This work was supported by start-up funds from the University of Texas Medical branch, Galveston, TX, and a Texas STAR award to L.J.K. We thank Prof. Edward Lemke (European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany) for plasmid pEVOL-PylRS-AF. Images in Figure 1 were created using BioRender.

<ol>
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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The approach described herein was used to track the precise location of effector proteins injected into the host cell by the bacterial T3SS after infection. T3SSs are employed by intracellular pathogens such as Salmonella, Shigella, and Yersinia to transport virulence components into the host. The development of super-resolution imaging technologies has made it possible to visualize virulence factors at a previously unimaginable resolution12,...

Bacterial infections have long been regarded as a serious hazard to human health. Pathogens use highly evolved, extremely powerful, and intricate defense systems, as well as a variety of bacterial virulence factors (referred to as effector proteins) to evade host immune responses and establish infections1,2. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these systems and the role of individual effector proteins are still largely unknown due to the dearth of suitable approaches for directly following the crucial protein components and effectors in host cells during pathogenesis.
One typical example is Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, which causes acute gastroenteritis. Salmonella Typhimurium uses type three secretion systems (T3SS) to inject a variety of effector proteins directly into host cells. As soon as Salmonella enters the host cell, it resides in an acidic membrane-bound compartment, termed the Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV)3,4. The acid pH of the SCV activates the Salmonella pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2)-encoded T3SS and translocates a volley of 20 or more effector proteins across the vacuolar membrane into the host cytosol5,6,7,8. Inside the host, these complex cocktails of effector proteins coordinately manipulate host cell signaling pathways, resulting in the formation of highly dynamic, complex tubular membrane structures extended from the SCV along microtubules, termed Salmonella-induced filaments (SIFs), that enable Salmonella to survive and replicate within the host cells9,10,11.
Methods to visualize, track, and monitor bacterial effector localizations, and examine their trafficking and interactions inside host cells, provides critical insight into the mechanisms underpinning bacterial pathogenesis. Labeling and localization of Salmonella secreted T3SS effector proteins inside host cells has proven to be a technological challenge12,13; Nonetheless, the development of genetically-encoded fluorescent proteins has transformed our ability to study and visualize proteins within living systems. However, the size of fluorescent proteins (~25-30 kDa)15 is often comparable to or even greater than that of the protein of interest (POI; e.g., 13.65 kDa for SsaP, 37.4 kDa for SifA). In fact, fluorescent protein labeling of effectors often blocks the secretion of the labeled effector and jams the T3SS14.
Furthermore, fluorescent proteins are less stable and emit a low number of photons before photobleaching, limiting their use in super-resolution microscopic techniques16,17,18, particularly in photoactivation localization microscopy (PALM), STORM, and stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy. While the photophysical properties of organic fluorescent dyes are superior to those of fluorescent proteins, methods/techniques such as CLIP/SNAP19,20, Split-GFP21, ReAsH/FlAsH22,23, and HA-Tags24,25 require an additional protein or peptide appendage that may impair the structure-function of the effector protein of interest by interfering with post-translational modification or trafficking. An alternative method that minimizes necessary protein modification involves the incorporation of ncAAs into a POI during translation through GCE. The ncAAs are either fluorescent or can be made fluorescent via click chemistry12,13,26,27,28.
Using GCE, ncAAs with tiny, functional, bio-orthogonal groups (such as an azide, cyclopropene, or cyclooctyne group) can be introduced at nearly any location in a target protein. In this strategy, a native codon is swapped with a rare codon such as an amber (TAG) stop codon at a specified position in the gene of the POI. The modified protein is subsequently expressed in cells alongside an orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase/tRNA pair. The tRNA synthetase active site is designed to receive only one particular ncAA, which is then covalently attached to the 3&#39;-end of the tRNA that recognizes the amber codon. The ncAA is simply introduced into the growth medium, but it must be taken up by the cell and reach the cytosol where the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) can link it to the orthogonal tRNA; it is then incorporated into the POI at the specified location (see Figure 1)12. Thus, GCE enables site-specific incorporation of a plethora of bio-orthogonal reactive groups such as ketone, azide, alkyne, cyclooctyne, transcyclooctene, tetrazine, norbonene, &#945;, &#946;-unsaturated amide, and bicyclo [6.1.0]-nonyne into a POI, potentially overcoming the limitations of conventional protein labeling methods12,26,27,28.
Recent emerging trends in super-resolution imaging techniques have opened up new avenues to investigate biological structures at the molecular level. In particular, STORM, a single-molecule, localization-based, super-resolution technique, has become an invaluable tool to visualize cellular structures down to ~20-30 nm and is able to investigate biological processes one molecule at a time, thereby discovering the roles of intracellular molecules that are yet unknown in traditional ensemble-averaged studies13. Single-molecule and super-resolution techniques require a small tag with bright, photostable organic fluorophores for the best resolution. We recently demonstrated that GCE can be used for incorporating suitable probes for super-resolution imaging12.
Two of the best choices for protein labeling in cells are bicyclo [6.1.0] nonynelysine (BCN) and trans-cyclooctene-lysine (TCO; shown in Figure 1), which may be genetically encoded using a variant of the tRNA/synthetase pair (here termed tRNAPyl/PylRSAF), where Pyl represents pyrrolysine, and AF represents a rationally designed double mutant (Y306A, Y384F) derived from Methanosarcina mazei that naturally encodes pyrrolysine12,29,30,31. Through the strain-promoted inverse electron-demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition (SPIEDAC) reaction, these amino acids react chemoselectively with tetrazine conjugates (Figure 1)12,30,31. Such cycloaddition reactions are exceptionally fast and compatible with living cells; they may also be fluorogenic, if an appropriate fluorophore is functionalized with the tetrazine moiety12,26,32. This paper presents an optimized protocol for monitoring the dynamics of bacterial effectors delivered into host cells using GCE, followed by subcellular localization of secreted proteins in HeLa cells using dSTORM. The results indicate that incorporation of an ncAA via GCE, followed by a click reaction with fluorogenic tetrazine-bearing dyes, represents a versatile method for selective labeling, visualization of secreted proteins, and subsequent sub-cellular localization in the host. All the components and procedures detailed here, however, can be adjusted or substituted so that the GCE system can be adapted to investigate other biological questions.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>10x Tris/Glycine SDS running buffer</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>1610732</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium chloride</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>A661-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium sulphate</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>BP212R-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin Sodium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A0166</td>
			<td>5 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic-Antimycotic (100x)</td>
			<td>ThermiFischer Scientific</td>
			<td>15240096</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arabinose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A3256</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Avanti J-26XP (High-Performance Centrifuge)</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacto-Agar</td>
			<td>BD Diagnostics, Franklin Lakes, USA</td>
			<td>214010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BDP-FL-tetrazine</td>
