This work was supported by grants from the Illinois Society to Prevent Blindness, National Institute of Health (EY031350 and EY001792) and an unrestricted grant from the Research to Prevent Blindness Foundation.

All animal studies were approved by the Office of Animal Care and Institutional Biosafety at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Seven-week-old male C57/BL6/J mice were housed in group cages in a pathogen-free environment on a 12 h-light/dark cycle and provided free food and water access. Mice were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation, and the eyes were enucleated and processed immediately18. The animals were obtained from a commercial source (see Table of Materials). The essential tools needed for the study are depicted in Figure 1.
1. Delivery of the death-inducing insult
<ol>
	<li>Perform oxidative stress with TBH (ex vivo).
	<ol>
		<li>Euthanize the mice following institutionally approved protocols and enucleate their eyes18 (Figure 2A).</li>
		<li>Put the eyeballs directly into individual wells of a 24-well plate containing DMEM + 1% BSA, with or without 5 mM Tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBH) (see Table of Materials); incubate for 1 h at 37 &#176;C. A positive control sample is treated with DNase (50 U/100 &#181;L) for 10 min to fragment DNA. 
		NOTE: The dose of TBH (the agent that induces oxidative stress) was chosen to induce a readily detectable and sub-maximal level of cell death within the isolated retinal vessels18.</li>
		<li>Fix the eyes in 10% buffered formalin overnight (16 h minimum).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Use cytokine cocktail to induce inflammation (in vivo).
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize the mice with an intraperitoneal injection of 100 mg/kg ketamine and 5 mg/kg xylazine.</li>
		<li>Use a customized 33 G needle (see Table of Materials) to inject 1 &#181;L/eye of the cytokine cocktail into the vitreous; the injection site is 2-3 mm from the limbus (Figure 2B). 
		NOTE: The cytokine cocktail contains 1:1:1 ratio of 1 &#181;g/mL TNF-&#945;, 1 &#181;g/mL IL-1&#946; and 1500 U/&#181;L IFN-&#947;18 (see Table of Materials).</li>
		<li>24 h after the injection, euthanize the mice (following institutionally approved protocols), enucleate their eyes and &#64257;x with 10% buffered formalin overnight. 
		&#8203;NOTE: The experiment can be paused after fixation for 1 week maximum and then restarted later.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Retina isolation
<ol>
	<li>Cut open the eyeball.
	<ol>
		<li>Use straight forceps to grab the optic nerve gently (Figure 2C). Hold a micro-knife with the other hand to make an incision of 2-3 mm posterior to the limbus.</li>
		<li>Switch from the micro-knife to micro-scissors to cut parallel to the limbus while rotating the eyeball along with the optic nerve until the eyeball has been cut into two halves.</li>
		<li>Discard the anterior half of the eye, including the lens (Figure 2C).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Remove the sclera.
	<ol>
		<li>Use straight forceps to gently lift the sclera 1-3 mm off of the retina.</li>
		<li>Use micro-scissors to make two radial cuts in the sclera part of the way to the optic nerve. Avoid cutting the underlying retina.</li>
		<li>Use a pair of curved forceps to grab the scleral flap and tear it off the retina. The RPE layer will come off with the sclera.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Wash the retina.
	<ol>
		<li>Use a micro-spatula to transfer the isolated retina to a well within a 24-well dish that has been filled with double-distilled water.</li>
		<li>Gently shake the dish at mid-moderate speed at room temperature. Change the water every 30 min to 1 h, at least 4-5 times, then leave overnight.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Retinal vasculature isolation
<ol>
	<li>Digestion: Replace the double-distilled water with 800 &#181;L of YL trypsin solution (3% trypsin in 0.1 M Tris buffer (pH 7.8)). Incubate at 37 &#176;C with gentle to no shaking for 4 h 15 min19 (Figure 2D). 
	NOTE: Avoid rapid shaking as this can damage the vasculature.</li>
	<li>Transfer: Dip the broad end of a glass transfer pipet with YL trypsin solution to transfer the retina to a 35 mm Petri dish containing lint-free, double-distilled water.</li>
	<li>Remove the outer nuclear layer (photoreceptors) (Figure 2E).
	<ol>
		<li>Flip the retina semi-sphere downward facing. Use the straight single-hair brush to gently press the retina to the bottom of the dish.</li>
		<li>Use the loop brush to gently brush away the photoreceptors of the retina. The brush strokes are applied in a direction from the optic nerve towards the periphery of the retina. The photoreceptors can detach in large sheets because they are not anchored to the rest of the retina by blood vessels.</li>
		<li>Using a 200 &#181;L pipette to collect and discard the sheets of neural tissue.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Remove the vitreous.
	<ol>
		<li>Flip the retina semi-sphere so that it faces upward. Use a pair of curved forceps (A) to grasp the vitreous as much as possible under a dissecting microscope. 
		NOTE: The vitreous look like a sheet of transparent tissue attached to the optic nerve or retina.</li>
		<li>Use another curved forceps (B) to grasp the end of the vitreous where it connects the optic nerve. Remove the vitreous by pulling forceps A away from forceps B.</li>
		<li>Discard the vitreous. Examine the remnant of the vitreous and repeat this step to remove all the vitreous as the residual will impede the next steps.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Remove the remaining neural and glial tissue (Figure 2F).
