmental brain injury.8,9,10,11,12. However, research to date suggests that the ferret brain is both resistant to initial injury as well as highly-plastic, with behavioral deficits diminishing ov...

There is an ongoing need for large animal models that reflect the pathophysiology of prematurity and perinatal hypoxia-ischemia in which therapeutic interventions for infants can be tested. In 2017, 9.93% of the 382,726 infants born in the United States were born preterm, and 84% of these infants were born between 32 and 36 weeks of gestation1. In premature infants, perinatal exposure to infection or inflammation is common, where maternal immune activation due to viral or bacterial pathogens can initiate preterm labor. Postnatally, preterm infants are at high risk of early or late onset sepsis2. Preterm infants also frequently experience periods of hypoxia, hypotension, and hyperoxia due to their immature cardiorespiratory system, elevated oxygen tension in the atmosphere relative to those experienced in utero, and iatrogenic exposures. Additionally, in preterm infants, antioxidant defenses are immature3 and pro-apoptotic factors are naturally upregulated4. Oxidative stress and cell death lead to activation of the immune system and neuroinflammation. These combined factors are thought to contribute to developmental and physiologic vulnerability of the brain, and result in or exacerbate the encephalopathy associated with poor developmental outcomes in preterm infants5,6,7.
Due to the physical and developmental similarities that the ferret brain shares with the human brain, the ferret is an attractive species in which to model brain injury8,9,10,11,12. Ferrets are also ideal candidates to model the preterm human brain, as they are born lissencephalic and develop gyrencephalic brains postnatally, which provides a window in which to expose the developing brain to insults that mimic those experienced by infants born preterm. At birth, ferret brain development is similar to a 13 week human fetus, with postnatal-day (P) 17 kits considered to be equivalent to an infant at 32&#8211;36 weeks of gestation13.
Our group has recently published a model of extremely preterm (&#60;28 weeks&#39; gestation) brain injury in the P10 ferret by combining inflammatory sensitization with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) with subsequent exposure to hypoxia and hyperoxia12. In the following protocol, we now describe a late preterm model in the P17 ferret, where LPS sensitization is followed by bilateral cerebral ischemia, hypoxia, and hyperoxia. This results in more severe injury in a subset of animals, and more closely models the complex interaction of prolonged inflammation, ischemia, hypoxia, and oxidative stress experienced in a number of preterm infants who develop brain injury.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:775px;" width="775">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">80% Oxygen</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Praxair</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td style="width:227px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">9% Oxygen</td>
			<td>Praxair</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Absorbent benchtop protector</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Kimtech</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:136px;">7546</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Automated catwalk</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Noldus</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Betadine surgical scrub</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Bupivacaine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-888-9382</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Buprenorphine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Calipers</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">SRA Measurement Products</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">ME-CAL-FP-200</td>
			<td>200mm range, .01 mm resolution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cotton Gauze Sponge</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22028556</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Curved fine hemostat</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS-7101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Curved forceps</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>501215</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Curved suture-tying hemostat</td>
			<td>Roboz</td>
			<td>RS-7111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ethovision tracking software</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Noldus</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Eye Lubricant</td>
			<td>Rugby</td>
			<td>NDC 0536-1970-72</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Ferrets (Mustela putorius furo)</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Marshall Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td>Outbred (no specific strain)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Formalin</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">SF100-4</td>
			<td>10% (Phosphate Buffer/Certified)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Hair Clippers</td>
			<td>Conair</td>
			<td>GMT175N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Insulin Syringes</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>329461</td>
			<td>0.3 cc 3 mm 31G</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Piramal</td>
			<td>66794-017-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Lidocaine</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-808-8202</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">LPS</td>
			<td>List Biological</td>
			<td>LPS Ultrapure #423</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Oxygen sensor</td>
			<td>BW Gas Alert</td>
			<td>GAXT-X-DL-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Pentobarbital</td>
			<td style="width:196px;"></td>
			<td style="width:136px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Plastic chamber</td>
			<td>Tellfresh</td>
			<td align="right">1960</td>
			<td>10L; 373x270x135mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Saline Solution, 0.9%</td>
			<td>Hospira</td>
			<td>RL-4492</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Integra Miltex</td>
			<td>297</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Scalpel handle</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>500236</td>
			<td>#3, 13cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sterile suture</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>18020-50</td>
			<td>Braided Silk, 5/0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Surgical clip applicator</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>12020-09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Surgical clip remover</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>12023-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Surgical drapes</td>
			<td>Medline Unidrape</td>
			<td>VET3000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Surgical gloves</td>
			<td>Ansell Perry Inc</td>
			<td>5785004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Surigical clips</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>12022-09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Thermometer (rectal)</td>
			<td>YSI</td>
			<td>Precision 4000A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Thermometer (water)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-648-26</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Umbilical tape</td>
			<td>Grafco</td>
			<td>3031</td>
			<td>Sterile</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Water bath</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">TSCOL19</td>
			<td>19L</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a ferret model of inflammation-sensitized late preterm hypoxic-ischemic brain injury