			<td>Lumiprobe (USA)</td>
			<td>2.14E+02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-mercaptoethanol</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>444203</td>
			<td>250 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bromophenol blue</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>B8026</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A4503</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Casein</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C8654</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Catalase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C9322</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloramphenicol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1919</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Click Amino Acid / trans-Cyclooct-2-en &#8211; L - Lysine (TCO*A)</td>
			<td>SiChem GmbH</td>
			<td>SC-8008</td>
			<td>Size: 500 mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI (Hoechst33342)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>H3570</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DeNovix DS-11+ Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>DeNovix</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM*</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>10-013-CV</td>
			<td>* Used for maintaining HeLa Cell</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM**</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11965-092</td>
			<td>**Used for bacterial infection in presence of ncAA, see section 5.4.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D8418</td>
			<td>250 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-rabbit Alexa fluoro555 secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A-31572</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DPBS, 1x</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-031-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E. coli strain BL21 (DE3)</td>
			<td>Novagen (Madison, WI)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMCCD Camera</td>
			<td>Andor</td>
			<td>iXon Ultra 897-BV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf Safe-Lock Tube 1.5 mL (PCR clean)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany</td>
			<td>30123.328</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Fischer</td>
			<td>10082147</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand Syringe Filters - Sterile (PVDF 0.22 &#181;m)</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>97203</td>
			<td>Pack of 100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gene Pulser Xcell Electroporator</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>1652660</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gentamycin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G1272</td>
			<td>10 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gibco L-Glutamine (200 mM), 100x</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>25-030-081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose oxidase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7141-50KU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>BF229-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HeLa cells</td>
			<td>ATTC</td>
			<td>CCL-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES Buffer</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-060-C1</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrocloric acid</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>A144-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Image processing and analysis:&#160; http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IntantBlue</td>
			<td>Expedeon</td>
			<td>ISB1L</td>
			<td>Coomassie-based stain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl &#946;-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>I5502</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Janelia Fluoro 646-tetrazine</td>
			<td>Tocris Bioscience</td>
			<td>7279</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>60615</td>
			<td>5 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Broth</td>
			<td>BD Difco</td>
			<td>244620</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysozyme</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L6876</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#956;Manager (v. 1.4.2)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://micro-manager.org/Download_Micro-Manager_Latest_Release</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MES</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M3671</td>
			<td>250 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro pulser cuvette</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>165-2086</td>
			<td>0.2 cm electrode gap, pkg. of 50</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nikon N-STORM</td>
			<td>Nikon Instruments Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://www.microscope.healthcare.nikon.com/products/super-resolution-microscopes/n-storm-super-resolution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nunc EasYFlask Cell Culture Flasks</td>
			<td>ThermiFischer Scientific</td>
			<td>156499</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Omnipur Casamino Acid</td>
			<td>Calbiochem</td>
			<td>2240</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehhyde (PFA)</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences&#160;</td>
			<td>15710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS (10x)</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11666789001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin Solution (100x)</td>
			<td>GenDEPOT&#160;</td>
			<td>CA005-010</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pEVOL-PylRS-AF</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>For plasmid construction and map see following references 
			1. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2011, 50(17), 3878-81. 
			2. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl., 2012, 51, 4166-70.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasmid Mini-prep Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pWSK29-sseJ10TAG-HA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ref.: elife. 2021, 10, e67789.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>plasmid pWSK29-sseJ-HA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ref.: elife. 2021, 10, e67789.&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Vector map of PWSK29: https://www.addgene.org/172972/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluronic F-127</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>540025</td>
			<td>Protein grade, 10% Solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium phosphate monobasic</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>P285-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium sulphate</td>
			<td>Acros Organic</td>
			<td>424220250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Protease Inhibitor Cocktail Set I - Calbiochem</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>539131</td>
			<td>100x Solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-HA primary antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H6908</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>S. enterica. serovar Typhimurium 14028s</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Ref.: PLoS Biol. 2015, 13, e1002116.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Saponin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>47036-50G-F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L3771</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>SS255-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Pyruvate (100 mM), 100x</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-060-C1</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonic Dismembrator Model 100</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>24932</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>STED microsocpe (Leica TCS SP8 STED 3X system)</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://www.leica-microsystems.com/products/confocal-microscopes/p/leica-tcs-sp8-sted-one/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ThunderSTORM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://zitmen.github.io/thunderstorm/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trizma Base</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA (1x), 0.25%&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>GenDEPOT&#160;</td>
			<td>CA014-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9416</td>
			<td>100 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-well tissue culture chamber slides</td>
			<td>SARSTEDT</td>
			<td>94.6190.802</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