	<ol>
		<li>Flip the retina semi-sphere so that it is downward facing again. Once again, use the straight brush to gently press the retina to the bottom of the dish (do not use the tip of the hair).</li>
		<li>Use the loop brush to gently brush over the vasculature from the optic nerve head towards the periphery to remove the remaining neural tissue20.</li>
		<li>Spin the retina slowly with the straight brush and use the loop brush to remove all the small chunks of neural tissue on the retinal vasculature, till the vascular network is well cleaned (Figure 2G,H).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Mounting the isolated retinal vasculature on a microscope slide
<ol>
	<li>Place a microscope slide.
	<ol>
		<li>Place a clean mounting cassette (see Table of Materials) under a dissecting microscope. Fill the cassette with double-distilled water.</li>
		<li>Use a black background under the dissecting microscope to help generate contrast to see the illuminated transparent vasculature.</li>
		<li>Use forceps to place a clean, labeled microscope slide into the bottom of the mounting cassette.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Transfer the retinal vasculature.
	<ol>
		<li>Dip the broad end of a glass transfer pipet with YL trypsin solution.</li>
		<li>Transfer the cleaned retinal vasculature and gently dislodge the vasculature into the double-distilled water within the mounting cassette and above the microscope slide.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Mount the retinal vasculature. 
	NOTE: While the vasculature is floating above the microscope slide, the isolated vasculature will acquire its normal bowl shape.
	<ol>
		<li>Use the loop brush to flip the retina semi-sphere facing upward and gently push the vasculature down onto the glass slide, and then use the hair to tack down the opened vasculature onto the center of the slide. The vasculature should stick to the slide as it touches.</li>
		<li>Flat mount the vasculature by brushing the bowl-shaped retinal vessel from the optic nerve to the periphery.</li>
		<li>Repeat brushing in all directions till the vasculature sticks to the slide completely.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Air dry the retinal vasculature.
	<ol>
		<li>Once the entire retinal vasculature attaches to the slide, take the slide out of the water either by gently lifting one edge or by slowly draining water at the corner of the cassette to minimize currents, then pulling it out (Figure 2I). 
		NOTE: The vasculature will become readily visible once it has once air-dried (Figure 2J).</li>
		<li>Mark the circumference of the retinal vasculature on the back of the slide with a marker pen.</li>
		<li>Proceed to stain the sample without pause.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Death detection with TUNEL staining
NOTE: For details on this procedure, refer to Zheng et al.21. Representative images of ischemia +/- ox stress-induced apoptotic bodies in isolated retinal vessels are depicted in Figure 3.
<ol>
	<li>Rehydrate the isolated vasculature with PBS. Rinse it 3 times in PBS and then incubate with 1% Triton X-100 in PBS for 2 min on ice to permeabilize the isolated vasculature.</li>
	<li>Rinse the slides twice with PBS to remove the residual Triton X-100. Dry the area around the sample.</li>
	<li>Add 50 &#181;L of TUNEL reaction mixture (see Table of Materials) onto the sample. Incubate the slide in a humidified atmosphere for 60 min at 37 &#176;C in the dark.</li>
	<li>Rinse the slide 3 times with PBS to remove the TUNEL reaction mixture. Dry the area around the sample.</li>
	<li>Add a drop of DAPI mounting media to stain the nuclei with DAPI and mount the sample with a cover glass. Store at 4 &#176;C in the dark. 
	NOTE: The protocol could be paused for up to 1 week before capturing images.</li>
	<li>Photograph the resulting vasculature with a confocal &#64258;uorescence microscope (see Table of Materials). Capture six to eight randomly selected fields in the far periphery surrounding the optic nerve (Figure 4). 
	NOTE: Representative images of cytokine-induced apoptotic bodies in isolated retinal vessels are illustrated in Figure 5.</li>
	<li>Analyze the results.
	<ol>
		<li>For ex vivo, TBH-treated samples, perform the following steps.
		<ol>
			<li>Count the number of apoptotic bodies (TUNEL/DAPI double-positive species) in each field using Image J (see Table of Materials). Tally the mean of the apoptotic bodies in all of the fields of a single sample.</li>
			<li>Calculate the fold change in the number of apoptotic bodies between a randomly selected pair of non-DM and DM samples.</li>
			<li>Determine if there is a statistically significant difference using the two-tailed student t-test18. 
			NOTE: Stain the control and experimental samples (non-DM and DM) on the same occasion because the extent of TUNEL staining can vary, even when done in the same way. Since up to 10 retinas can be cleaned and mounted per day by an experienced user, plan to process an equal number of control and experimental retinas before starting this protocol.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>For in vivo, cytokines cocktail treated samples, perform the following the steps.
		<ol>
			<li>Manually count the number of apoptotic bodies (TUNEL/DAPI double-positive species) in the entire retinal vasculature.</li>
			<li>Calculate the fold change in the number of apoptotic bodies between a randomly selected pair of non-DM and DM samples.</li>
			<li>Determine if there is a statistically significant difference using the two-tailed student t-test.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

