特别感谢在加州大学洛杉矶分校的克里斯Reddi设立试剂和浇注凝胶和艾琳·桑德斯在加州大学洛杉矶分校的灵感，指导和支持，并校对稿件。我还想感谢吉安卡洛Costaguta和格雷戈里·S·佩恩提供酵母基因组DNA和引物放大GAL3的基因。我还想感谢Bhairav​​沙阿拍照的实验室设备和试剂用于使数字2 - 4。霍华德休斯医学研究所（HHMI的批准号：52006944），为这个项目提供了资金。

<ol>
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我什么都没有透露。

PCR技术已成为不可或缺的工具，在生物科学宝库。 PCR技术已经改变了科学课程，让生物学家产生了基因组的力量，并具有新功能的混合基因，使具体和准确的临床试验，获得进入基因组和多样性，以及简单的克隆基因作进一步的生化分析的见解。 PCR的应用是有限的，只有挥动其权力的科学家的想象力。有许多书籍和文章描述的PCR新的专门用途，并有更多的将通过开发下一代生物科学。然而，无论预期的方法，基本框架已经保持不变。聚合酶链反应，在其所有的宏伟，是在体外生成一个特定的DNA片段的大量的应用。 设计PCR实验要求的思想和耐心。在图3所示的结果，体现的主要通道之一allenges设计时的PCR优化策略。也就是说，PCR扩增作为一个参数被改变，它可能会影响另一个。作为一个例子，如果初始PCR分最佳退火温度（58℃）进行了一个最佳的Mg 2 +浓度为2.0毫米，那么其结果将产生在图3c看到涂抹。试图解决涂片可能涉及设立含有2.0毫米MgCl 2的反应PCR条件和退火温度调整到61°C。然而，在图3a可见，这不会产生任何产品。因此，它是最好的试剂，滴定，而不是加入一个集中到一个单一的反应，故障排除时，杂散结果。此外，最常见的是调整优化PCR实验的要求是改变Mg 2 +浓度和纠正的退火温度。但是，如果这些变化不减少或废除异常的结果，additi滴定VES和/或改变循环条件如表2-6中所述的协议可能会缓解这一问题。如果一切都失败了，重新设计的引物和尝试，再试一次。

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 试剂名称 </td><td> 公司 </td><td> 目录编号 </td><td> 评论 </td></tr><tr><td> 的Taq聚合酶</td><td>西格玛</td><td> D4545-25UN </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> dNTPs浓度</td><td> Qiagen公司</td><td> 201225 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 0.2毫升薄壁管PCR管</td><td>生物拉德</td><td> 223-9469 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 0.2毫升薄壁管帽</td><td>生物拉德</td><td> 223-9472 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> TE缓冲液： </td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td> EDTA二钠盐二水</td><td>西格玛</td><td> E5134 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> trizma-盐酸</td><td>西格玛</td><td>的T-3253 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>自定义噬菌体底漆</td><td> Invitrogen公司</td><td colspan="2"> 25441F_RL6_Contig2_68k TACTGCAACGCGATGTTGCG </td></tr><tr><td>自定义噬菌体底漆</td><td> Invitrogen公司</td><td colspan="2"> 26007R_RL6_ Contig2_68k TCACCATCAATCGTGGCGGT </td></tr><tr><td>自定义酵母底漆</td><td>集成DNA技术</td><td colspan="2"> SACI-GAL3（-256）ACCTGGAGCTCCTATTT TAACATGTGGATTTCTTGAAAGAATGAAATCG </td></tr><tr><td>自定义酵母底漆</td><td>集成DNA技术</td><td colspan="2"> GAL3（1848年），SACI CGGATGGAGCTCGCGT GAAGGTAATTTTTTTTTATGTCTCCG </td></tr><tr><td>热循环仪</td><td>生物拉德</td><td> 170-9703 </td><td>我的基因扩增仪</td></tr><tr><td>琼脂糖</td><td> ISC的BioExpress </td><td> E-3120-500 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>凝胶电泳</td><td> hoeffer科学仪器</td><td>型号HE33 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 1 kb的DNA梯状</td><td> New England Biolabs公司</td><td> N3232S </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>生物RAD电源包</td><td>生物拉德</td><td> 164-5050 </td><td> PowerPac的基本</td></tr><tr><td>凝胶文件系统</td><td> fotodyne法团</td><td colspan="2"> FOTO /调查分析师FX工作站</td></tr></tbody></table>

polymerase chain reaction: basic protocol plus troubleshooting and optimization strategies

