We thank Martine Roovers for proofreading this paper and giving constructive comments. Access to Proxima 2 beamline (SOLEIL synchrotron) was within Block Allocation Groups 20151139.

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The protocol described herein allows understanding the dimer-dodecamer transition of TmPep1050 at the structural level. The methodology was experienced previously for determining the structure of both TmPep1050 oligomers11. The most challenging step was to find conditions promoting the dissociation of dodecamers into stable dimers. Such conditions had to be mild enough to permit the reassociation of dimers into dodecamers when the metal ion cofactor was added. The separation of oligomers was also ...

Oligomerization is a predominant process that dictates the biological functions of many proteins. In Escherichia coli, it is estimated that only 35% of proteins are monomeric1. Some proteins, called morpheeins, can even adopt several oligomeric states with subunits having distinct structure in each oligomeric state2. The transition between their oligomeric states is often a mean to regulate protein activity as each oligomeric state may have a different specific activity or function. Several examples of morpheeins have been well-documented in literature, notably the porphobilinogen synthase3, HPr kinase/phosphatase4, Lon protease5, lactate dehydrogenase6, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase7, pyruvate kinase8, citrate synthase9, and ribonuclease A10. Recently, we described the M42 aminopeptidase TmPep1050, another example of enzyme with morpheein-like behavior, whose activity depends on its oligomeric states11. The transition between its oligomeric states is mediated by its metallic cofactors which induce several structural modifications of the subunits.
The M42 aminopeptidase family belongs to the MH clan12,13, and is widely distributed among Bacteria and Archaea14. The M42 aminopeptidases are genuine dinuclear enzymes degrading peptides up to 35 amino acid residues in length15. They adopt a peculiar tetrahedron-shaped structure made of 12 subunits with their active sites&#160;oriented towards an inner cavity. Such an arrangement is often described as a nano-compartmentalization of the activity to avoid uncontrolled proteolysis. The physiological function of the M42 aminopeptidases may be associated with the proteasome, hydrolyzing peptides resulting&#160;from protein degradation16,17. Pyrococcus horikoshii possesses four M42 aminopeptidases, each presenting distinct but complementary specificities18,19,20,21. Singularly, heterocomplexes made of two different types of subunits have been described in P. horikoshii, suggesting the existence of peptidasome complexes22,23.
Several structures of M42 aminopeptidases have been described in the literature11,16,18,19,20,24,25,26. The subunit is composed of two distinct domains, a catalytic domain and a dimerization domain. The catalytic domain adopts a common &#945;/&#946; fold&#160;conserved in the whole MH clan, the archetypal catalytic domain being the aminopeptidase Ap1 of Vibrio proteolyticus27. The dimerization domain adopts a PDZ-like fold16 and may have, in addition to its role in the oligomerization, a role in controlling substrate access and binding in the inner cavity11. As the basic building block is a dimer, the dodecamer is often described as the association of six dimers, each dimer being positioned at each edge of the tetrahedron16. The oligomerization of the M42 aminopeptidases relies on the availability of its metal cofactors. Divalent metal ions, often Zn2+ and Co2+, are catalytically involved in the peptide binding and hydrolysis. They are found in two distinct binding sites, namely M1 and M2 sites. The two metal ions also drive and finely tune the oligomerization as demonstrated for PhTET2, PhTET3, PfTET3, and TmPep105011,24,28,29. When the metal cofactors are depleted, the dodecamer disassembles into dimers, like in PhTET2, PhTET3, and TmPep105011,16,28, or even monomers, like in PhTET2 and PfTET324,29.
Presented here is a protocol used for studying the structures of TmPep1050 oligomers. This protocol is a set of common methods including protein purification, proteolytic activity screening, crystallization, X-ray diffraction, and molecular replacement. Subtleties inherent to dealing with metalloenzymes, protein oligomerization, protein crystallization and molecular replacement are emphasized. A case of study is also presented to show whether TmPep1050 dodecamers may further dissociate into monomers or not. To address this question, a TmPep1050 variant, TmPep1050H60A H307A, has been studied whose metal binding sites are impaired by mutating His-60 (M2 site) and His-307 (M1 site) to Ala residues. This protocol may be accommodated to study other M42 aminopeptidases or any metalloenzymes with morpheein-like behavior.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1,10-phenanthroline</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>13, 137-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra 0.5 ml Centrifugal Filters Ultracel 30K</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC503096</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra 15 Centrifugal Filters Ultracel 30K</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC903024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzonase Nuclease</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>70664-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCP4</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>visit http://www.ccp4.ac.uk/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cOmplete EDTA-free</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>5056489001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coot</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>visit https://www2.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/personal/pemsley/coot/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystal Screen I</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystal Screen II</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-112</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DreamTaq Green PCR Master Mix</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>K1082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EasyXtal 15-well tool</td>
			<td>NeXtal</td>
			<td>132007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli PPY strain</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>see reference 31</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Escherichia coli XL1 blue strain</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>200249</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel Filtration Calibration Kit HMW</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>28-4038-42</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel Filtration Calibration Kit LMW</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>28-4038-41</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gel Filtration Standard</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>1511901</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GeneJET Plasmid Miniprep Kit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>K0503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Index</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-144</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Litholoops</td>
			<td>Molecular Dimensions</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-leucine-p-nitroanilide</td>
			<td>Bachem AG</td>
			<td>40010720025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Natrix 1</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-116</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Natrix 2</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-117</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neggia plugin</td>
			<td>Dectris</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>visit https://www.dectris.com/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NeXtal Tubes JCSG Core Suite I</td>
			<td>NeXtal</td>
			<td>130724</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NeXtal Tubes JCSG Core Suite II</td>
			<td>NeXtal</td>
			<td>130725</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NeXtal Tubes JCSG Core Suite III</td>
			<td>NeXtal</td>
			<td>130726</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NeXtal Tubes JCSG Core Suite IV</td>
			<td>NeXtal</td>
			<td>130727</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pBAD-TOPO</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>K430001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenix</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>visit https://www.phenix-online.org/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phusion High-Fidelity DNA polymerase</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>F-530L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salt RX 1</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-107</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salt RX 2</td>
			<td>Hampton Research</td>
			<td>HR2-109</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SnakeSkin Dialysis Tubing, 3.5K MWCO</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>88242</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Source 15Phe</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>17014702</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Source 15Q</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>17094705</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superdex 200 prep grade</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Life Sciences</td>
			<td>17104301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermotoga maritima MSB8 strain</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection</td>
			<td>ATCC 43589</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TmCD00089984</td>
			<td>DNASU Plasmid Repository</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XDS</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>visit http://xds.mpimf-heidelberg.mpg.de/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>xdsme</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>visit https://github.com/legrandp/xdsme</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