Novel Retina Protection Assay for Diabetic Retinopathy Pathogenesis Study

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The authors have no con&#64258;icts of interest to report.

In this study, an assay was established to detect resistance/vulnerability of the retinal vasculature to death induced by DM/DR-related insults such as ischemia/oxidative stress and cytokines. This manuscript provides a detailed description of this assay, which is a modification of several published protocols19,20,21.
The protocol encompasses several crucial stages. First, it is imperative to meticulously dissect the retina, ensuring the preservation of the vascular network and preventing substantial tears. This can be accomplished by making an incision 2-3 mm posterior to the limbus since the retina tightly adheres to the ora serrata, and separating it is challenging. Second, coat all instruments that come into contact with the vessels (e.g., single-hair brushes, transferring pipet, and forceps) with trypsin by dipping these tools into the YL trypsin solution throughout the procedure. This prevents the vasculature from adhering to the instruments that are used in this protocol. Third, because the microvasculature is nearly invisible under normal light, heightened vigilance is required during debris aspiration and transfer to the microscope slide in order to prevent accidental loss.
An appropriate degree of enzymatic digestion of the various layers of the retina is crucial; insufficient digestion prevents the separation of neuronal tissue from the vascular network, while excessive digestion dissolves the vascular plexus. Various digestion times ranging from 1 h19 to overnight 23 have been reported. Based on observations, a digestion time of 4 h and 15 min yields the most favorable results compared to durations of 2 h, 3 h, and 4 h. Prolonging the digestion beyond this point is unlikely to enhance the process and might instead compromise the integrity of the vasculature.
In cases where the digested retina adheres to the single-hair brush, dip the hair in YL trypsin solution multiple times. This reduces the brush&#39;s sticky areas. If the hairbrush still adheres to the vascular tissue, then inspect it for residual fragments of vitreous, and remove them with forceps.
The optimal moment for complete vitreous removal is after eliminating the photoreceptors, but prior to the removal of the remaining neural and glial tissue. The retina maintains rigidity until photoreceptors are removed. Extracting the vitreous at this stage could potentially tear the retina/vasculature. The delicate layers of residual neural and glial tissue play a pivotal role in preserving the curved form of the vascular structure. They prevent the retina from tearing at its center when the vitreous is detached from the optic nerve.
If the isolated vasculature does not adhere to the microscope slide at all, then it indicates that the section of the slide where adhesion is expected to occur is dirty. Try moving the vessels across the slide&#39;s surface to locate a sticky spot, switching to a different slide or meticulously cleaning the slide and trying again. If the vessels stick to the slide before they unfurl into their bowl-like shape, lift the vasculature from the slide in order to allow it to float freely in the water once again. Do this step with forceps that have been repeatedly dipped in the YL trypsin solution.
Several alternative techniques for isolating the vasculature have been reported, which would not be suitable for the protection assay described herein. For instance, osmotic lysis has been employed to isolate the vasculature from unfixed retina samples, facilitating biochemical investigations of the tissue24,25. However, this procedure may not preserve the anatomy of the vasculature as well as the approach employed in this article. Similarly, while the tissue print method to isolate large segments of microvasculature enables analysis of the vasculature&#39;s electrotonic architecture26, the entire vascular bed is typically not recovered.
This assay was developed because existing approaches to monitor capillary degeneration do not address the issue of protection. Capillary degeneration, which occurs after prolonged DM, indicates if DR has developed. In addition to diagnosing DR, this outcome is useful to assess if an agent/therapy prevents DR. However, existing capillary degeneration assays do not speak to the underlying mechanism of action of the agent. Such an agent may prevent pathological events that drive DR such as increased oxidative stress or cytokines. Alternatively, the agent may enforce protection by enhancing resilience to oxidative stress and cytokines and/or promote the repair of damage. This new protection assay can be used to determine if the beneficial effect of a given therapy involves enforcing the endogenous system that protects from DM-related death.
A drawback of this protection assay is that it does not distinguish the two cell types within the retinal vessels: endothelial cells (ECs) and pericytes (PCs). While the appearance of their nuclei in PASH-stained sections is cell-type specific (Figure 6), not every nucleus displays diagnostic features. Approximately 30% of the nuclei cannot be unambiguously defined as EC or PC at least in part because the two-dimensional images obtained from PASH-stained samples incompletely resolve the three-dimensional structure of the vascular plexus. This obstacle could be surmounted by additional analysis such as immunofluorescent staining with cell type-specific markers. Such images, which distinguish the two cell types could be co-stained with TUNEL to determine the resistance/vulnerability of each of the vascular cell types.
This vascular-focused assay does not provide any information regarding the neural retina. Additional assays could be developed to provide such information. For instance, instead of isolating the retinal vasculature, a single cell suspension of the entire retina could be generated and then analyzed (by fluorescent activated cell sorting) for resistance/vulnerability. The inclusion of cell type-specific markers (both neural and vascular) along with indicators of cell death would provide a more complete picture of the retinal cell types that have the capacity for protection from DM/DR-mediated death.
In conclusion, the protection assay described herein provides a powerful approach to investigating the mechanism responsible for the delay between the onset of DM and the manifestation of DR in mice.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is one of the microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus (DM), and the leading cause of blindness in working-age individuals in developed countries1. Major risk factors for diabetic retinopathy are the duration and degree of hyperglycemia2,3,4. While DM causes dysfunction of both the vascular and neural components of the retina5, diagnosis of DR is based on morphological features of the retinal vasculature6.
Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress is one of the drivers of DR pathogenesis7. Increased oxidative stress causes widespread damage, which compromises the functionality of the mitochondria and thereby further increases the level of reactive oxygen species. These events are accompanied by leakage of retinal vessels, an increase in the level of inflammatory cytokines, and death of both neural and vascular cell types within the retina. Loss of vascular cells, and hence the functionality of the extensive capillary network of the retina, results in hypoxia, a potent stimulus for a variety of responses5. Such responses include increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) that drives both permeability and angiogenesis, cardinal features of the advanced, sight-threatening stages of DR - diabetic macular edema, and proliferative diabetic retinopathy6.
