Name: identification of the genes involved in stomatal development via epidermal phenotype scoring
Uploaded: 2023-01-20T13:05:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of the Genes Involved in Stomatal Development via Epidermal Phenotype Scoring at JoVE.com

This research was funded through the Natural Resources and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery program and Concordia University. K.B. is supported by the National Overseas Scholarship from India.

1. Staining Arabidopsis cotyledons with TBO
<ol>
	<li>Seed sterilization and growth conditions
	<ol>
		<li>Sterilize ~30 Arabidopsis seeds per genotype in a microcentrifuge tube by adding 1 mL of a seed sterilization solution (33% commercial bleach, 0.1% Triton X-100), and gently rock for 10-12 min at room temperature (RT). 
		NOTE: Sterilize ~30 seeds of the wild-type Arabidopsis accession Columbia (Col-0) and/or ~60 seeds of transgenic plants carrying a chemically-indu...

<ol>
	<li>Hara, K., Kajita, R., Torii, K. U., Bergmann, D. C., Kakimoto, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+secretory+peptide+gene+EPF1+enforces+the+stomatal+one-cell-spacing+rule.">The secretory peptide gene EPF1 enforces the stomatal one-cell-spacing rule.</a> Genes &amp; Development. 21 (14), 1720-1725 (2007).</li><li>Hara, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidermal+cell+density+is+autoregulated+via+a+secretory+peptide,+EPIDERMAL+PATTERNING+FACTOR+2+in+Arabidopsis+leaves.">Epidermal cell density is autoregulated via a secretory peptide, EPIDERMAL PATTERNING FACTOR 2 in Arabidopsis leaves.</a> Plant &amp; Cell Physiology. 50 (6), 1019-1031 (2009).</li><li>Kondo, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stomatal+density+is+controlled+by+a+mesophyll-derived+signaling+molecule.">Stomatal density is controlled by a mesophyll-derived signaling molecule.</a> Plant &amp; Cell Physiology. 51 (1), 1-8 (2010).</li><li>Sugano, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stomagen+positively+regulates+stomatal+density+in+Arabidopsis.">Stomagen positively regulates stomatal density in Arabidopsis.</a> Nature. 463 (7278), 241-244 (2010).</li><li>Hunt, L., Gray, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+signaling+peptide+EPF2+controls+asymmetric+cell+divisions+during+stomatal+development.">The signaling peptide EPF2 controls asymmetric cell divisions during stomatal development.</a> Current Biology. 19 (10), 864-869 (2009).</li><li>Hunt, L., Bailey, K. J., Gray, J. 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U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stomatal+patterning+and+differentiation+by+synergistic+interactions+of+receptor+kinases.">Stomatal patterning and differentiation by synergistic interactions of receptor kinases.</a> Science. 309 (5732), 290-293 (2005).</li><li>Nadeau, J. A., Sack, F. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+stomatal+distribution+on+the+Arabidopsis+leaf+surface.">Control of stomatal distribution on the Arabidopsis leaf surface.</a> Science. 296 (5573), 1697-1700 (2002).</li><li>Meng, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+function+of+Arabidopsis+SERK+family+receptor-like+kinases+in+stomatal+patterning.">Differential function of Arabidopsis SERK family receptor-like kinases in stomatal patterning.</a> Current Biology. 25 (18), 2361-2372 (2015).</li><li>Lampard, G. R., Macalister, C. A., Bergmann, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Arabidopsis+stomatal+initiation+is+controlled+by+MAPK-mediated+regulation+of+the+bHLH+SPEECHLESS.">Arabidopsis stomatal initiation is controlled by MAPK-mediated regulation of the bHLH SPEECHLESS.</a> Science. 322 (5904), 1113-1116 (2008).</li><li>Yang, M., Sack, F. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+too+many+mouths+and+four+lips+mutations+affect+stomatal+production+in+Arabidopsis.">The too many mouths and four lips mutations affect stomatal production in Arabidopsis.