x-ray crystallography to study the oligomeric state transition of the thermotoga maritima m42 aminopeptidase tmpep1050

The M42 aminopeptidases form functionally active complexes made of 12 subunits. Their assembly process appears to be regulated by their metal ion cofactors triggering a dimer-dodecamer transition. Upon metal ion binding, several structural modifications occur in the active site and at the interaction interface, shaping dimers to promote the self-assembly. To observe such modifications, stable oligomers must be isolated prior to structural study. Reported here is a method that allows the purification of stable dodecamers and dimers of TmPep1050, an M42 aminopeptidase of T. maritima, and their structure determination by X-ray crystallography. Dimers were prepared from dodecamers by removing metal ions with a chelating agent. Without their&#160;cofactor, dodecamers became less stable and were fully dissociated upon heating. The oligomeric structures were solved by the straightforward molecular replacement approach. To illustrate the methodology, the structure of a TmPep1050 variant, totally impaired in metal ion binding, is presented showing no further breakdown of dimers to monomers.

To study a possible dodecamer dissociation into monomers in TmPep1050, the His-60 and His-307 codons were replaced by alanine codon using a synthetic gene. This gene was then cloned in pBAD vector for expression and purification of the corresponding TmPep1050 variant subsequently named TmPep1050H60A H307A. Size exclusion chromatography (Figure 3B) showed that the purified protein had an apparent molecular weight of 56 kDa (molecular weight of the monomer being 36.0 kDa). A similar...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about X-Ray Crystallography to Study the Oligomeric State Transition of the Thermotoga maritima M42 Aminopeptidase TmPep1050 at JoVE.com

X-Ray Crystallography to Study the Oligomeric State Transition of the Thermotoga maritima M42 Aminopeptidase TmPep1050

This protocol has been developed to study the dimer-dodecamer transition of TmPep1050, an M42 aminopeptidase, at the structural level. It is a straightforward pipeline starting from protein purification to X-ray data processing. Crystallogenesis, data set indexation, and molecular replacement have been emphasized through a case of study, TmPep1050H60A H307A variant.