Certain features of DR suggest that an organism (both patients and experimental animals) has an intrinsic ability to resist this indication. Patients experience several decades of DM before they develop sight-threatening DR8,9,10,11,12,13. While rodent models of DM do not develop the advanced, sight-threatening stages of DR14, the initial/mild form of DR that manifests does so only after a period of weeks or months of DM15,16. Furthermore, in both patients and experimental animals, DR is progressive, and retinal dysfunction/damage increases as the duration of DM is prolonged. Finally, some patients with DM never develop DR. In certain instances, this is because such individuals do not experience diabetes long enough for DR to develop. In other instances, it is because they display extraordinary resistance to DR; as is the case with participants of the Medalist study, who do not develop DR after 50 or more years of DM17. Despite such compelling support for the existence of protection from DR and its enormous translational relevance, the mechanism underlying protection has not been aggressively investigated.
The protection assay described herein was developed to facilitate investigation of why DR is delayed from the onset of DM in diabetic mice. The key steps of this assay, applied to DM and non-DM mice, include (1) delivering a sub-maximal death-inducing insult to the eye (ex vivo or in vivo), (2) isolating the retinal vasculature, (3) staining the vasculature with TUNEL and DAPI, (4) photographing the resulting images and quantifying the percentage of TUNEL/DAPI double-positive species.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>10% neutral buffered formalin</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>SF100-4</td>
			<td>Fixation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well plates</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>353047</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>33 G needle</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>customized</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium hydroxide&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221228-1L-PCA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57/BL6/J mice</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>Jax #000664</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytokine cocktail</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>consisted of a 1:1:1 ratio of 1 &#181;g/mL TNF-&#945;, 1 &#181;g/mL IL-1 &#946; and and 1500 U/&#181;LIFN- &#947;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any microscope that allows good visualization of the retina is adequate.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont #3 forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools (FST)</td>
			<td>11231-30</td>
			<td>Straight tips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont #5 forceps&#160;</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools (FST)</td>
			<td>11253-25</td>
			<td>Micro-blunted tips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Easy-Grip Tissue Culture Dishes</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td>353001</td>
			<td>35 x 10 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass transfer pipet</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>1367820A</td>
			<td>snap off the thin end of a Pasteur pipet and fit the &#8220;broken&#8221; end with a rubber bulb.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Harris modified hematoxylin&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>HHS32</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image J</td>
			<td>NIH, Bethesda</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit, Fluorescein</td>
			<td>Milipore</td>
			<td>11684795910</td>
			<td>TUNEL reaction mixture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro cover glasses</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48366-227</td>
			<td>22 mm x 22 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microknife&#160;</td>
			<td>Sharpoint</td>
			<td>72-1551</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro-spatula</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>10091-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mounting cassette&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Any transparent cassette that is slightly bigger than the microscope slide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Periodic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>3951</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Periodic acid solution</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>35 mM periodic acid with 12 mM sodium acetate&#160; in H2O&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Permount mounting medium&#160;</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>SP15- 100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prism 9</td>
			<td>GraphPad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prolog Gold antifade reagent with DAPI</td>
			<td>Invitrogen&#160;</td>
			<td>P36935</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant human IFN- &#947;</td>
			<td>Peprotec</td>
			<td>300-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant human IL-1 &#946;</td>
			<td>Peprotec</td>
			<td>200-01B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recombinant human TNF-&#945;</td>
			<td>Peprotec</td>
			<td>300-01A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Schiff reagent base&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>3952016</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shaker Incubator (belly button shaker)</td>
			<td>IBI Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>BBUAAUV1S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium acetate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>71196</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Steritop sterile vacuum bottle</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>SCGPS05RE</td>
			<td>Create filtered water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Superfrost Plus treated microscope slides&#160;</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>12-550-15</td>
			<td>use slides from unopened box</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBH)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>75-91-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIZMA base</td>
			<td>Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>11-101-5522</td>
			<td>make 100 mM Tris, adjust pH to 7.8 using HCl)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin 1:250</td>
			<td>Amresco</td>
			<td>0458-50G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Two &#8220;brushes&#8221;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>made from single black hair&#160; taped to the end of plastic transfer pipet.&#160; One brush with a free end. The other brush with a loop</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vannas Spring Scissors&#160;</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools (FST)</td>
			<td>15000-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>65351-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>YL trypsin solution&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3% trypsin in 0.1 M Tris (pH 7.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss LSM 710 fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss Microscopy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an assay to detect protection of the retinal vasculature from diabetes-related death in mice

