This work was funded by the Hollings Cancer Center&#39;s Cancer Center Support Grant P30 CA138313 pilot research funding from the National Institutes of Health (<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank">https://www.nih.gov/</a>), and funds from the Department of Pathology &#38; Laboratory Medicine at the Medical University of South Carolina. We would like to thank Marijne Smiths for recording the interview statements.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This protocol describes a mammary epithelial cell transplantation technique optimized for working with rats. Isolated mammary epithelial organoids from donor rats (3-5 weeks of age) are grafted into the interscapular white fat pad of recipient rats (also 3-5 weeks of age). Results can be interpreted as little as 4-6 weeks later, using light microscopy to examine the grafted tissue; however, the optimal amount of time between transplantation and sacrifice must be determined prior to implementing a full experiment. If too ...

Postnatal mammary gland development and ductal morphogenesis are processes largely influenced by hormonal signaling at the onset of puberty. In mice and rats, commonly used model organisms of mammary gland biology, this process begins around 3 weeks of age, where rapid proliferation and differentiation result in the formation of the mature parenchyma. The mature mammary gland can undergo numerous rounds of expansion and involution, a property that has been under investigation since the early 20th century. Within the context of hyperproliferation and cancer development, mammary gland transplantation techniques were developed in the 1950s1, and enhanced by the quantitative methodology contributed by Gould et al. in 19772,3,4. Refinement of the transplantation technique in rodents has contributed to major advances in understanding normal mammary gland biology that are still widely used to study the effect of various treatments and genetic manipulation on normal mammary gland development and disease states.
Many hypotheses have been generated and subsequently tested using mammary gland transplantation, first described by DeOme et al. in 19591. Experiments across several decades showed the propensity of ductal tissue excised from donor mammary glands to repopulate the entire fat pad5,6,7 and indicated that a critical component of mammary gland development resides in these epithelial structures. Later studies in mice showed that a single mammary stem cell can repopulate a cleared fat pad and contributed to the discovery of a single, common progenitor of basal and luminal mammary epithelial cells8,9,10. In line with these conclusions, it has been suggested that transplantation increases the pool of cells with multilineage-repopulating potential as a result of plasticity, allowing the grafted cells to grow a functional mammary gland7,10,11,12,13. Importantly, the use of transplantation techniques in rodents overcomes the limitations of cell culture-induced abnormalities14 and often provides results in just a matter of weeks.
While the procedure was originally described in the context of preneoplastic lesions in mice, it was soon expanded to rats and used in conjunction with the carcinogen treatment to establish multiplicity as a measure of cancer susceptibility15, but the popularity of transplantation techniques has followed the development of genetic tools for each species. Although mouse studies incorporating transplantation have contributed many translational findings, the parenchyma of the rat mammary gland resembles the human more closely16,17 and offers distinct advantages for studying estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer. Mammary tumors are inducible in both species, but they differ in terms of hormone sensitivity and gene expression profiles. A primary difference is that rat mammary tumors express and depend on the function of ovarian and pituitary hormone receptors, namely, estrogen and progesterone (PR), similar to the luminal-A subtype of human breast cancer. Indeed, mammary epithelial cell transplantation, as described in this protocol, has been used to study genetic variants involved in breast cancer and determine the cellular autonomy of effects on mammary epithelial cells18.
In addition to the tumor biology, the ductal epithelium of the normal rat mammary gland exhibits a higher level of branching and is flanked by a thicker layer of stroma than the mouse. The importance of the stroma is well-documented in mammary epithelial transplantation studies. Mammary epithelium must interact with fatty stroma, and ideally its own mesenchyme, to undergo its characteristic morphogenesis19,20. Grafting tissue into a recipient mammary gland provides an optimal environment; however, the presence of endogenous epithelium can interfere with results. Preclearing the mammary gland of endogenous epithelium is commonly performed in mouse transplantation assays and requires surgical excision of endogenous mammary tissue and/or removal of the nipple1,21,22. Although possible, preclearing the mammary epithelium in post-weanling rats is not as widely-performed, mainly due to the ineffectiveness of clearing the growing mammary tree in post-weanling rats. Since it has been shown that regions of adipose tissue elsewhere in the body could support the growth of transplanted mammary epithelium21,23,24, the process of preclearing can be easily avoided in rats by grafting tissue into the interscapular white fat pad.
The transplantation method described in this paper involves the injection of enzymatically dissociated mammary gland organoids (fragments of mammary ductal epithelium and other cells types capable of morphogenesis) or monodispersed cells into the interscapular fat pad in inbred, isogenic or congenic strains of laboratory rats2. Because the interscapular fat pad is normally devoid of mammary tissue, it provides a suitable environment for multiple transplantation sites without the need to pre-clear endogenous epithelium. As a result, the host animal&#39;s endogenous, abdominal-inguinal mammary glands are not subject to surgical manipulation, develop normally, and cannot interfere with interpretation of results. Additionally, the intact mammary glands can be used for comparison to evaluate host versus donor effects on the mammary epithelium development and tumorigenesis18,25. Although repopulation of the mammary gland from a single stem cell is available for mice, it has not yet been developed for rat, mainly due to the lack of availability of antibodies to select for rat mammary stem cells25,26,27. Despite this, transplantation of monodispersed mammary epithelial cells to quantify repopulating potential can be successfully performed, and those cells will develop normally when grafted into the appropriate framework2,3,4. While organoids are good for many purposes, monodispersed cells are required for quantitative applications, for example, to determine the number of mammary epithelial cells required for the cancer initiation following ionizing radiation treatment28 or for comparing characteristics of flow cytometrically selected mammary epithelial cell populations29.
To date, the procedure described here is the most robust method of performing mammary gland transplantation in the rat with an overall goal of studying mammary gland development and mechanisms underlying breast cancer development. Often, the donor and/or recipient animals are exposed to different variables before, during, or after the epithelial transplantation. Examples include single gene studies involving chemical carcinogenesis30, radiation28,31,32, genetic manipulation of host/donor genome18, and hormonal manipulation12. A major advantage of the enzymatic dissociation described in this protocol is the opportunity to isolate epithelial organoids or monodispersed cells for complementary experiments involving flow cytometry, 3-D culture, gene editing, and more. Future applications of this technique will include additional manipulation of donor and/or host tissue with genetic engineering. For example, donor cells can be genetically altered ex vivo at any chosen genomic locus using the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system. Similarly, recipient rats can also be genetically altered to study the interaction between donor and recipient engineered genetic factors.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0.2 &#181;M syringe filters</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>09-715G</td>