在生物科学，有技术进步的纪律弹射到发现的黄金年龄。例如，微生物学领域的转化与安东·范·列文虎克的显微镜，它允许科学家们想象的首次原核生物的到来。聚合酶链反应（PCR）的发展是一个创新，改变其影响跨越无数的分支学科，在生物分子科学当然。理论的过程概述了由Keppe和同事在1971年，然而，它是14年，直到完整的PCR过程描述和实验由Kary穆利斯应用，而在鲸鱼座公司于1985年。自动化和完善这一技术进步与引进菌嗜水生 ，因此得名Taq DNA聚合酶的热稳定的DNA聚合酶。 PCR是1鲍威RFUL扩增技术，可以产生一个特定的DNA（即扩增）段供应充足，只有少量的起始原料（即模板DNA或靶序列）。虽然简单，一般无故障，也有复杂的化学反应产生的杂散结果的陷阱。 PCR扩增失败时，它可以导致许多大小不等的非特异性的DNA琼脂糖凝胶带梯子或涂片中出现的产品。有时，没有产品形成所有。另一个潜在的问题发生突变时无意中引入的扩增，在PCR产物的异构人口。 PCR扩增失败可以成为令人沮丧的，除非耐心和细心的故障排除理清和解决的问题（S）。该协议概述了PCR技术的基本原则，提供了一种方法，这将导致大多数靶序列的扩增，并提出了优化反应的战略。按照这样的PCR指南，STudents应该能够： <ul><li>设立常规PCR实验反应和热循环条件</li><li>了解各种反应元件的功能及其在PCR实验的整体效果</li><li>设计和优化为任何DNA模板的PCR实验</li><li>失败的PCR实验疑难解答</li></ul>

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Polymerase Chain Reaction: Basic Protocol Plus Troubleshooting and Optimization Strategies

PCR技术已经成为了许多分子生物学实验室常用技术。这里提供几个常规PCR协议是一个快速指导。因为每一个反应是一个独特的试验，以产生不同产品所需的最佳条件。了解反应中的变量，将大大提高故障排除效率，从而增加了机会，以获得所需的结果。

聚合酶链反应：基本协议加上故障排除和优化策略

In the biological sciences there have been technological advances that catapult the discipline into golden ages of discovery. For example, the field of ...

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399.5K 次观看.  University of California, Los Angeles. PCR技术已经成为了许多分子生物学实验室常用技术。这里提供几个常规PCR协议是一个快速指导。因为每一个反应是一个独特的试验，以产生不同产品所需的最佳条件。了解反应中的变量，将大大提高故障排除效率，从而增加了机会，以获得所需的结果。

视频: Polymerase Chain Reaction: Basic Protocol Plus Troubleshooting and Optimization Strategies

Optimization of the Ugi Reaction Using Parallel Synthesis and Automated Liquid Handling

The optimization of a Ugi reaction involving the mixing of furfurylamine, benzaldehyde, boc-glycine and t-butylisocyanide is described. Triplicate runs of 48 parallel experiments are reported, varying concentration, solvent and the excess of some of the reagents. The isolation of the product was achieved by a simple filtration and wash procedure. The highest yield obtained was 66% from 0.4 M methanol with 1.2 eq. of imine. This is significantly above the 49% yield obtained from the initial reaction under equimolar concentration at 0.4 M in methanol. Methanol solutions with reagent concentrations of 0.4M or 0.2M gave superior yields while all solvent systems at 0.07M performed poorly. At 0.2M, methanol and ethanol/methanol (60/40) mixtures were statistically equally good while THF/methanol (60/40) was poor and acetonitrile/methanol (60/40) was intermediate. Good reproducibility of the precipitate yields was obtained in these replicate experiments, allowing for subtle interaction effects to be positively identified.