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complex and progressive ocular disease characterized by two distinct phases in its pathogenesis. The first phase involves the loss of protection from diabetes-induced damage to the retina, while the second phase centers on the accumulation of this damage. Traditional assays primarily focus on evaluating capillary degeneration, which is indicative of the severity of damage, essentially addressing the second phase of DR. However, they only indirectly provide insights into whether the protective mechanisms of the retinal vasculature have been compromised. To address this limitation, a novel approach was developed to directly assess the retina's protective mechanisms - specifically, its resilience against diabetes-induced insults like oxidative stress and cytokines. This protection assay, although initially designed for diabetic retinopathy, holds the potential for broader applications in both physiological and pathological contexts. In summary, understanding the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy involves recognizing the dual phases of protection loss and damage accumulation, with this innovative protection assay offering a valuable tool for research and potentially extending to other medical conditions.

The successful isolation of retinal vasculature results in a flat mount of the entire network of the mouse retinal vasculature, with the architectural integrity intact (Figure 2J). Upon staining with periodic acid-schiff hematoxylin (PASH), it is possible to distinguish the two vascular cell types: endothelial cells (ECs) and pericytes (PCs) (Figure 6). The endothelial cell nuclei are elongated, lightly stained, and reside entirely within the vessel walls. Pericyte nuclei are circular, densely stained, and protrude from the capillary walls. The PASH-stained samples also reveal acellular capillaries, which lack nuclei.
The approach to induce death was guided by the following rationale. It was speculated that protection was limited, i.e., could be overwhelmed by a very strong death-inducing insult. Consequently, insults (both ischemia/oxidative stress and cytokines18) were optimized so that they would induce a readily detectable increase but yet submaximal extent of death (Figure 3 and Figure 5).
It is important to highlight that the presence of TUNEL-positive nuclei was contingent on the specific type of insult employed to trigger cell death. The ischemia/oxidative stress insult led to a tram-track pattern of cell apoptosis, as illustrated in Figure 3, whereas the cytokine insult resulted in a distinct and well-defined pattern, as depicted in Figure 5. Both patterns can be observed in retinal vessels from DR patients22, suggesting that both types of agents induce cell death in humans. Moreover, the observed morphological distinctions offer a means to evaluate if pathology was driven by oxidative stress or cytokines.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Tools for isolating mouse retinal vasculature. From left to right: the mounting cassette, two single-hair brushes, an inverted transfer pipet, micro-spatula, two curved forceps, spring scissors, micro-knife, and forceps with straight tips. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Schematic showing the key steps of delivering a death-inducing insult and then isolating the retinal vasculature from a mouse eye. (A)&#160;Induction of ischemia/oxidative injury, ex vivo. After enucleation, the eyeball is subjected to ischemia in the presence of TBH. (B) In vivo administration (intravitreal injection) of cytokines. (C) Cutting the eyeball into two halves. (D) Retinal enzymic digestion: removing the sclera and washing the retina in double-distilled water overnight. Incubating in YL trypsin solution at 37 &#176;C for 4 h 15 min in a well of a 24-well plate. (E) Removing the photoreceptors. (F) Removing the remaining neural and glial tissue. (G) Cleaned bowl-shaped vascular network facing upward. (H) Isolated vascular network in a 35 mm dish with a black background on the stage of a dissecting microscope. (I) Flat-mounted retinal vasculature on a slide. (J) Air-dried retinal vasculature on a slide.&#160;This figure has been modified from Li et al.18. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig03v2.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: Detection of apoptotic bodies within mouse retinal vessels treated ex vivo with ischemia +/- TBH. Representative images of ischemia +/- ox stress-induced apoptotic bodies in isolated retinal vessels. The heading of each column indicates the staining. (A-C) Retinal vessels isolated from eyeballs that underwent 1 h of ischemia alone. (D-F) Same as (A-C), except the 1 h insult was a combination of ischemia and oxidative stress (5 mM TBH). The red arrows point to representative TUNEL/DAPI double-positive species. (G-I) Positive control treated with DNase. Scale bar = 50 &#181;m. This figure has been modified from Li et al.18. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig03largev2.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig04.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Illustration of field selection for quantification of results. A 5 x 5 tile scan of the retinal vasculature with the merge of TUNEL and DAPI signal. The selection of six to eight fields in the far periphery surrounding the optic nerve is shown with red squares. Magnification, 200x. Scale bar = 100 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig04large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig05.jpg" /> 
Figure 5: Detection of the apoptotic bodies within mouse retinal vessels in response to intravitreal injection of cytokines (in vivo administration). Representative images of cytokine-induced apoptotic bodies in isolated retinal vessels. The heading of each column indicates the staining. (A-C) Images of the retinal vessels isolated from mice intravitreally injected with PBS. (D-F) Same as (A-C), except a cytokine cocktail was injected along with PBS. The red arrows point to representative TUNEL-positive species. Scale bars = 100 &#181;m. This figure has been modified from Li et al.18. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig05large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig06.jpg" /> 
Figure 6: A representative image of a PASH-stained retinal vessels. Retinal vessels of a mouse that experienced 20 weeks of STZ-induced DM were isolated as described in Figure 2, stained with PASH, and imaged while illuminated with visible light. Pericyte nuclei in capillaries tend to be more circular and densely stained (blue arrows), whereas elongated and less densely stained nuclei are diagnostic of endothelial cells (red arrows). The yellow arrow points to an acellular capillary. Scale bar = 50 &#181;m. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/66123/66123fig06large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Author Spotlight: Understanding Retinal Vessel Resilience and Disease Progression at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Understanding Retinal Vessel Resilience and Disease Progression

A protection assay was developed to monitor the retinal vasculature's resilience to death from diabetes/diabetic retinopathy-related insults such as oxidative stress and cytokines.

An Assay to Detect Protection of the Retinal Vasculature from Diabetes-Related Death in Mice

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a complex and progressive ocular disease characterized by two distinct phases in its pathogenesis. The first phase involves ...

an-assay-to-detect-protection-retinal-vasculature-from-diabetes

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

981 Views.  University of Illinois at Chicago. A protection assay was developed to monitor the retinal vasculature's resilience to death from diabetes/diabetic retinopathy-related insults such as oxidative stress and cytokines. 