There is an ongoing need for clinically relevant models of perinatal infection and hypoxia-ischemia (HI) in which to test therapeutic interventions for infants with the neurological sequela of prematurity. Ferrets are ideal candidates for modeling the preterm human brain, as they are born lissencephalic and develop gyrencephalic brains postnatally. At birth, ferret brain development is similar to a 13 week human fetus, with postnatal-day (P) 17 kits considered to be equivalent to an infant at 32&#8211;36 weeks&#39; gestation. We describe an injury model in the P17 ferret, where lipopolysaccharide administration is followed by bilateral cerebral ischemia, hypoxia, and hyperoxia. This simulates the complex interaction of prolonged inflammation, ischemia, hypoxia, and oxidative stress experienced in a number of neonates who develop brain injury. Injured animals display a range of gross injury severity, with morphological changes in the brain including narrowing of multiple cortical gyri and associated sulci. Injured animals also show slowed reflex development, slower and more variable speed of locomotion in an automated catwalk, and decreased exploration in an open field. This model provides a platform in which to test putative therapies for infants with neonatal encephalopathy associated with inflammation and HI, study mechanisms of injury that affect cortical development, and investigate pathways that provide resilience in unaffected animals.

Of 34 (n = 18 males, n = 16 females) animals from six litters exposed to the insult, eight animals (24%; n = 4 males, n = 4 females) in the injured group died during the second hypoxia period (n = 5), during temperature management (n = 2), or overnight after the insult (n = 1). In the injured group, nine of 26 survivors (35%) had visible gross injury. Five animals (n = 5 males) had moderate injury, and four animals (n = 2 males, n = 2 females) had severe injury, defined as gross pathology scores of 2&#8211;5 and 6&#8211;...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Ferret Model of Inflammation-sensitized Late Preterm Hypoxic-ischemic Brain Injury at JoVE.com

A Ferret Model of Inflammation-sensitized Late Preterm Hypoxic-ischemic Brain Injury

The method describes inflammation-sensitized hypoxic-ischemic and hyperoxic brain injury in the P17 ferret to model the complex interaction between prolonged inflammation and oxidative brain injury experienced in a number of late preterm infants.

There is an ongoing need for clinically relevant models of perinatal infection and hypoxia-ischemia (HI) in which to test therapeutic interventions for ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Lateral Fluid Percussion: Model of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has attained renewed momentum due to the increasing awareness of head injuries, which result in morbidity and ...

Preterm EEG: A Multimodal Neurophysiological Protocol

Since its introduction in early 1950s, electroencephalography (EEG) has been widely used in the neonatal intensive care units (NICU) for assessment and ...

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

A Method to Inflict Closed Head Traumatic Brain Injury in Drosophila

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) affects millions of people each year, causing impairment of physical, cognitive, and behavioral functions and death. Studies ...

Dorsal Root Ganglion Injection and Dorsal Root Crush Injury as a Model for Sensory Axon Regeneration

Achieving axon regeneration after nervous system injury is a challenging task. As different parts of the central nervous system (CNS) differ from each ...

Neurobehavioral Assessments in a Mouse Model of Neonatal Hypoxic-ischemic Brain Injury

We performed unilateral carotid artery occlusion on CD-1 mice to create a neonatal hypoxic-ischemic (HI) model and investigated the effects of neonatal HI ...

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

A Novel In Vitro Model of Blast Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury is a leading cause of death and disability in military and civilian populations. Blast traumatic brain injury results from the ...

Effects of Blast-induced Neurotrauma on Pressurized Rodent Middle Cerebral Arteries

Though there have been studies on the histopathological and behavioral effects of blast exposure, fewer have been dedicated to blast&#39;s cerebral ...

Murine Model of Controlled Cortical Impact for the Induction of Traumatic Brain Injury

The Centers for Disease Control and Injury Prevention estimate that almost 2 million people sustain a traumatic brain injury (TBI) every year in the ...

Electromagnetic Controlled Closed-Head Model of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Highly reproducible animal models of traumatic brain injury (TBI), with well-defined pathologies, are needed for testing therapeutic interventions and ...