			<td>sterile-filtering collagenase digestion media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 - 2.0 mL microcentrifuge tubes (sterile)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-408-129</td>
			<td>containing resuspended cells and/or brain homogenate mixture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 &#181;M cell strainers</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431752</td>
			<td>filtering brain homogenate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 uL gastight syringes with 25 gauge needles</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>81001 &#38; 90525</td>
			<td>For injecting graft mixture into recipient animals (1 per donor genotype/condition)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1000 uL pipette tips + pipette</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>transferring cells/mixtures/tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL polypropylene tube</td>
			<td>Falcon (Corning)</td>
			<td>352196</td>
			<td>brain homogenate mixture storage, or cell : homogenate mixture for transplantation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40 &#181;M cell strainers</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>431750</td>
			<td>filtering organoids after washing the cell pellet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL polypropylene tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>05-539-6</td>
			<td>for collagenase digestion of donor mammary gland tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60 mm dishes</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>130181</td>
			<td>for mincing tissue</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alum Potassium Sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>243361/237086</td>
			<td>staining mammary gland whole mount slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthesia vaporizer for veterinary use</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>follow institutional protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beta-dine or iodine</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate glass culture tube for homogenization</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-961-26</td>
			<td>for homogenization of brain (use appropriate tube for homogenizer)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carmine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C6152/1022</td>
			<td>staining mammary gland whole mount slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell counting apparatus</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clean animal cages for recovery</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>follow institutional protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collagenase Type 3</td>
			<td>Worthington Biochemical Corp.</td>
			<td>LS004183</td>
			<td>enzymatic digestion of minced mammary gland tissue from donor rats</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>deionized water</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for chemical solutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/F12</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>11320033</td>
			<td>for mincing tissue, collagenase digestion media and resuspending epithelial cell mixtures</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>monodispersion mixture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol, 200 Proof</td>
			<td>Decon Labs</td>
			<td>2705/2701</td>
			<td>mammary whole mount slide fixative, mammary whole mount slide washes, cleaning surgical incision sites (diluted)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Hyclone</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>inactivation solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gauze</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial acetic acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A38-212</td>
			<td>use for mammary whole mount slide fixative (1:4 glacial acetic acid in 100% ethanol)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HBSS</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>monodispersion mixture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heating pads</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>follow institutional protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice buckets (x2)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator with orbital rotation</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>must be capable of maintaining 37&#176;C, shaking at 220-225 RPM (for collagenase digestion of mammary tissue)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane anesthesia</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>follow institutional protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light microscope or digital camera</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>visualizing whole mounted mammary epithelium and/or acquiring images</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mechanical homogenizer</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>TissueMiser or alternative models</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mineral oil, pure</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/ ACROS Organics</td>
			<td>8042-47-5</td>
			<td>long-term storage of cleared mammary gland whole mounts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxygen tanks for anesthesia vaporizer</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>follow institutional protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paper towels or delicate task wipes</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Positively-charged microscope slides</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>P4981-001</td>
			<td>mammary gland tissue whole mounts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Postoperative analgesic</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>Institutional protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scale</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>body weight measurements of animals, proper dosing of pain medication</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shaver</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>electric clippers, or other</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Staining jars</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>minimum of 1 per chemical wash, size appropriate for the number of slides, glass preferred</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile field drapes</td>
			<td>IMCO</td>
			<td>4410-IMC</td>
			<td>used during transplantation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile scissors and forceps x3 (autoclaved)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>autoclave surgical tools used for donors and recipients</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringes: 5 mL (or greater)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>for sterile filtration of collagenase digestion media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>monodispersion mixture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Waste collection receptacle for liquids (poured or aspirated)</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td>-</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wound clip applier, clips, and removal tool</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>12020-00</td>
			<td>Closing the skin incision over the interscapular white pad pad</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylenes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>X3S-4</td>
			<td>clearing mammary gland whole mount slides after staining</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