super-resolution imaging of bacterial secreted proteins using genetic code expansion

Type three secretion systems (T3SSs) enable gram-negative bacteria to inject a battery of effector proteins directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic host cells. Upon entry, the injected effector proteins cooperatively modulate eukaryotic signaling pathways and reprogram cellular functions, enabling bacterial entry and survival. Monitoring and localizing these secreted effector proteins in the context of infections provides a footprint for defining the dynamic interface of host-pathogen interactions. However, labeling and imaging bacterial proteins in host cells without disrupting their structure/function is technically challenging. 
Constructing fluorescent fusion proteins does not resolve this problem, because the fusion proteins jam the secretory apparatus and thus are not secreted. To overcome these obstacles, we recently employed a method for site-specific fluorescent labeling of bacterial secreted effectors, as well as other difficult-to-label proteins, using genetic code expansion (GCE). This paper provides a complete step-by-step protocol to label Salmonella secreted effectors using GCE site-specifically, followed by directions for imaging the subcellular localization of secreted proteins in HeLa cells using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) 
Recent findings suggest that the incorporation of non-canonical amino acids (ncAAs) via GCE, followed by bio-orthogonal labeling with tetrazine-containing dyes, is a viable technique for selective labeling and visualization of bacterial secreted proteins and subsequent image analysis in the host. The goal of this article is to provide a straightforward and clear protocol that can be employed by investigators interested in conducting super-resolution imaging using GCE to study various biological processes in bacteria and viruses, as well as host-pathogen interactions.