X-Ray Crystallography to Study the Oligomeric State Transition of the Thermotoga maritima M42 Aminopeptidase TmPep1050

The M42 aminopeptidases form functionally active complexes made of 12 subunits. Their assembly process appears to be regulated by their metal ion ...

x-ray-crystallography-to-study-oligomeric-state-transition-thermotoga

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

3.9K Views.  Université Libre de Bruxelles. This protocol has been developed to study the dimer-dodecamer transition of TmPep1050, an M42 aminopeptidase, at the structural level. It is a straightforward pipeline starting from protein purification to X-ray data processing. Crystallogenesis, data set indexation, and molecular replacement have been emphasized through a case of study, TmPep1050H60A H307A variant.

Video: X-Ray Crystallography to Study the Oligomeric State Transition of the Thermotoga maritima M42 Aminopeptidase TmPep1050

Preparation and Delivery of Protein Microcrystals in Lipidic Cubic Phase for Serial Femtosecond Crystallography

Membrane proteins (MPs) are essential components of cellular membranes and primary drug targets. Rational drug design relies on precise structural information, typically obtained by crystallography; however MPs are difficult to crystallize. Recent progress in MP structural determination has benefited greatly from the development of lipidic cubic phase (LCP) crystallization methods, which typically yield well-diffracting, but often small crystals that suffer from radiation damage during traditional crystallographic data collection at synchrotron sources. The development of new-generation X-ray free-electron laser (XFEL) sources that produce extremely bright femtosecond pulses has enabled room temperature data collection from microcrystals with no or negligible radiation damage. Our recent efforts in combining LCP technology with serial femtosecond crystallography (LCP-SFX) have resulted in high-resolution structures of several human G protein-coupled receptors, which represent a notoriously difficult target for structure determination. In the LCP-SFX technique, LCP is recruited as a matrix for both growth and delivery of MP microcrystals to the intersection of the injector stream with an XFEL beam for crystallographic data collection. It has been demonstrated that LCP-SFX can substantially improve the diffraction resolution when only sub-10 &#181;m crystals are available, or when the use of smaller crystals at room temperature can overcome various problems associated with larger cryocooled crystals, such as accumulation of defects, high mosaicity and cryocooling artifacts. Future advancements in X-ray sources and detector technologies should make serial crystallography highly attractive and practicable for implementation not only at XFELs, but also at more accessible synchrotron beamlines. Here we present detailed visual protocols for the preparation, characterization and delivery of microcrystals in LCP for serial crystallography experiments. These protocols include methods for conducting crystallization experiments in syringes, detecting and characterizing the crystal samples, optimizing crystal density, loading microcrystal laden LCP into the injector device and delivering the sample to the beam for data collection.

We describe procedures for the preparation and delivery of membrane protein microcrystals in lipidic cubic phase for serial crystallography at X-ray free-electron lasers and synchrotron sources. These protocols can also be applied for incorporation and delivery of soluble protein microcrystals, leading to substantially reduced sample consumption compared to liquid injection.

Membrane proteins (MPs) are essential components of cellular membranes and primary drug targets. Rational drug design relies on precise structural ...

Combining X-Ray Crystallography with Small Angle X-Ray Scattering to Model Unstructured Regions of Nsa1 from S. Cerevisiae

Determination of the full-length structure of ribosome assembly factor Nsa1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) is challenging because of the disordered and protease labile C-terminus of the protein. This manuscript describes the methods to purify recombinant Nsa1 from S. cerevisiae for structural analysis by both X-ray crystallography and SAXS. X-ray crystallography was utilized to solve the structure of the well-ordered N-terminal WD40 domain of Nsa1, and then SAXS was used to resolve the structure of the C-terminus of Nsa1 in solution. Solution scattering data was collected from full-length Nsa1 in solution. The theoretical scattering amplitudes were calculated from the high-resolution crystal structure of the WD40 domain, and then a combination of rigid body and ab initio modeling revealed the C-terminus of Nsa1. Through this hybrid approach the quaternary structure of the entire protein was reconstructed. The methods presented here should be generally applicable for the hybrid structural determination of other proteins composed of a mix of structured and unstructured domains.

Combining X-Ray Crystallography with Small Angle X-Ray Scattering to Model Unstructured Regions of Nsa1 from S. Cerevisiae

This method describes the cloning, expression, and purification of recombinant Nsa1 for structural determination by X-ray crystallography and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), and is applicable for the hybrid structural analysis of other proteins containing both ordered and disordered domains.