rat mammary epithelial cell transplantation into the interscapular white fat pad

As early as the 1970s, researchers have successfully transplanted mammary epithelial cells into the interscapular white fat pad of rats. Grafting mammary epithelium using transplantation techniques takes advantage of the hormonal environment provided by the adolescent rodent host. These studies are ideally suited to explore the impact of various biological manipulations on mammary gland development and dissect many aspects of mammary gland biology. A common, but limiting, feature is that transplanted epithelial cells are strongly influenced by the surrounding stroma and outcompeted by endogenous epithelium; to utilize native mammary tissue, the abdominal-inguinal white fat pad must be cleared to remove host mammary epithelium prior to the transplantation. A major obstacle when using the rat model organism is that clearing the developing mammary tree in post-weaned rats is not efficient. When transplanted into gland-free fat pads, donor epithelial cells can repopulate the cleared host fat pad and form a functional mammary gland. The interscapular fat pad is an alternative location for these grafts. A major advantage is that it lacks ductal structures yet provides the normal stroma that is necessary to promote epithelial outgrowth and is easily accessible in the rat. Another major advantage of this technique is that it is minimally invasive, because it eliminates the need to cauterize and remove the growing endogenous mammary tree. Additionally, the interscapular fat pad contains a medial blood vessel that can be used to separate sites for grafting. Because the endogenous glands remain intact, this technique can also be used for studies comparing the endogenous mammary gland to the transplanted gland. This paper describes the method of mammary epithelial cell transplantation into the interscapular white fat pad of rats.

Donor and recipient mammary glands 
The steps to isolate and prepare rat mammary epithelial cells for transplantation are shown in Figure 1A. At 4 weeks of age, the endogenous mammary gland of the donor rat has begun maturation and epithelium can be visualized on whole mounted slides stained with alum carmine (Figure 1B). One donor rat at this ag...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Rat Mammary Epithelial Cell Transplantation into the Interscapular White Fat Pad at JoVE.com

Rat Mammary Epithelial Cell Transplantation into the Interscapular White Fat Pad

This article describes a transplantation method to graft donor rat mammary epithelial cells into the interscapular white fat pad of recipient animals. This method can be used to examine host and/or donor effects on mammary epithelium development and eliminates the need for pre-clearing, thereby extending the usefulness of this technique.