This protocol paper describes a GCE-based method for site-specific fluorescent labeling and visualization of Salmonella secreted effectors, as depicted in Figure 1. Chemical structure of the ncAA bearing trans-cyclooctene bioorthogonal group (TCO) and the fluorescent dye are shown in Figure 1A. SseJ labeling was achieved by genetic incorporation of bioorthogonal ncAAs at an amber stop codon (see Figu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Super-Resolution Imaging of Bacterial Secreted Proteins Using Genetic Code Expansion at JoVE.com

Super-Resolution Imaging of Bacterial Secreted Proteins Using Genetic Code Expansion

This article provides a straightforward and clear protocol to label Salmonella secreted effectors using genetic code expansion (GCE) site-specifically and image the subcellular localization of secreted proteins in HeLa cells using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM)

Type three secretion systems (T3SSs) enable gram-negative bacteria to inject a battery of effector proteins directly into the cytosol of eukaryotic host ...

super-resolution-imaging-bacterial-secreted-proteins-using-genetic

Research

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1.3K Views.  University of Texas Medical Branch. This article provides a straightforward and clear protocol to label Salmonella secreted effectors using genetic code expansion (GCE) site-specifically and image the subcellular localization of secreted proteins in HeLa cells using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM) 

Video: Super-Resolution Imaging of Bacterial Secreted Proteins Using Genetic Code Expansion

Genetic Studies of Human DNA Repair Proteins Using Yeast as a Model System 

Understanding the roles of human DNA repair proteins in genetic pathways is a formidable challenge to many researchers. Genetic studies in mammalian systems have been limited due to the lack of readily available tools including defined mutant genetic cell lines, regulatory expression systems, and appropriate selectable markers. To circumvent these difficulties, model genetic systems in lower eukaryotes have become an attractive choice for the study of functionally conserved DNA repair proteins and pathways. We have developed a model yeast system to study the poorly defined genetic functions of the Werner syndrome helicase-nuclease (WRN) in nucleic acid metabolism. Cellular phenotypes associated with defined genetic mutant backgrounds can be investigated to clarify the cellular and molecular functions of WRN through its catalytic activities and protein interactions. The human WRN gene and associated variants, cloned into DNA plasmids for expression in yeast, can be placed under the control of a regulatory plasmid element. The expression construct can then be transformed into the appropriate yeast mutant background, and genetic function assayed by a variety of methodologies. Using this approach, we determined that WRN, like its related RecQ family members BLM and Sgs1, operates in a Top3-dependent pathway that is likely to be important for genomic stability. This is described in our recent publication [1] at <a href="http://www.impactaging.com">www.impactaging.com</a>. Detailed methods of specific assays for genetic complementation studies in yeast are provided in this paper.

Genetic Studies of Human DNA Repair Proteins Using Yeast as a Model System

Genetic studies in yeast can be employed to investigate the molecular and cellular functions of human genes in cellular DNA metabolism. Methods are described for the genetic characterization of the human WRN gene product defective in the premature aging disorder Werner syndrome in functionally conserved pathways using yeast as a tractable model system.

Understanding the roles of human DNA repair proteins in genetic pathways is a formidable challenge to many researchers.  Genetic studies in mammalian ...