Determination of the full-length structure of ribosome assembly factor Nsa1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) is challenging because of the ...

Characterization of Glycoproteins with the Immunoglobulin Fold by X-Ray Crystallography and Biophysical Techniques

Glycoproteins on the surface of cells play critical roles in cellular function, including signalling, adhesion and transport. On leukocytes, several of these glycoproteins possess immunoglobulin (Ig) folds and are central to immune recognition and regulation. Here, we present a platform for the design, expression and biophysical characterization of the extracellular domain of human B cell receptor CD22. We propose that these approaches are broadly applicable to the characterization of mammalian glycoprotein ectodomains containing Ig domains. Two suspension human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell lines, HEK293F and HEK293S, are used to express glycoproteins harbouring complex and high-mannose glycans, respectively. These recombinant glycoproteins with different glycoforms allow investigating the effect of glycan size and composition on ligand binding. We discuss protocols for studying the kinetics and thermodynamics of glycoprotein binding to biologically relevant ligands and therapeutic antibody candidates. Recombinant glycoproteins produced in HEK293S cells are amenable to crystallization due to glycan homogeneity, reduced flexibility and susceptibility to endoglycosidase H treatment. We present methods for soaking glycoprotein crystals with heavy atoms and small molecules for phase determination and analysis of ligand binding, respectively. The experimental protocols discussed here hold promise for the characterization of mammalian glycoproteins to give insight into their function and investigate the mechanism of action of therapeutics.

We present approaches for the biophysical and structural characterization of glycoproteins with the immunoglobulin fold by biolayer interferometry, isothermal titration calorimetry, and X-ray crystallography.

Glycoproteins on the surface of cells play critical roles in cellular function, including signalling, adhesion and transport. On leukocytes, several of ...

Small-Scale Colorimetric Assays of Intracellular Lactate and Pyruvate in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

Lactate and pyruvate are key intermediates of intracellular energy metabolic pathways. Monitoring the lactate/pyruvate ratio in cells helps to determine whether there is an imbalance in age-related energy metabolism between mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and aerobic glycolysis. Here, we show the utilization of commercial colorimetric assay kits for lactate and pyruvate in the model organism C. elegans. Recently, the sensitivity and accuracy of the colorimetric/fluorimetric assay kits have been improved greatly by the research and development conducted by reagent manufacturers. The improved reagents have enabled the use of small-scale assays with a 96-well plate in C. elegans. In general, a fluorimetric assay is superior in sensitivity to a colorimetric assay; however, the colorimetric approach is more suitable for the use in common laboratories. Another important issue in these assays for quantitative determination is protein precipitation of homogenized C. elegans samples. In our protein precipitation method, common precipitants (e.g., trichloroacetic acid, perchloric acid and metaphosphoric acid) are used for sample preparation. A protein-free assay sample is prepared by directly adding cold precipitant (final concentration of 5%) during homogenization.

Small-Scale Colorimetric Assays of Intracellular Lactate and Pyruvate in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans

We describe a modified small-scale extraction and colorimetric assays of lactate and pyruvate in the nematode C. elegans. When utilizing commercial assay kits, the technical development of their sensitivity and accuracy is important. Protein precipitation in extraction is the most critical step for the quantitative determination of intracellular metabolites.

Lactate and pyruvate are key intermediates of intracellular energy metabolic pathways. Monitoring the lactate/pyruvate ratio in cells helps to determine ...

Structural Studies of Macromolecules in Solution using Small Angle X-Ray Scattering

Protein-protein interactions involving proteins with multiple globular domains present technical challenges for determining how such complexes form and how the domains are oriented/positioned. Here, a protocol with the potential for elucidating which specific domains mediate interactions in multicomponent system through ab initio modeling is described. A method for calculating solution structures of macromolecules and their assemblies is provided that involves integrating data from small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), chromatography, and atomic resolution structures together in a hybrid approach. A specific example is that of the complex of full-length nidogen-1, which assembles extracellular matrix proteins and forms an extended, curved nanostructure. One of its globular domains attaches to laminin &#947;-1, which structures the basement membrane. This provides a basis for determining accurate structures of flexible multidomain protein complexes and is enabled by synchrotron sources coupled with automation robotics and size exclusion chromatography systems. This combination allows rapid analysis in which multiple oligomeric states are separated just prior to SAXS data collection. The analysis yields information on the radius of gyration, particle dimension, molecular shape and interdomain pairing. The protocol for generating 3D models of complexes by fitting high-resolution structures of the component proteins is also given.