As early as the 1970s, researchers have successfully transplanted mammary epithelial cells into the interscapular white fat pad of rats. Grafting mammary ...

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Cancer Research

7.6K Views.  Medical University of South Carolina. This article describes a transplantation method to graft donor rat mammary epithelial cells into the interscapular white fat pad of recipient animals. This method can be used to examine host and/or donor effects on mammary epithelium development and eliminates the need for pre-clearing, thereby extending the usefulness of this technique.

Video: Rat Mammary Epithelial Cell Transplantation into the Interscapular White Fat Pad

Surgical Procedures and Methodology for a Preclinical Murine Model of De Novo Mammary Cancer Metastasis

A rate-limiting aspect of transgenic mouse models of mammary adenocarcinoma is that primary tumor burden in mammary tissue typically defines study end-points. Thus, studies focused on elucidating mechanisms of late-stage de novo metastasis are compromised, as are studies examining efficacy of anti-cancer therapies targeting mediators of metastasis in the adjuvant setting. Numerous murine mammary cancer models have been developed via targeted expression of dominant oncoproteins to mammary epithelial cells yielding models variably mimicking histopathologic and transcriptome-defined breast cancer subtypes common in women1. While much has been learned regarding the biology of mammary carcinogenesis with these models, their utility in identifying molecules regulating growth of late-stage metastasis are compromised as mice are typically euthanized at earlier time points due to significant primary tumor burden. Moreover, since a significant percentage of women diagnosed with breast cancer receive adjuvant therapy after surgical resection of primary tumors and prior to presence of detectable metastatic disease, preclinical models of de novo metastasis are urgently needed as platforms to evaluate new therapies aimed at targeting metastatic foci. To address these deficiencies, we developed a murine model of de novo mammary cancer metastasis, wherein primary mammary tumors are surgically resected, and metastatic foci subsequently develop over a 115 day post-surgical period. This long latency provides a tractable model to identify functionally significant regulators of metastatic progression in mice lacking primary tumor, as well as a model to evaluate preclinical therapeutic efficacy of agents aimed at blocking functionally significant molecules aiding metastatic tumor survival and growth.

Surgical Procedures and Methodology for a Preclinical Murine Model of De Novo Mammary Cancer Metastasis

Pre-clinical models evaluating adjuvant therapy targeting breast cancer metastasis are lacking. To address this, we developed a murine model of de novo pulmonary mammary adenocarcinoma metastasis, wherein therapies administered in the adjuvant setting (post surgical resection of primary tumors) can be evaluated for efficacy in impacting previously seeded pulmonary metastases.

A rate-limiting aspect of transgenic mouse models of mammary adenocarcinoma is that primary tumor burden in mammary tissue typically defines study ...

Transplantation of Zebrafish Pediatric Brain Tumors into Immune-competent Hosts for Long-term Study of Tumor Cell Behavior and Drug Response

Tumor cell transplantation is an important technique to define the mechanisms controlling cancer cell growth, migration, and host response, as well as to assess potential patient response to therapy. Current methods largely depend on using syngeneic or immune-compromised animals to avoid rejection of the tumor graft. Such methods require the use of specific genetic strains that often prevent the analysis of immune-tumor cell interactions and/or are limited to specific genetic backgrounds. An alternative method in zebrafish takes advantage of an incompletely developed immune system in the embryonic brain before 3 days, where tumor cells are transplanted for use in short-term assays (i.e., 3 to 10 days). However, these methods cause host lethality, which prevents the long-term study of tumor cell behavior and drug response. This protocol describes a simple and efficient method for the long-term orthotopic transplantation of zebrafish brain tumor tissue into the fourth ventricle of a 2-day-old immune-competent zebrafish. This method allows: 1) long-term study of tumor cell behaviors, such as invasion and dissemination; 2) durable tumor response to drugs; and 3) re-transplantation of tumors for the study of tumor evolution and/or the impact of different host genetic backgrounds. In summary, this technique allows cancer researchers to assess engraftment, invasion, and growth at distant sites, as well as to perform chemical screens and cell competition assays over many months. This protocol can be extended to studies of other tumor types and can be used to elucidate mechanisms of chemoresistance and metastasis.