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Phenotypes are determined by a complex series of physical (e.g. protein-protein) and functional (e.g. gene-gene or genetic) interactions (GI)1. While physical interactions can indicate which bacterial proteins are associated as complexes, they do not necessarily reveal pathway-level functional relationships1. GI screens, in which the growth of double mutants bearing two deleted or inactivated genes is measured and compared to the corresponding single mutants, can illuminate epistatic dependencies between loci and hence provide a means to query and discover novel functional relationships2. Large-scale GI maps have been reported for eukaryotic organisms like yeast3-7, but GI information remains sparse for prokaryotes8, which hinders the functional annotation of bacterial genomes. To this end, we and others have developed high-throughput quantitative bacterial GI screening methods9, 10.
Here, we present the key steps required to perform quantitative E. coli Synthetic Genetic Array (eSGA) screening procedure on a genome-scale9, using natural bacterial conjugation and homologous recombination to systemically generate and measure the fitness of large numbers of double mutants in a colony array format. Briefly, a robot is used to transfer, through conjugation, chloramphenicol (Cm) - marked mutant alleles from engineered Hfr (High frequency of recombination) 'donor strains' into an ordered array of kanamycin (Kan) - marked F- recipient strains. Typically, we use loss-of-function single mutants bearing non-essential gene deletions (e.g. the 'Keio' collection11) and essential gene hypomorphic mutations (i.e. alleles conferring reduced protein expression, stability, or activity9, 12, 13) to query the functional associations of non-essential and essential genes, respectively. After conjugation and ensuing genetic exchange mediated by homologous recombination, the resulting double mutants are selected on solid medium containing both antibiotics. After outgrowth, the plates are digitally imaged and colony sizes are quantitatively scored using an in-house automated image processing system14. GIs are revealed when the growth rate of a double mutant is either significantly better or worse than expected9. Aggravating (or negative) GIs often result between loss-of-function mutations in pairs of genes from compensatory pathways that impinge on the same essential process2. Here, the loss of a single gene is buffered, such that either single mutant is viable. However, the loss of both pathways is deleterious and results in synthetic lethality or sickness (i.e. slow growth). Conversely, alleviating (or positive) interactions can occur between genes in the same pathway or protein complex2 as the deletion of either gene alone is often sufficient to perturb the normal function of the pathway or complex such that additional perturbations do not reduce activity, and hence growth, further. Overall, systematically identifying and analyzing GI networks can provide unbiased, global maps of the functional relationships between large numbers of genes, from which pathway-level information missed by other approaches can be inferred9.

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Systematic, large-scale synthetic genetic (gene-gene or epistasis) interaction screens can be used to explore genetic redundancy and pathway cross-talk. Here, we describe a high-throughput quantitative synthetic genetic array screening technology, termed eSGA that we developed for elucidating epistatic relationships and exploring genetic interaction networks in Escherichia coli.

Phenotypes  are determined by a complex series of physical (e.g. protein-protein) and  functional (e.g. gene-gene or genetic) interactions (GI)1. While ...

Super-resolution Imaging of the Bacterial Division Machinery

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central to this process is the formation of a ring-like suprastructure (Z-ring) by the FtsZ protein at the division plan3,4. The Z-ring consists of multiple single-stranded FtsZ protofilaments, and understanding the arrangement of the protofilaments inside the Z-ring will provide insight into the mechanism of Z-ring assembly and its function as a force generator5,6. This information has remained elusive due to current limitations in conventional fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. Conventional fluorescence microscopy is unable to provide a high-resolution image of the Z-ring due to the diffraction limit of light (~200 nm). Electron cryotomographic imaging has detected scattered FtsZ protofilaments in small C. crescentus cells7, but is difficult to apply to larger cells such as E. coli or B. subtilis. Here we describe the application of a super-resolution fluorescence microscopy method, Photoactivated Localization Microscopy (PALM), to quantitatively characterize the structural organization of the E. coli Z-ring8.
	PALM imaging offers both high spatial resolution (~35 nm) and specific labeling to enable unambiguous identification of target proteins. We labeled FtsZ with the photoactivatable fluorescent protein mEos2, which switches from green fluorescence (excitation = 488 nm) to red fluorescence (excitation = 561 nm) upon activation at 405 nm9. During a PALM experiment, single FtsZ-mEos2 molecules are stochastically activated and the corresponding centroid positions of the single molecules are determined with &lt;20 nm precision. A super-resolution image of the Z-ring is then reconstructed by superimposing the centroid positions of all detected FtsZ-mEos2 molecules.
	Using this method, we found that the Z-ring has a fixed width of ~100 nm and is composed of a loose bundle of FtsZ protofilaments that overlap with each other in three dimensions. These data provide a springboard for further investigations of the cell cycle dependent changes of the Z-ring10 and can be applied to other proteins of interest.

We describe a super-resolution imaging method to probe the structural organization of the bacterial FtsZ-ring, an essential apparatus for cell division. This method is based on quantitative analyses of photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) images and can be applied to other bacterial cytoskeletal proteins.

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated  assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central  to this process is the formation of ...