Here, we present how Small Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS) can be utilized to obtain information on low-resolution envelopes representing the macromolecular structures. When used in conjunction with high-resolution structural techniques such as X-Ray Crystallography and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, SAXS can provide detailed insights into multidomain proteins and macromolecular complexes in-solution.

Protein-protein interactions involving proteins with multiple globular domains present technical challenges for determining how such complexes form and ...

Isolation of Lipoprotein Particles from Chicken Egg Yolk for the Study of Bacterial Pathogen Fatty Acid Incorporation into Membrane Phospholipids

Staphylococcus aureus and other Gram-positive pathogens incorporate fatty acids from the environment into membrane phospholipids. During infection, the majority of exogenous fatty acids are present within host lipoprotein particles. Uncertainty remains as to the reservoirs of host fatty acids and the mechanisms by which bacteria extract fatty acids from the lipoprotein particles. In this work, we describe protocols for enrichment of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles from chicken egg yolk and determining whether LDLs serve as fatty acid reservoirs for S. aureus. This method exploits unbiased lipidomic analysis and chicken LDLs, an effective and economical model for the exploration of interactions between LDLs and bacteria. The analysis of S. aureus integration of exogenous fatty acids from LDLs is performed using high-resolution/accurate mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry, enabling the characterization of the fatty acid composition of the bacterial membrane and unbiased identification of novel combinations of fatty acids that arise in bacterial membrane lipids upon exposure to LDLs. These advanced mass spectrometry techniques offer an unparalleled perspective of fatty acid incorporation by revealing the specific exogenous fatty acids incorporated into the phospholipids. The methods outlined here are adaptable to the study of other bacterial pathogens and alternative sources of complex fatty acids.

This method provides a framework for studying incorporation of exogenous fatty acids from complex host sources into bacterial membranes, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. To achieve this, protocols for the enrichment of lipoprotein particles from chicken egg yolk and subsequent fatty acid profiling of bacterial phospholipids utilizing mass spectrometry are described.

Staphylococcus aureus and other Gram-positive pathogens incorporate fatty acids from the environment into membrane phospholipids. During infection, the ...

An All-in-one Sample Holder for Macromolecular X-ray Crystallography with Minimal Background Scattering

Macromolecular X-ray crystallography (MX) is the most prominent method to obtain high-resolution three-dimensional knowledge of biological macromolecules. A prerequisite for the method is that highly ordered crystalline specimen need to be grown from the macromolecule to be studied, which then need to be prepared for the diffraction experiment. This preparation procedure typically involves removal of the crystal from the solution, in which it was grown, soaking of the crystal in ligand solution or cryo-protectant solution and then immobilizing the crystal on a mount suitable for the experiment. A serious problem for this procedure is that macromolecular crystals are often mechanically unstable and rather fragile. Consequently, the handling of such fragile crystals can easily become a bottleneck in a structure determination attempt. Any mechanical force applied to such delicate crystals may disturb the regular packing of the molecules and may lead to a loss of diffraction power of the crystals. Here, we present a novel all-in-one sample holder, which has been developed in order to minimize the handling steps of crystals and hence to maximize the success rate of the structure determination experiment. The sample holder supports the setup of crystal drops by replacing the commonly used microscope cover slips. Further, it allows in-place crystal manipulation such as ligand soaking, cryo-protection and complex formation without any opening of the crystallization cavity and without crystal handling. Finally, the sample holder has been designed in order to enable the collection of in situ X-ray diffraction data at both, ambient and cryogenic temperature. By using this sample holder, the chances to damage the crystal on its way from crystallization to diffraction data collection are considerably reduced since direct crystal handling is no longer required.

A novel sample holder for macromolecular X-ray crystallography along with a suitable handling protocol is presented. The system allows crystal growth, crystal soaking and in situ diffraction data collection at both, ambient and cryogenic temperature without the need of any crystal manipulation or mounting.

Macromolecular X-ray crystallography (MX) is the most prominent method to obtain high-resolution three-dimensional knowledge of biological macromolecules. ...