The Ugi reaction has proved to be a convenient way to quickly create diverse libraries of compounds. It involves the reaction of an amine, an aldehyde, a carboxylic acid and an isonitrile typically in methanol at room temperature. In this video, we utilize a 48-slot Mettler-Toledo MiniBlock equipped with filtration tubes and a Mettler-Toledo MiniMapper automated liquid handler was used to deliver the reagents and solvent. The parameters of interest were the concentration, the solvent composition and the excess of some of the reagents.

卯木反应的优化使用平行合成和自动化液体处理

The optimization of a Ugi reaction involving the mixing of furfurylamine, benzaldehyde, boc-glycine and t-butylisocyanide is described.  Triplicate runs ...

科研

生物学

Elevated Plus Maze for Mice

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given gene on a specific behavior can be determined by behavioral analysis of mutant mice. If a target gene is expressed in the brain, behavioral phenotype of the mutant mice could elucidate the genetic mechanism of normal behaviors. The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior. The test is based on the natural aversion of mice for open and elevated areas, as well as on their natural spontaneous exploratory behavior in novel environments. The apparatus consists of open arms and closed arms, crossed in the middle perpendicularly to each other, and a center area. Mice are given access to all of the arms and are allowed to move freely between them. The number of entries into the open arms and the time spent in the open arms are used as indices of open space-induced anxiety in mice. Unfortunately, the procedural differences that exist between laboratories make it difficult to duplicate and compare results among laboratories. Here, we present a detailed movie demonstrating our protocol for the elevated plus maze test. In our laboratory, we have assessed more than 90 strains of mutant mice using the protocol shown in the movie. These data will be disclosed as a part of a public database that we are now constructing.
Visualization of the protocol will promote better understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used in different laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test. 


The elevated plus maze test is one of the most widely used tests for measuring anxiety-like behavior in mice. Here, we present a movie showing the detailed procedures for conducting the test.

对小鼠高架十字迷宫

Although the mouse genome is now completely sequenced, the functions of most of the genes expressed in the brain are not known. The influence of a given ...

Noninvasive In Vivo Small Animal MRI and MRS: Basic Experimental Procedures

Small animal Magnetic Resonance (MR) research has emerged as an important element of modern biomedical research due to its non-invasive nature and the richness of biological information it provides. MR does not require any ionizing radiation and can noninvasively provide higher resolution and better signal-to-noise ratio in comparison to other tomographic or spectroscopic modalities. In this protocol, we will focus on small animal MR imaging and MR spectroscopy (MRI/MRS) to noninvasively acquire relaxation weighted 1H images of mouse and to obtain 31P spectra of mouse muscle. This work does not attempt to cover every aspect of small animal MRI/MRS but rather introduces basic procedures of mouse MRI/MRS experiments. The main goal of this work is to inform researchers of the basic procedures for in vivo MR experiments on small animals. The goal is to provide a better understanding of basic experimental procedures to allow researchers new to the MR field to better plan for non-MR components of their studies so that both MR and non-MR procedures are seamlessly integrated.

Noninvasive In Vivo Small Animal MRI and MRS: Basic Experimental Procedures

This work describes basic procedures of noninvasive small animal MRI and MRS in vivo.

无创在体内小动物的MRI和MRS：基本实验程序

Small animal Magnetic Resonance (MR) research has emerged as an important element of modern biomedical research due to its non-invasive nature and the ...