The transplantation of cancer cells is an important tool for the identification of cancer mechanisms and therapeutic responses. Current techniques depend on immune-incompetent animals. Here, we describe a method to transplant zebrafish tumor cells into immune-competent embryos for the long-term analysis of tumor cell behavior and in vivo drug responses.

Tumor cell transplantation is an important technique to define the mechanisms controlling cancer cell growth, migration, and host response, as well as to ...

Live-imaging of Breast Epithelial Cell Migration After the Transient Depletion of TIP60

The wound-healing assay is efficient and one of the most economical ways to study cell migration in vitro. Conventionally, images are taken at the beginning and end of an experiment using a phase-contrast microscope, and the migration abilities of cells are evaluated by the closure of wounds. However, cell movement is a dynamic phenomenon, and a conventional method does not allow for tracking single-cell movement. To improve current wound-healing assays, we use live-cell imaging techniques to monitor cell migration in real time. This method allows us to determine the cell migration rate based on a cell tracking system and provides a clearer distinction between cell migration and cell proliferation. Here, we demonstrate the use of live-cell imaging in wound-healing assays to study the different migration abilities of breast epithelial cells influenced by the presence of TIP60. As cell motility is highly dynamic, our method provides more insights into the processes of wound healing than a snapshot of wound closure taken with the traditional imaging techniques used for wound-healing assays.

Here, we present the real-time monitoring of cell migration in a wound-healing assay using TIP60-depleted MCF10A breast epithelial cells. The implementation of live-cell imaging techniques in our protocol allows us to analyze and visualize single-cell movement in real time and across time.

The wound-healing assay is efficient and one of the most economical ways to study cell migration in vitro. Conventionally, images are taken at the ...

Conditional Knockdown of Gene Expression in Cancer Cell Lines to Study the Recruitment of Monocytes/Macrophages to the Tumor Microenvironment

siRNA and shRNA-mediated knock down (KD) methods of regulating gene expression are invaluable tools for understanding gene and protein function. However, in the case that the KD of the protein of interest has a lethal effect on cells or the anticipated effect of the KD is time-dependent, unconditional KD methods are not appropriate. Conditional systems are more suitable in these cases and have been the subject of much interest. These include Ecdysone-inducible overexpression systems, Cytochrome P-450 induction system1, and the tetracycline regulated gene expression systems. 
The tetracycline regulated gene expression system enables reversible control over protein expression by induction of shRNA expression in the presence of tetracycline. In this protocol, we present an experimental design using functional Tet-ON system in human cancer cell lines for conditional regulation of gene expression. We then demonstrate the use of this system in the study of tumor cell-monocyte interaction.

This protocol serves as a scheme for setting up a functional Tet-ON system in cancer cell lines and its subsequent use, in particular for studying the role of tumor cell-derived proteins in recruitment of monocytes/macrophages to the tumor microenvironment.

siRNA and shRNA-mediated knock down (KD) methods of regulating gene expression are invaluable tools for understanding gene and protein function. However, ...

A Syngeneic Pancreatic Cancer Mouse Model to Study the Effects of Irreversible Electroporation

Pancreatic cancer (PC), a disease which kills approximately 40,000 patients each year in the US, has successfully evaded several therapeutic approaches including the promising immunotherapeutic strategies. Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a non-thermal ablation technique that induces tumor cell death without destruction of adjacent collagenous structures, thus enabling the procedure to be performed in tumors very close to blood vessels. Unlike thermal ablation techniques, IRE results in gradual apoptotic cell death, along with immediate ablation induced necrosis, and is currently in clinical use for selected patients with locally advanced PC. An ablative, non-target specific procedure like IRE can induce a myriad of responses in the tumor microenvironment. A few studies have addressed the effects of IRE on tumor growth in other tumor types, but none have focused on PC. We have developed a syngeneic mouse model of PC in which subcutaneous (SQ) and orthotopic tumors can be successfully treated with IRE in a highly controlled setting, facilitating various longitudinal studies post procedure. This animal model serves as a robust system to study the effects of IRE and ways to improve the clinical efficacy of IRE.