</a> The Plant Cell. 7 (12), 2227-2239 (1995).</li><li>Theunissen, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+method+for+studying+grass+leaf+epidermis.">An improved method for studying grass leaf epidermis.</a> Stain Technology. 64 (5), 239-242 (1989).</li><li>Venkata, B. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=crw1--A+novel+maize+mutant+highly+susceptible+to+foliar+damage+by+the+western+corn+rootworm+beetle.">crw1--A novel maize mutant highly susceptible to foliar damage by the western corn rootworm beetle.</a> PLoS One. 8 (8), 71296 (2013).</li><li>Tucker, M. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Somatic+small+RNA+pathways+promote+the+mitotic+events+of+megagametogenesis+during+female+reproductive+development+in+Arabidopsis.">Somatic small RNA pathways promote the mitotic events of megagametogenesis during female reproductive development in Arabidopsis.</a> Development. 139 (8), 1399-1404 (2012).</li><li>Ohki, S., Takeuchi, M., Mori, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+NMR+structure+of+stomagen+reveals+the+basis+of+stomatal+density+regulation+by+plant+peptide+hormones.">The NMR structure of stomagen reveals the basis of stomatal density regulation by plant peptide hormones.</a> Nature Communications. 2, 512 (2011).</li><li>Jangra, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Duplicated+antagonistic+EPF+peptides+optimize+grass+stomatal+initiation.">Duplicated antagonistic EPF peptides optimize grass stomatal initiation.</a> Development. 148 (16), (2021).</li><li>Zhao, C., Craig, J. C., Petzold, H. E., Dickerman, A. W., Beers, E. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+xylem+and+phloem+transcriptomes+from+secondary+tissues+of+the+Arabidopsis+root-hypocotyl.">The xylem and phloem transcriptomes from secondary tissues of the Arabidopsis root-hypocotyl.</a> Plant Physiology. 138 (2), 803-818 (2005).</li><li>Uchida, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+inflorescence+architecture+by+intertissue+layer+ligand-receptor+communication+between+endodermis+and+phloem.">Regulation of inflorescence architecture by intertissue layer ligand-receptor communication between endodermis and phloem.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (16), 6337-6342 (2012).</li><li>Tameshige, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+secreted+peptide+and+its+receptors+shape+the+auxin+response+pattern+and+leaf+margin+morphogenesis.">A secreted peptide and its receptors shape the auxin response pattern and leaf margin morphogenesis.</a> Current Biology. 26 (18), 2478-2485 (2016).</li><li>Abrash, E. B., Davies, K. A., Bergmann, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+signaling+specificity+in+Arabidopsis+by+spatially+restricted+buffering+of+ligand-receptor+interactions.">Generation of signaling specificity in Arabidopsis by spatially restricted buffering of ligand-receptor interactions.</a> The Plant Cell. 23 (8), 2864-2879 (2011).</li><li>Uchida, N., Tasaka, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+plant+vascular+stem+cells+by+endodermis-derived+EPFL-family+peptide+hormones+and+phloem-expressed+ERECTA-family+receptor+kinases.">Regulation of plant vascular stem cells by endodermis-derived EPFL-family peptide hormones and phloem-expressed ERECTA-family receptor kinases.</a> Journal of Experimental Botany. 64 (17), 5335-5343 (2013).</li><li>Kosentka, P. Z., Overholt, A., Maradiaga, R., Mitoubsi, O., Shpak, E. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EPFL+Signals+in+the+boundary+region+of+the+SAM+restrict+its+size+and+promote+leaf+initiation.">EPFL Signals in the boundary region of the SAM restrict its size and promote leaf initiation.</a> Plant Physiology. 179 (1), 265-279 (2019).</li></ol>