Multiplexed Fluorometric ImmunoAssay Testing Methodology and Troubleshooting

To ensure the quality of animal models used in biomedical research we have developed a number of diagnostic testing strategies and methods to determine if animals have been exposed to adventitious infectious agents (viruses, mycoplasma, and other fastidious microorganisms). Infections of immunocompetent animals are generally transient, yet serum antibody responses to infection often can be detected within days to weeks and persist throughout the life of the host. Serology is the primary diagnostic methodology by which laboratory animals are monitored. Historically the indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) has been the main screening method for serosurveillance. The ELISA is performed as a singleplex, in which one microbial antigen-antibody reaction is measured per well. In comparison the MFIA is performed as a multiplexed assay. Since the microspheres come in 100 distinct color sets, as many as 100 different assays can be performed simultaneously in a single microplate well. This innovation decreases the amount of serum, reagents and disposables required for routine testing while increasing the amount of information obtained from a single test well. In addition, we are able to incorporate multiple internal control beads to verify sample and system suitability and thereby assure the accuracy of results. These include tissue control and IgG anti-test serum species immunoglobulin (&alpha;Ig) coated bead sets to evaluate sample suitability. As in the ELISA and IFA, the tissue control detects non-specific binding of serum immunoglobulin. The &alpha;Ig control (Serum control) confirms that serum has been added and contains a sufficient immunoglobulin concentration while the IgG control bead (System Suitability control), coated with serum species immunoglobulin, demonstrates that the labeled reagents and Luminex reader are functioning properly.

Using Luminex Corporation&#x2019;s xMAP microsphere technology, we have developed the Multiplexed Fluorometric ImmunoAssay (MFIA) for serosurveillance of various laboratory animal species. The MFIA is a suspension microarray where antigen, tissue control or immunoglobulins are covalently linked to color-coded polystyrene microspheres. The MFIA testing method as well as various troubleshooting topics is addressed.

复用荧光免疫检测方法和故障排除

To ensure the quality of animal models used in biomedical research we have developed a number of diagnostic testing strategies and methods to determine if ...

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model organism 1. C. elegans possesses key attributes such as simplicity, transparency and short life cycle that have made it a suitable experimental system for fundamental biological studies for many years 2. Discoveries in this nematode have broad implications because many cellular and molecular processes that control animal development are evolutionary conserved 3.
C. elegans life cycle goes through an embryonic stage and four larval stages before animals reach adulthood. Development can take 2 to 4 days depending on the temperature. In each of the stages several characteristic traits can be observed. The knowledge of its complete cell lineage 4,5 together with the deep annotation of its genome turn this nematode into a great model in fields as diverse as the neurobiology 6, aging 7,8, stem cell biology 9 and germ line biology 10. 
An additional feature that makes C. elegans an attractive model to work with is the possibility of obtaining populations of worms synchronized at a specific stage through a relatively easy protocol. The ease of maintaining and propagating this nematode added to the possibility of synchronization provide a powerful tool to obtain large amounts of worms, which can be used for a wide variety of small or high-throughput experiments such as RNAi screens, microarrays, massive sequencing, immunoblot or in situ hybridization, among others. 
Because of its transparency, C. elegans structures can be distinguished under the microscope using Differential Interference Contrast microscopy, also known as Nomarski microscopy. The use of a fluorescent DNA binder, DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole), for instance, can lead to the specific identification and localization of individual cells, as well as subcellular structures/defects associated to them.

Basic Caenorhabditis elegans Methods: Synchronization and Observation

The easiness of maintaining and propagating the nematode C. elegans make it a nice model organism to work with. The possibility of synchronizing worms allows the work with a significant amount of subjects at the same developmental stage, what facilitates the study of one particular process in many animals.

基本的<em&gt;线虫</em&gt;方法：同步和观察

Research into the molecular and developmental biology of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans was begun in the early seventies by Sydney Brenner and it has ...

A Guide to Modern Quantitative Fluorescent Western Blotting with Troubleshooting Strategies

The late 1970s saw the first publicly reported use of the western blot, a technique for assessing the presence and relative abundance of specific proteins within complex biological samples. Since then, western blotting methodology has become a common component of the molecular biologists experimental repertoire. A cursory search of PubMed using the term &#8220;western blot&#8221; suggests that in excess of two hundred and twenty thousand published manuscripts have made use of this technique by the year 2014. Importantly, the last ten years have seen technical imaging advances coupled with the development of sensitive fluorescent labels which have improved sensitivity and yielded even greater ranges of linear detection. The result is a now truly Quantifiable Fluorescence based Western Blot (QFWB) that allows biologists to carry out comparative expression analysis with greater sensitivity and accuracy than ever before. Many &#8220;optimized&#8221; western blotting methodologies exist and are utilized in different laboratories. These often prove difficult to implement due to the requirement of subtle but undocumented procedural amendments. This protocol provides a comprehensive description of an established and robust QFWB method, complete with troubleshooting strategies.