Video: Author Spotlight: Understanding Retinal Vessel Resilience and Disease Progression

The Measurement and Treatment of Suppression in Amblyopia

Amblyopia, a developmental disorder of the visual cortex, is one of the leading causes of visual dysfunction in the working age population. Current estimates put the prevalence of amblyopia at approximately 1-3%1-3, the majority of cases being monocular2. Amblyopia is most frequently caused by ocular misalignment (strabismus), blur induced by unequal refractive error (anisometropia), and in some cases by form deprivation.
Although amblyopia is initially caused by abnormal visual input in infancy, once established, the visual deficit often remains when normal visual input has been restored using surgery and/or refractive correction. This is because amblyopia is the result of abnormal visual cortex development rather than a problem with the amblyopic eye itself4,5 . Amblyopia is characterized by both monocular and binocular deficits6,7 which include impaired visual acuity and poor or absent stereopsis respectively. The visual dysfunction in amblyopia is often associated with a strong suppression of the inputs from the amblyopic eye under binocular viewing conditions8. Recent work has indicated that suppression may play a central role in both the monocular and binocular deficits associated with amblyopia9,10 .
Current clinical tests for suppression tend to verify the presence or absence of suppression rather than giving a quantitative measurement of the degree of suppression. Here we describe a technique for measuring amblyopic suppression with a compact, portable device11,12 . The device consists of a laptop computer connected to a pair of virtual reality goggles. The novelty of the technique lies in the way we present visual stimuli to measure suppression. Stimuli are shown to the amblyopic eye at high contrast while the contrast of the stimuli shown to the non-amblyopic eye are varied. Patients perform a simple signal/noise task that allows for a precise measurement of the strength of excitatory binocular interactions. The contrast offset at which neither eye has a performance advantage is a measure of the "balance point" and is a direct measure of suppression. This technique has been validated psychophysically both in control13,14 and patient6,9,11 populations.
In addition to measuring suppression this technique also forms the basis of a novel form of treatment to decrease suppression over time and improve binocular and often monocular function in adult patients with amblyopia12,15,16 . This new treatment approach can be deployed either on the goggle system described above or on a specially modified iPod touch device15.

Amblyopia is a developmental disorder of the visual cortex that is often accompanied by strong suppression of one eye. We present a new technique for measuring and treating interocular suppression in patients with amblyopia that can be deployed using virtual reality goggles or a portable iPod Touch device.

Amblyopia, a developmental disorder of the visual cortex, is one of the leading causes of visual dysfunction in the working age population. Current ...

Osmotic Drug Delivery to Ischemic Hindlimbs and Perfusion of Vasculature with Microfil for Micro-Computed Tomography Imaging

Preclinical research in animal models of peripheral arterial disease plays a vital role in testing the efficacy of therapeutic agents designed to stimulate microcirculation. The choice of delivery method for these agents is important because the route of administration profoundly affects the bioactivity and efficacy of these agents1,2. In this article, we demonstrate how to locally administer a substance in ischemic hindlimbs by using a catheterized osmotic pump. This pump can deliver a fixed volume of aqueous solution continuously for an allotted period of time. We also present our mouse model of unilateral hindlimb ischemia induced by ligation of the common femoral artery proximal to the origin of profunda femoris and epigastrica arteries in the left hindlimb. Lastly, we describe the in vivo cannulation and ligation of the infrarenal abdominal aorta and perfusion of the hindlimb vasculature with Microfil, a silicone radiopaque casting agent. Microfil can perfuse and fill the entire vascular bed (arterial and venous), and because we have ligated the major vascular conduit for exit, the agent can be retained in the vasculature for future ex vivo imaging with the use of small specimen micro-CT3.

We show here the in vivo insertion of an osmotic pump for constant local drug delivery and the creation of hindlimb ischemia in a mouse model. Moreover, the hindlimb vasculature is perfused with Microfil, a silicone radiopaque agent, to prepare for micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging.

Preclinical research in animal models of peripheral arterial disease plays a vital role in testing the efficacy of therapeutic agents designed to ...

Pharmacologic Induction of Epidermal Melanin and Protection Against Sunburn in a Humanized Mouse Model

Fairness of skin, UV sensitivity and skin cancer risk all correlate with the physiologic function of the melanocortin 1 receptor, a Gs-coupled signaling protein found on the surface of melanocytes. Mc1r stimulates adenylyl cyclase and cAMP production which, in turn, up-regulates melanocytic production of melanin in the skin. In order to study the mechanisms by which Mc1r signaling protects the skin against UV injury, this study relies on a mouse model with "humanized skin" based on epidermal expression of stem cell factor (Scf). K14-Scf transgenic mice retain melanocytes in the epidermis and therefore have the ability to deposit melanin in the epidermis. In this animal model, wild type Mc1r status results in robust deposition of black eumelanin pigment and a UV-protected phenotype. In contrast, K14-Scf animals with defective Mc1r signaling ability exhibit a red/blonde pigmentation, very little eumelanin in the skin and a UV-sensitive phenotype. Reasoning that eumelanin deposition might be enhanced by topical agents that mimic Mc1r signaling, we found that direct application of forskolin extract to the skin of Mc1r-defective fair-skinned mice resulted in robust eumelanin induction and UV protection 1. Here we describe the method for preparing and applying a forskolin-containing natural root extract to K14-Scf fair-skinned mice and report a method for measuring UV sensitivity by determining minimal erythematous dose (MED). Using this animal model, it is possible to study how epidermal cAMP induction and melanization of the skin affect physiologic responses to UV exposure.

Epidermal melanin is induced by topical application of forskolin in a murine model of the fair-skinned UV-sensitive human. Pharmacologic manipulation of cAMP levels in the skin and epidermal darkening strongly protect against UV-mediated inflammation (sunburn) as measured by the minimum erythematous dose (MED) assay.

Fairness of skin, UV sensitivity and skin cancer  risk all correlate with the physiologic function of the melanocortin 1  receptor, a Gs-coupled signaling ...