Test Samples for Optimizing STORM Super-Resolution Microscopy

STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy techniques. However, as the image is acquired in a very different way than normal, by building up an image molecule-by-molecule, there are some significant challenges for users in trying to optimize their image acquisition. In order to aid this process and gain more insight into how STORM works we present the preparation of 3 test samples and the methodology of acquiring and processing STORM super-resolution images with typical resolutions of between 30-50 nm. By combining the test samples with the use of the freely available rainSTORM processing software it is possible to obtain a great deal of information about image quality and resolution. Using these metrics it is then possible to optimize the imaging procedure from the optics, to sample preparation, dye choice, buffer conditions, and image acquisition settings. We also show examples of some common problems that result in poor image quality, such as lateral drift, where the sample moves during image acquisition and density related problems resulting in the 'mislocalization' phenomenon.

We describe the preparation of three test samples and how they can be used to optimize and assess the performance of STORM microscopes. Using these examples we show how to acquire raw data and then process it to acquire super-resolution images in cells of approximately 30-50 nm resolution.

STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy ...

Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule imaging assays which allows adhesion of single virions to glass surfaces with specificity. This preparation is based on grafting the surface of the glass with a mixture of PLL-g-PEG and PLL-g-PEG-Biotin, adding a layer of avidin, and finally creating virion anchors through attachment of biotinylated virus specific antibodies. We have applied this technique across a range of experiments including atomic force microscopy (AFM) and super-resolution fluorescence imaging. This sample preparation method results in a control adhesion of the virions to the surface.

The attachment of virions to a surface is a requirement for single virion imaging by Super-resolution fluorescence imaging or atomic force microscopy (AFM). Here we demonstrate a sample preparation method for controlled adhesion of virions to glass surfaces suitable for use in AFM and super-resolution fluorescence imaging.

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule ...

Super-resolution Imaging of the Cytokinetic Z Ring in Live Bacteria Using Fast 3D-Structured Illumination Microscopy (f3D-SIM)

Imaging of biological samples using fluorescence microscopy has advanced substantially with new technologies to overcome the resolution barrier of the diffraction of light allowing super-resolution of live samples. There are currently three main types of super-resolution techniques &#8211; stimulated emission depletion (STED), single-molecule localization microscopy (including techniques such as PALM, STORM, and GDSIM), and structured illumination microscopy (SIM). While STED and single-molecule localization techniques show the largest increases in resolution, they have been slower to offer increased speeds of image acquisition. Three-dimensional SIM (3D-SIM) is a wide-field fluorescence microscopy technique that offers a number of advantages over both single-molecule localization and STED. Resolution is improved, with typical lateral and axial resolutions of 110 and 280 nm, respectively and depth of sampling of up to 30 &#181;m from the coverslip, allowing for imaging of whole cells. Recent advancements (fast 3D-SIM) in the technology increasing the capture rate of raw images allows for fast capture of biological processes occurring in seconds, while significantly reducing photo-toxicity and photobleaching. Here we describe the use of one such method to image bacterial cells harboring the fluorescently-labelled cytokinetic FtsZ protein to show how cells are analyzed and the type of unique information that this technique can provide.

Super-resolution Imaging of the Cytokinetic Z Ring in Live Bacteria Using Fast 3D-Structured Illumination Microscopy f3D-SIM

Spatiotemporal information about dynamic proteins inside live cells is crucial for understanding biology. A type of super-resolution microscopy called fast 3D-structured illumination microscopy (f3D-SIM) reveals unique information about the cytokinetic Z ring in bacteria: both its bead-like appearance and the rapid dynamics of FtsZ within the ring.

Imaging of biological samples using fluorescence microscopy has advanced substantially with new technologies to overcome the resolution barrier of the ...