The advancement of western blotting using fluorescence has allowed detection of subtle changes in protein expression enabling quantitative analyses. Here we describe a robust methodology for detection of a range of proteins across a variety of species and tissue types. A strategy to overcome common technical problems is also provided.

指南现代荧光定量免疫印迹与故障排除策略

The late 1970s saw the first publicly reported use of the western blot, a technique for assessing the presence and relative abundance of specific proteins ...

A Strategy to Validate the Role of Callose-mediated Plasmodesmal Gating in the Tropic Response

The plant hormone auxin plays an important role in many growth and developmental processes, including tropic responses to light and gravity. The establishment of an auxin gradient is a key event leading to phototropism and gravitropism. Previously, polar auxin transport (PAT) was shown to establish an auxin gradient in different cellular domains of plants. However, Han et al. recently demonstrated that for proper auxin gradient formation, plasmodesmal callose-mediated symplasmic connectivity between the adjacent cells is also a critical factor. In this manuscript, the strategy to elucidate the role of particular genes, which can affect phototropism and gravitropism by altering the symplasmic connectivity through modulating plasmodesmal callose synthesis, is discussed. The first step is to screen aberrant tropic responses from 3-day-old etiolated seedlings of mutants or over-expression lines of a gene along with the wild type. This preliminary screening can lead to the identification of a range of genes functioning in PAT or controlling symplasmic connectivity. The second screening involves the sorting of candidates that show altered tropic responses by affecting symplasmic connectivity. To address such candidates, the movement of a symplasmic tracer and the deposition of plasmodesmal callose were examined. This strategy would be useful to explore new candidate genes that can regulate symplasmic connectivity directly or indirectly during tropic responses and other developmental processes.

This article describes the methods for screening the genes controlling plasmodesmal permeability and hence auxin gradient during tropic response. This includes the measurement of the degree of tropic response in hypocotyl of Arabidopsis thaliana and checking plasmodesmal permeability by 8-hydroxypyrene-1,3,6-trisulfonic acid (HPTS) loading and finally callose level assessment.

的策略，以验证胼胝质介导的Plasmodesmal浇注在热带反应中的作用

The plant hormone auxin plays an important role in many growth and developmental processes, including tropic responses to light and gravity. The ...

A Rapid Automated Protocol for Muscle Fiber Population Analysis in Rat Muscle Cross Sections Using Myosin Heavy Chain Immunohistochemistry

Quantification of muscle fiber populations provides a deeper insight into the effects of disease, trauma, and various other influences on skeletal muscle composition. Various time-consuming methods have traditionally been used to study fiber populations in many fields of research. However, recently developed immunohistochemical methods based on myosin heavy chain protein expression provide a quick alternative to identify multiple fiber types in a single section. Here, we present a rapid, reliable and reproducible protocol for improved staining quality, allowing automatic acquisition of whole cross sections and automatic quantification of fiber populations with ImageJ. For this purpose, embedded skeletal muscles are cut in cross sections, stained using myosin heavy chains antibodies with secondary fluorescent antibodies and DAPI for cell nuclei staining. Whole cross sections are then scanned automatically using a slide scanner to obtain high-resolution composite pictures of the entire specimen. Fiber population analyses are subsequently performed to quantify slow, intermediate and fast fibers using an automated macro for ImageJ. We have previously shown that this method can identify fiber populations reliably to a degree of &#177;4%. In addition, this method reduces inter-user variability and time per analyses significantly using the open source platform ImageJ.

Here, we present a protocol for rapid muscle fiber analyses, which allows improved staining quality, and thereby automatic acquisition and quantification of fiber populations using the freely available software ImageJ.