High-throughput Flow Cytometry Cell-based Assay to Detect Antibodies to N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor or Dopamine-2 Receptor in Human Serum

Over the recent years, antibodies against surface and conformational proteins involved in neurotransmission have been detected in autoimmune CNS diseases in children and adults. These antibodies have been used to guide diagnosis and treatment. Cell-based assays have improved the detection of antibodies in patient serum. They are based on the surface expression of brain antigens on eukaryotic cells, which are then incubated with diluted patient sera followed by fluorochrome-conjugated secondary antibodies. After washing, secondary antibody binding is then analyzed by flow cytometry. Our group has developed a high-throughput flow cytometry live cell-based assay to reliably detect antibodies against specific neurotransmitter receptors. This flow cytometry method is straight forward, quantitative, efficient, and the use of a high-throughput sampler system allows for large patient cohorts to be easily assayed in a short space of time. Additionally, this cell-based assay can be easily adapted to detect antibodies to many different antigenic targets, both from the central nervous system and periphery. Discovering additional novel antibody biomarkers will enable prompt and accurate diagnosis and improve treatment of immune-mediated disorders.

Over the recent years, live cell-based assays have been used successfully to detect antibodies against surface and conformational antigens. Here, we describe a method using high-throughput flow cytometry enabling the analysis of large cohorts of patients. Detection of novel antibodies will improve diagnosis and treatment of immune-mediated disorders.

Over the recent years, antibodies against surface and conformational proteins involved in neurotransmission have been detected in autoimmune CNS diseases ...

Intravital Video Microscopy Measurements of Retinal Blood Flow in Mice

Alterations in retinal blood flow can contribute to, or be a consequence of, ocular disease and visual dysfunction. Therefore, quantitation of altered perfusion can aid research into the mechanisms of retinal pathologies. Intravital video microscopy of fluorescent tracers can be used to measure vascular diameters and bloodstream velocities of the retinal vasculature, specifically the arterioles branching from the central retinal artery and of the venules leading into the central retinal vein. Blood flow rates can be calculated from the diameters and velocities, with the summation of arteriolar flow, and separately venular flow, providing values of total retinal blood flow. This paper and associated video describe the methods for applying this technique to mice, which includes 1) the preparation of the eye for intravital microscopy of the anesthetized animal, 2) the intravenous infusion of fluorescent microspheres to measure bloodstream velocity, 3) the intravenous infusion of a high molecular weight fluorescent dextran, to aid the microscopic visualization of the retinal microvasculature, 4) the use of a digital microscope camera to obtain videos of the perfused retina, and 5) the use of image processing software to analyze the video. The same techniques can be used for measuring retinal blood flow rates in rats.

Intravital microscopy can be used in animals to visualize and measure retinal vascular diameters, bloodstream velocities, and total retinal blood flow.

Alterations in retinal blood flow can contribute to, or be a consequence of, ocular disease and visual dysfunction. Therefore, quantitation of altered ...

Sublingual Immunotherapy as an Alternative to Induce Protection Against Acute Respiratory Infections

Sublingual route has been widely used to deliver small molecules into the bloodstream and to modulate the immune response at different sites. It has been shown to effectively induce humoral and cellular responses at systemic and mucosal sites, namely the lungs and urogenital tract. Sublingual vaccination can promote protection against infections at the lower and upper respiratory tract; it can also promote tolerance to allergens and ameliorate asthma symptoms. Modulation of lung&#8217;s immune response by sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) is safer than direct administration of formulations by intranasal route because it does not require delivery of potentially harmful molecules directly into the airways. In contrast to intranasal delivery, side effects involving brain toxicity or facial paralysis are not promoted by SLIT. The immune mechanisms underlying SLIT remain elusive and its use for the treatment of acute lung infections has not yet been explored. Thus, development of appropriate animal models of SLIT is needed to further explore its potential advantages. 
This work shows how to perform sublingual administration of therapeutic agents in mice to evaluate their ability to protect against acute pneumococcal pneumonia. Technical aspects of mouse handling during sublingual inoculation, precise identification of sublingual mucosa, draining lymph nodes and isolation of tissues, bronchoalveolar lavage and lungs are illustrated. Protocols for single cell suspension preparation for FACS analysis are described in detail. Other downstream applications for the analysis of the immune response are discussed. Technical aspects of the preparation of Streptococcus pneumoniae inoculum and intranasal challenge of mice are also explained.
SLIT is a simple technique that allows screening of candidate molecules to modulate lungs&#8217; immune response. Parameters affecting the success of SLIT are related to molecular size, susceptibility to degradation and stability of highly concentrated formulations.

The present work illustrates the convenience of using sublingual immunotherapy to boost the innate immune response in the lungs and confer protection against acute pneumococcal pneumonia in mouse.

Sublingual route has been widely used to deliver small molecules into the bloodstream and to modulate the immune response at different sites. It has been ...

Performing Subretinal Injections in Rodents to Deliver Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells in Suspension

The conversion of light into electrical impulses occurs in the outer retina and is accomplished largely by rod and cone photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. RPE provide critical support for photoreceptors and death or dysfunction of RPE cells is characteristic of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of permanent vision loss in people age 55 and older. While no cure for AMD has been identified, implantation of healthy RPE in diseased eyes may prove to be an effective treatment, and large numbers of RPE cells can be readily generated from pluripotent stem cells. Several interesting questions regarding the safety and efficacy of RPE cell delivery can still be examined in animal models, and well-accepted protocols used to inject RPE have been developed. The technique described here has been used by multiple groups in various studies and involves first creating a hole in the eye with a sharp needle. Then a syringe with a blunt needle loaded with cells is inserted through the hole and passed through the vitreous until it gently touches the RPE. Using this injection method, which is relatively simple and requires minimal equipment, we achieve consistent and efficient integration of stem cell-derived RPE cells in between the host RPE that prevents significant amount of photoreceptor degeneration in animal models. While not part of the actual protocol, we also describe how to determine the extent of the trauma induced by the injection, and how to verify that the cells were injected into the subretinal space using in vivo imaging modalities. Finally, the use of this protocol is not limited to RPE cells; it may be used to inject any compound or cell into the subretinal space.