Genetic Barcoding with Fluorescent Proteins for Multiplexed Applications

Fluorescent proteins, fluorescent dyes and fluorophores in general have revolutionized the field of molecular cell biology. In particular, the discovery of fluorescent proteins and their genes have enabled the engineering of protein fusions for localization, the analysis of transcriptional activation and translation of proteins of interest, or the general tracking of individual cells and cell populations. The use of fluorescent protein genes in combination with retroviral technology has further allowed the expression of these proteins in mammalian cells in a stable and reliable manner. Shown here is how one can utilize these genes to give cells within a population of cells their own biosignature. As the biosignature is achieved with retroviral technology, cells are barcoded &#180;indefinitely&#180;. As such, they can be individually tracked within a mixture of barcoded cells and utilized in more complex biological applications. The tracking of distinct populations in a mixture of cells is ideal for multiplexed applications such as discovery of drugs against a multitude of targets or the activation profile of different promoters. The protocol describes how to elegantly develop and amplify barcoded mammalian cells with distinct genetic fluorescent markers, and how to use several markers at once or one marker at different intensities. Finally, the protocol describes how the cells can be further utilized in combination with cell-based assays to increase the power of analysis through multiplexing.

Since the discovery of the green fluorescent protein gene, fluorescent proteins have impacted molecular cell biology. This protocol describes how expression of distinct fluorescent proteins through genetic engineering is used for barcoding individual cells. The procedure enables tracking distinct populations in a cell mixture, which is ideal for multiplexed applications.

Fluorescent proteins, fluorescent dyes and fluorophores in general have revolutionized the field of molecular cell biology. In particular, the discovery ...

DNA Electroporation, Isolation and Imaging of Myofibers

Mature muscle has a unique structure that is amenable to live cell imaging. Herein, we describe the experimental protocol for expressing fluorescently labeled proteins in the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) muscle. Conditions have been optimized to provide a large number of high quality myofibers expressing the electroporated plasmid while minimizing muscle damage. The method employs fluorescent tags on various proteins. Combining this expression method with high resolution confocal microscopy permits live cell imaging, including imaging after laser-induced damage. Fluorescent dyes combined with imaging of fluorescently-tagged proteins provides information regarding the basic structure of muscle and its response to stimuli.

This protocol utilizes electroporation to introduce and express fluorescently labeled proteins in mouse muscle fibers. Following recovery after electroporation, fibers are isolated. Individual fibers are then imaged using high resolution confocal microscopy to visualize muscle structure.

Mature muscle has a unique structure that is amenable to live cell imaging. Herein, we describe the experimental protocol for expressing fluorescently ...

Open-source Single-particle Analysis for Super-resolution Microscopy with VirusMapper

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy is currently revolutionizing cell biology research. Its capacity to break the resolution limit of around 300 nm allows for the routine imaging of nanoscale biological complexes and processes. This increase in resolution also means that methods popular in electron microscopy, such as single-particle analysis, can readily be applied to super-resolution fluorescence microscopy. By combining this analytical approach with super-resolution optical imaging, it becomes possible to take advantage of the molecule-specific labeling capacity of fluorescence microscopy to generate structural maps of molecular elements within a metastable structure. To this end, we have developed a novel algorithm &#8212; VirusMapper &#8212; packaged as an easy-to-use, high-performance, and high-throughput ImageJ plugin. This article presents an in-depth guide to this software, showcasing its ability to uncover novel structural features in biological molecular complexes. Here, we present how to assemble compatible data and provide a step-by-step protocol on how to use this algorithm to apply single-particle analysis to super-resolution images.

This manuscript uses the Fiji-based open-source software package VirusMapper to apply single-particle analysis to super-resolution microscopy images in order to generate precise models of nanoscale structure.

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy is currently revolutionizing cell biology research. Its capacity to break the resolution limit of around 300 nm ...

Ground State Depletion Super-resolution Imaging in Mammalian Cells

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to dramatic leaps in our understanding of how cells function. The development and availability of super-resolution microscopy has considerably extended the limits of optical resolution from ~250-20 nm. Biologists are no longer limited to describing molecular interactions in terms of colocalization within a diffraction limited area, rather it is now possible to visualize the dynamic interactions of individual molecules. Here, we outline a protocol for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins by ground-state depletion microscopy&#160;for fixed cell imaging. We provide examples from two different membrane proteins, an element of the endoplasmic reticulum translocon, sec61&#946;, and a plasma membrane-localized voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channel (CaV1.2). Discussed are the specific microscope parameters, fixation methods, photo-switching buffer formulation, and pitfalls and challenges of image processing.

This article outlines a protocol for the detection of one or more plasma and/or intracellular membrane proteins using Ground State Depletion (GSD) super-resolution microscopy in mammalian cells. Here, we discuss the benefits and considerations of using such approaches for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins.

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to ...