在使用肌球蛋白重链免疫鼠肌肉横断面的快速自动化方案为肌纤维人口分析

Quantification of muscle fiber populations provides a deeper insight into the effects of disease, trauma, and various other influences on skeletal muscle ...

Procedure and Key Optimization Strategies for an Automated Capillary Electrophoretic-based Immunoassay Method

New technologies that utilize capillary-based immunoassays promise faster and more quantitative protein assessment compared to traditional immunoassays. However, similar to other antibody-based protein assays, optimization of capillary-based immunoassay parameters, such as protein concentration, antibody dilution, and exposure time is an important prerequisite to the generation of meaningful and reliable data. Measurements must fall within the linear range of the assay where changes in signal are directly proportional to changes in lysate concentration. The process of choosing appropriate lysate concentrations, antibody dilutions, and exposure times in the human bronchial epithelial cell line, BEAS-2B, is demonstrated here. Assay linearity is shown over a range of whole cell extract protein concentrations with p53 and &#945;-tubulin antibodies. An example of signal burnout is seen at the highest concentrations with long exposure times, and an &#945;-tubulin antibody dilution curve is shown demonstrating saturation. In addition, example experimental results are reported for doxorubicin-treated cells using optimized parameters.

A capillary-based immunoassay using a commercial platform to measure target proteins from total protein preparations is demonstrated. In addition, assay parameters of exposure time, protein concentration, and antibody dilution are optimized for a cell culture model system.

全自动毛细 Electrophoretic-based 免疫分析方法的程序和关键优化策略

New technologies that utilize capillary-based immunoassays promise faster and more quantitative protein assessment compared to traditional immunoassays. ...

Simultaneous Measurements of Intracellular Calcium and Membrane Potential in Freshly Isolated and Intact Mouse Cerebral Endothelium

Cerebral arteries and their respective microcirculation deliver oxygen and nutrients to the brain via blood flow regulation. Endothelial cells line the lumen of blood vessels and command changes in vascular diameter as needed to meet the metabolic demand of neurons. Primary endothelial-dependent signaling pathways of hyperpolarization of membrane potential (Vm) and nitric oxide typically operate in parallel to mediate vasodilation and thereby increase blood flow. Although integral to coordinating vasodilation over several millimeters of vascular length, components of endothelium-derived hyperpolarization (EDH) have been historically difficult to measure. These components of EDH entail intracellular Ca2+ [Ca2+]i increases and subsequent activation of small- and intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SKCa/IKCa) channels.
Here, we present a simplified illustration of the isolation of fresh endothelium from mouse cerebral arteries; simultaneous measurements of endothelial [Ca2+]i and Vm using Fura-2 photometry and intracellular sharp electrodes, respectively; and a continuous superfusion of salt solutions and pharmacological agents under physiological conditions (pH 7.4, 37 &#176;C). Posterior cerebral arteries from the Circle of Willis are removed free of the posterior communicating and the basilar arteries. Enzymatic digestion of cleaned posterior cerebral arterial segments and subsequent trituration facilitates removal of adventitia, perivascular nerves, and smooth muscle cells. Resulting posterior cerebral arterial endothelial &#34;tubes&#34; are then secured under a microscope and examined using a camera, photomultiplier tube, and one to two electrometers while under continuous superfusion. Collectively, this method can simultaneously measure changes in endothelial [Ca2+]i and Vm in discrete cellular locations, in addition to the spreading of EDH through gap junctions up to millimeter distances along the intact endothelium. This method is expected to yield a high-throughput analysis of the cerebral endothelial functions underlying mechanisms of blood flow regulation in the normal and diseased brain.

Demonstrated here are protocols for (1) freshly isolating intact cerebral endothelial "tubes" and (2) simultaneous measurements of endothelial calcium and membrane potential during endothelium-derived hyperpolarization. Further, these methods allow for pharmacological tuning of endothelial cell calcium and electrical signaling as individual or interactive experimental variables.

新鲜分离和内联小鼠脑内皮细胞内钙和膜电位的同时测量

Cerebral arteries and their respective microcirculation deliver oxygen and nutrients to the brain via blood flow regulation. Endothelial cells line the ...