Irreversible electroporation (IRE) is a non-thermal ablation technique used for the treatment of locally advanced pancreatic cancer. Being a relatively new technique, the effects of IRE on the tumor growth are poorly understood. We have developed a syngeneic mouse model that facilitates studying the effects of IRE on pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer (PC), a disease which kills approximately 40,000 patients each year in the US, has successfully evaded several therapeutic approaches ...

Orthotopic Injection of Breast Cancer Cells into the Mice Mammary Fat Pad

A proper animal model is crucial for a better understanding of diseases. Animal models established by different methods (subcutaneous injections, xenografts, genetic manipulation, chemical reagents induction, etc.) have various pathological characters and play important roles in investigating certain aspects of diseases. Although no single model can totally mimic the whole human disease progression, orthotopic organs disease models with a proper stromal environment play an irreplaceable role in understanding diseases and screening for potential drugs. In this article, we describe how to implant breast cancer cells into the mammary fat pad in a simple, less invasive, and easy-to-handle way, and follow the metastasis to distant organs. With the proper features of primary tumor growth, breast and nipple pathological changes, and a high occurrence of other organs&#39; metastasis, this model maximumly mimics human breast cancer progression. Primary tumor growth in situ, long-distant metastasis, and the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer can be investigated by using this model.

Here, we present a protocol to implant breast cancer cells into the mammary fat pad in a simple, less invasive, and easy-to-handle way, and this mouse orthotopic breast cancer model with a proper mammary fat pad environment can be used to investigate various aspects of cancer.

A proper animal model is crucial for a better understanding of diseases. Animal models established by different methods (subcutaneous injections, ...

In Vitro Tumor Cell Rechallenge For Predictive Evaluation of Chimeric Antigen Receptor T Cell Antitumor Function

The field of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is rapidly advancing with improvements in CAR design, gene-engineering approaches and manufacturing optimizations. One challenge for these development efforts, however, has been the establishment of in vitro assays that can robustly inform selection of the optimal CAR T cell products for in vivo therapeutic success. Standard in vitro tumor-lysis assays often fail to reflect the true antitumor potential of the CAR T cells due to the relatively short co-culture time and high T cell to tumor ratio. Here, we describe an in vitro co-culture method to evaluate CAR T cell recursive killing potential at high tumor cell loads. In this assay, long-term cytotoxic function and proliferative capacity of CAR T cells is examined in vitro over 7 days with additional tumor targets administered to the co-culture every other day. This assay can be coupled with profiling T cell activation, exhaustion and memory phenotypes. Using this assay, we have successfully distinguished the functional and phenotypic differences between CD4+ and CD8+ CAR T cells against glioblastoma (GBM) cells, reflecting their differential in vivo antitumor activity in orthotopic xenograft models. This method provides a facile approach to assess CAR T cell potency and to elucidate the functional variations across different CAR T cell products.

Here, we describe an in vitro co-culture method to recursively challenge tumor-targeted T cells, which allows for phenotypic and functional analysis of antitumor T cell activity.

The field of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is rapidly advancing with improvements in CAR design, gene-engineering approaches and ...

Modeling Breast Cancer via an Intraductal Injection of Cre-expressing Adenovirus into the Mouse Mammary Gland

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease, possibly due to complex interactions between different cells of origins and oncogenic events. Mouse models are instrumental in gaining insights into these complex processes. Although many mouse models have been developed to study contributions of various oncogenic events and cells of origin to breast tumorigenesis, these models are often not cell-type or organ specific or cannot induce the initiation of mammary tumorigenesis in a temporally controlled manner. Here we describe a protocol to generate a new type of breast cancer mouse models based on the intraductal injection of Cre-expressing adenovirus (Ad-Cre) into mouse mammary glands (MGs). Due to the direct injection of Ad-Cre into mammary ducts, this approach is MG specific, without any unwanted cancer induction in other organs. The intraductal injection procedure can be performed in mice at different stages of their MG development (thus, it permits temporal control of cancer induction, starting from ~3-4 weeks of age). The cell-type specificity can be achieved by using different cell-type-specific promoters to drive Cre expression in the adenoviral vector. We show that luminal and basal mammary epithelial cells (MECs) can be tightly targeted for Cre/loxP-based genetic manipulation via an intraductal injection of Ad-Cre under the control of the Keratin 8 or Keratin 5 promoter, respectively. By incorporating a conditional Cre reporter (e.g., Cre/loxP-inducible Rosa26-YFP reporter), we show that MECs targeted by Ad-Cre, and tumor cells derived from them, can be traced by following the reporter-positive cells after intraductal injection.