Cell Culture on Silicon Nitride Membranes and Cryopreparation for Synchrotron X-ray Fluorescence Nano-analysis

Very little is known about the distribution of metal ions at the subcellular level. However, those chemical elements have essential regulatory functions and their disturbed homeostasis is involved in various diseases. State-of-the-art synchrotron X-ray fluorescence nanoprobes provide the required sensitivity and spatial resolution to elucidate the two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) distribution and concentration of metals inside entire cells at the organelle level. This opens new exciting scientific fields of investigation on the role of metals in the physiopathology of the cell. The cellular preparation is a key and often complex procedure, particularly for basic analysis. Although X-ray fluorescence techniques are now widespread and various preparation methods have been used, very few studies have investigated the preservation of the elemental content of cells at best, and no stepwise detailed protocol for the cryopreparation of adherent cells for X-ray fluorescence nanoprobes has been released so far. This is a description of a protocol that provides the stepwise cellular preparation for fast cryofixation to enable synchrotron X-ray fluorescence nano-analysis of cells in a frozen hydrated state when a cryogenic environment and transfer is available. In case nano-analysis has to be performed at room temperature, an additional procedure for freeze-drying the cryofixed adherent cellular preparation is provided. The proposed protocols have been successfully used in previous works, most recently in studying the 2D and 3D intracellular distribution of an organometallic compound in breast cancer cells.

Presented here is a protocol for cell culture on silicon nitride membranes and plunge-freezing prior to X-ray fluorescence imaging with a synchrotron cryogenic X-ray nanoprobe. When only room temperature nano-analysis is provided, the frozen samples can be further freeze-dried. These are critical steps to obtain information on the intracellular elemental composition.

Very little is known about the distribution of metal ions at the subcellular level. However, those chemical elements have essential regulatory functions ...

Screening for Thermotoga maritima Membrane-Bound Pyrophosphatase Inhibitors

Membrane-bound pyrophosphatases (mPPases) are dimeric enzymes that occur in bacteria, archaea, plants, and protist parasites. These proteins cleave pyrophosphate into two orthophosphate molecules, which is coupled with proton and/or sodium ion pumping across the membrane. Since no homologous proteins occur in animals and humans, mPPases are good candidates in the design of potential drug targets. Here we present a detailed protocol to screen for mPPase inhibitors utilizing the molybdenum blue reaction in a 96 well plate system. We use mPPase from the thermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima (TmPPase) as a model enzyme. This protocol is simple and inexpensive, producing a consistent and robust result. It takes only about one hour to complete the activity assay protocol from the start of the assay until the absorbance measurement. Since the blue color produced in this assay is stable for a long period of time, subsequent assay(s) can be performed immediately after the previous batch, and the absorbance can be measured later for all batches at once. The drawback of this protocol is that it is done manually and thus can be exhausting as well as require good skills of pipetting and time keeping. Furthermore, the arsenite-citrate solution used in this assay contains sodium arsenite, which is toxic and should be handled with necessary precautions.

Screening for Thermotoga maritima Membrane-Bound Pyrophosphatase Inhibitors

Here we present a screening method for membrane-bound pyrophosphatase (from Thermotoga maritima) inhibitors based on the molybdenum blue reaction in a 96 well plate format.

Membrane-bound pyrophosphatases (mPPases) are dimeric enzymes that occur in bacteria, archaea, plants, and protist parasites. These proteins cleave ...

Optimizing the Growth of Endothiapepsin Crystals for Serial Crystallography Experiments

Here, a protocol is presented to facilitate the creation of large volumes (&#62; 100 &#181;L) of micro-crystalline slurries suitable for serial crystallography experiments at both synchrotrons and XFELs. The method is based upon an understanding of the protein crystal phase diagram, and how that knowledge can be utilized. The method is divided into three stages: (1) optimizing crystal morphology, (2) transitioning to batch, and (3) scaling. Stage 1 involves finding well diffracting, single crystals, hopefully but not necessarily, presenting in a cube-like morphology. In Stage 2, the Stage 1 condition is optimized by crystal growth time. This strategy can transform crystals grown by vapor diffusion to batch. Once crystal growth can occur within approximately 24 h, a morphogram of the protein and precipitant mixture can be plotted and used as the basis for a scaling strategy (Stage 3). When crystals can be grown in batch, scaling can be attempted, and the crystal size and concentration optimized as the volume is increased. Endothiapepsin has been used as a demonstration protein for this protocol. Some of the decisions presented are specific to endothiapepsin. However, it is hoped that the way they have been applied will inspire a way of thinking about this procedure that others can adapt to their own projects.

The aim of this article is to give the viewer a solid understanding of how to transform their small-volume, vapor-diffusion protocol, for growing large, single protein crystals, into a large-volume batch micro-crystallization method for serial crystallography.