Here we present a community accepted protocol in multimedia format for subretinally injecting a bolus of RPE cells in rats and mice. This approach can be used for determining rescue potentials, safety profiles, and survival capacities of grafted RPE cells upon implantation in animal models of retinal degeneration.

The conversion of light into electrical impulses occurs in the outer retina and is accomplished largely by rod and cone photoreceptors and retinal pigment ...

Quantification of Neurovascular Protection Following Repetitive Hypoxic Preconditioning and Transient Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mice

Experimental animal models of stroke are invaluable tools for understanding stroke pathology and developing more effective treatment strategies. A 2 week protocol for repetitive hypoxic preconditioning (RHP) induces long-term protection against central nervous system (CNS) injury in a mouse model of focal ischemic stroke. RHP consists of 9 stochastic exposures to hypoxia that vary in both duration (2 or 4 hr) and intensity (8% and 11% O2). RHP reduces infarct volumes, blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, and the post-stroke inflammatory response for weeks following the last exposure to hypoxia, suggesting a long-term induction of an endogenous CNS-protective phenotype. The methodology for the dual quantification of infarct volume and BBB disruption is effective in assessing neurovascular protection in mice with RHP or other putative neuroprotectants. Adult male Swiss Webster mice were preconditioned by RHP or duration-equivalent exposures to 21% O2 (i.e. room air). A 60 min transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo) was induced 2 weeks following the last hypoxic exposure. Both the occlusion and reperfusion were confirmed by transcranial laser Doppler flowmetry. Twenty-two hr after reperfusion, Evans Blue (EB) was intravenously administered through a tail vein injection. 2 hr later, animals were sacrificed by isoflurane overdose and brain sections were stained with 2,3,5- triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC). Infarcts volumes were then quantified. Next, EB was extracted from the tissue over 48 hr to determine BBB disruption after tMCAo. In summary, RHP is a simple protocol that can be replicated, with minimal cost, to induce long-term endogenous neurovascular protection from stroke injury in mice, with the translational potential for other CNS-based and systemic pro-inflammatory disease states.

This protocol describes repetitive hypoxic preconditioning, or brief exposures to systemic hypoxia that reduce infarct volumes and blood-brain barrier disruption following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. It also details dual quantification of infarct volume and blood-brain barrier disruption after stroke to assess the efficacy of neurovascular protection.

Experimental animal models of stroke are invaluable tools for understanding stroke pathology and developing more effective treatment strategies. A 2 week ...

An Improved Method for Rapid Intubation of the Trachea in Mice

Despite some anatomical and physiological differences, mouse models continue to be an essential tool for studying human lung disease. Bleomycin toxicity is a commonly used model to study both acute lung injury and fibrosis, and multiple methods have been developed for administering bleomycin (and other toxic agents) into the lungs. However, many of these approaches, such as transtracheal instillation, have inherent drawbacks, including the need for strong anesthetics and survival surgery. This paper reports a quick, reproducible method of intratracheal intubation that involves mild inhaled anesthesia, visualization of the trachea, and the use of a surrogate spirometer to confirm exposure. As a proof of concept, 8-12 week old C57BL/6 mice were administered either 2.0 U/kg of bleomycin or an equivalent volume of PBS, and both damage and fibrotic endpoints were measured post-exposure. This procedure allows researchers to treat a large cohort of mice in a relatively short period with little expense and minimal post-procedure care.

This article presents a rapid and simple method for administering bleomycin directly into the mouse trachea via intubation. Key advantages of this method are that it is highly reproducible, easy to master, and does not require specialized equipment or lengthy recovery times.

Despite some anatomical and physiological differences, mouse models continue to be an essential tool for studying human lung disease. Bleomycin toxicity ...

Using Retinal Imaging to Study Dementia

The retina offers a unique &#8220;window&#8221; to study pathophysiological processes of dementia in the brain, as it is an extension of the central nervous system (CNS) and shares prominent similarities with the brain in terms of embryological origin, anatomical features and physiological properties.&#160; The vascular and neuronal structure in the retina can now be visualized easily and non-invasively using retinal imaging techniques, including fundus photography and optical coherence tomography (OCT), and quantified semi-automatically using computer-assisted analysis programs. Studying the associations between vascular and neuronal changes in the retina and dementia could improve our understanding of dementia and, potentially, aid in diagnosis and risk assessment.&#160; This protocol aims to describe a method of quantifying and analyzing retinal vasculature and neuronal structure, which are potentially associated with dementia. This protocol also provides examples of retinal changes in subjects with dementia, and discusses technical issues and current limitations of retinal imaging.

The retina shares prominent similarities with the brain and thus represents a unique window to study vasculature and neuronal structure in the brain non-invasively. This protocol describes a method to study dementia using retinal imaging techniques. This method can potentially aid in diagnosis and risk assessment of dementia.

The retina offers a unique &#8220;window&#8221; to study pathophysiological processes of dementia in the brain, as it is an extension of the central ...