The goal of this protocol is to describe a new breast cancer modeling approach based on the intraductal injection of Cre-expressing adenovirus into mouse mammary glands. This approach allows both cell-type- and organ-specific manipulation of oncogenic events in a temporally controlled manner.

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease, possibly due to complex interactions between different cells of origins and oncogenic events. Mouse models are ...

Evaluating the Differentiation Capacity of Mouse Prostate Epithelial Cells Using Organoid Culture

The prostate epithelium is comprised predominantly of basal and luminal cells. In vivo lineage tracing has been utilized to define the differentiation capacity of mouse prostate basal and luminal cells during development, tissue-regeneration and transformation. However, evaluating cell-intrinsic and extrinsic regulators of prostate epithelial differentiation capacity using a lineage tracing approach often requires extensive breeding and can be cost-prohibitive. In the prostate organoid assay, basal and luminal cells generate prostatic epithelium ex vivo. Importantly, primary epithelial cells can be isolated from mice of any genetic background or mice treated with any number of small molecules prior to, or after, plating into three-dimensional (3D) culture. Sufficient material for evaluation of differentiation capacity is generated after 7-10 days. Collection of basal-derived and luminal-derived organoids for (1) protein analysis by Western blot and (2) immunohistochemical analysis of intact organoids by whole-mount confocal microscopy enables researchers to evaluate the ex vivo differentiation capacity of prostate epithelial cells. When used in combination, these two approaches provide complementary information about the differentiation capacity of prostate basal and luminal cells in response to genetic or pharmacological manipulation.

Mouse prostate organoids represent a promising context to evaluate mechanisms that regulate differentiation. This paper describes an improved approach to establish prostate organoids, and introduces methods to (1) collect protein lysate from organoids, and (2) fix and stain organoids for whole-mount confocal microscopy.

The prostate epithelium is comprised predominantly of basal and luminal cells. In vivo lineage tracing has been utilized to define the differentiation ...

In Vitro Evaluation of Oncogenic Transformation in Human Mammary Epithelial Cells

Tumorigenesis is a multi-step process in which cells acquire capabilities&#160;that allow their growth, survival, and dissemination under hostile conditions. Different tests seek to identify and quantify these hallmarks of cancerous cells; however, they often focus on a single aspect of cellular transformation and, in fact, multiple tests are required for their proper characterization. The purpose of this work is to provide researchers with a set of tools to assess cellular transformation in vitro from a broad perspective, thereby making it possible to draw sound conclusions.
A sustained proliferative signaling activation is the major feature of tumoral tissues and can be easily monitored under in vitro conditions by calculating the number of population doublings achieved over time. Besides, the growth of cells in 3D cultures allows their interaction with surrounding cells, resembling what occurs in vivo. This enables the evaluation of cellular aggregation and, together with immunofluorescent labeling of distinctive cellular markers, to obtain information on another relevant feature of tumoral transformation: the loss of proper organization. Another remarkable characteristic of transformed cells is their capacity to grow without attachment to other cells and to the extracellular matrix, which can be evaluated with the anchorage assay.
Detailed experimental procedures to evaluate cell growth rate, to perform immunofluorescent labeling of cell lineage markers in 3D cultures, and to test anchorage-independent cell growth in soft agar are provided. These methodologies are optimized for Breast Primary Epithelial Cells (BPEC) due to its relevance in breast cancer; however, procedures can be applied to other cell types after some adjustments.

This protocol provides experimental in vitro tools to evaluate the transformation of human mammary cells. Detailed steps to follow-up cell proliferation rate, anchorage-independent growth capacity, and distribution of cell lineages in 3D cultures with basement membrane matrix are described.