The two phenotypic analysis methods for identifying and characterizing the genes controlling stomatal patterning and differentiation presented here are convenient and reliable assays since the protocols do not require the use of epidermal peels and specialized equipment (which are time-consuming and require special training for sample preparation) but do produce high-quality images for the quantitative analysis of epidermal phenotypes.
A limitation of this technique for phenotypic analysis usi...

Proper patterning and differentiation of the plant stomata are critical for their function in two fundamental biological processes, photosynthesis and transpiration, and are enforced by EPF peptide signaling pathways. In Arabidopsis, three secreted cysteine-rich peptides, EPF1, EPF2, and STOMAGEN/EPFL9, control different aspects of stomatal development and are perceived by cell-surface receptor components, including ERECTA-family receptor kinases (ER, ERL1, and ERL2), SERKs, and TMM1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. This recognition then leads to the downregulation of the transcription factors that promote stomatal differentiation by a MAPK-dependent process11. The discovery of these core stomatal genes is primarily achieved by the phenotypic screening of mutants exhibiting epidermal defects. This paper presents relatively simple and efficient phenotyping methods for visualizing the stomata and other epidermal cells, which are required to identify and characterize the potential genes controlling stomatal patterning and differentiation.
The observation of the details of the plant epidermis has typically been achieved by using epidermal peels with or without staining with a dye such as toluidine blue O (TBO) or safranin12,13,14. However, the main challenge of these methods is that they require specialized training to peel the leaf epidermis without tearing the tissues and to carefully observe and analyze the patterning data while avoiding the images taken from different parts of the leaf. Chemical treatments to clear the tissue samples with reagents such as chloral hydrate-based clearing solutions have also been widely used for a various range of biological materials8,15; these treatments do generate a great deal of phenotypic information by providing high-quality images but also require the use of dangerous chemicals (e.g., formaldehyde, chloral hydrate). This paper first presents a relatively easy and convenient phenotyping method that produces images sufficient for quantitative analysis but does not require the use of dangerous chemicals and epidermal leaf peels for the sample preparation. A TBO-stained cotyledon epidermis is also ideal for the study of stomatal development because the lack of trichomes and the smaller developmental gradient in cotyledons allow for the simple and tractable interpretation of the epidermal phenotypes.
Stomatal EPF peptides belong to the group of plant-specific, cysteine-rich peptides that have relatively large mature sizes and intramolecular disulfide bonds between conserved cysteine residues. Correct conformational folding is critical for their biological function, but cysteine-rich peptides, which are produced by either chemical synthesis or a heterologous recombination system, can be inactive and are a mixture of both properly folded and unfolded peptides3,7,16. Thus, the screening of bioactive peptides that have a role in controlling stomatal development has been a very challenging task. This manuscript additionally describes a bioassay for the better identification and characterization of bioactive stomatal peptides. In this method, Arabidopsis seedlings are grown in a multi-well plate containing media with and without potential peptides for 6-7 days. Then, the cotyledon epidermis is visualized using a confocal microscope. In general, to clearly visualize the biological activity of potential peptides in stomatal development, the genotypes that produce more and/or less stomatal lineage cells, such as the epf2 mutant, which produces more epidermal cells, and the STOMAGEN-ami line, which confers reduced epidermal cell density2,4,5, are used in addition to the wild-type Arabidopsis control (Col-0) for the bioassays.
Overall, the two protocols presented here can be used for the quick and efficient assessment of various epidermal phenotypes and for screening small peptides and hormones that have a role in controlling stomatal patterning and development.

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			<td>18 mm x 18 mm cover slip</td>
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			<td>24-well sterile plates with lid</td>
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			<td>CA62406-183</td>
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			<td>3M Micropore surgical tape</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>19-027-761</td>
			<td>Microporous surgical paper tape used to seal MS plates</td>
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			<td>76 x 26 mm Microscope slide</td>
			<td>TLG</td>
			<td>GEW90-2575-03</td>
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			<td>Acetic acid, &#8805;99.8%&#160;</td>
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			<td>Confocal microscope&#160;</td>
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			<td>Gamborg&#39;s vitamin mixture</td>
			<td>Cassson Labs</td>
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			<td>Store at 4 &#176;C</td>
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			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>G33-4</td>
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			<td>16h light cycle, set at 21&#176;C with a light intensity of 120 &#181;mol&#183;m-2&#183;s-1.</td>
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			<td>Microcentrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-222-155</td>
			<td>Tubes in which Arabidopsis thaliana seeds are placed to perform sterilization</td>
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			<td>Microscope&#160;</td>
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			<td>Nikon Eclipse TiE equipped with a DsRi2 digital camera</td>
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			<td>Murashige and Skoog basal salts&#160;</td>
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			<td>Petri Dish 100 mm x 20 mm&#160;</td>
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			<td>Propidium Iodide&#160;</td>
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			<td>Sucrose</td>
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identification of the genes involved in stomatal development via epidermal phenotype scoring

Stomata are small pores on the surface of land plants that are involved in gas exchange and water vapor release, and their function is critical for plant productivity and survival. As such, understanding the mechanisms by which stomata develop and pattern has tremendous agronomic value. This paper describes two phenotypic methods using Arabidopsis cotyledons that can be used to characterize the genes controlling stomatal development and patterning. Presented first are procedures for analyzing the stomatal phenotypes using toluidine blue O-stained cotyledons. This method is fast and reliable and does not require the use of epidermal peels, which are widely used for phenotypic analyses but require specialized training. Due to the presence of multiple cysteine residues, the identification and generation of bioactive EPF peptides that have a role in stomatal development have been challenging. Thus, presented second is a procedure used to identify stomatal ligands and monitor their biological activity by bioassays. The main advantage of this method is that it produces reproducible data relatively easily while reducing the amount of peptide solution and the time required to characterize the role of the peptides in controlling stomatal patterning and development. Overall, these well-designed protocols enhance the efficiency of studying the potential stomatal regulators, including cysteine-rich secretory peptides, which require highly complex structures for their activity.

Various stomatal transgenic plants and mutants known to have less or more stomatal density and clustering (epf22,5, epf1 epf22,5, tmm12, a STOMAGEN-silenced line4, and transgenic lines carrying the estradiol-inducible Est::EPF1 or Est::EPF2 overexpression construct7) were used to d...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of the Genes Involved in Stomatal Development via Epidermal Phenotype Scoring at JoVE.com

Identification of the Genes Involved in Stomatal Development via Epidermal Phenotype Scoring

This paper describes two phenotyping methods without the use of epidermal peels to characterize the genes controlling stomatal development. The first method demonstrates how to analyze a stomatal phenotype using a toluidine blue O-stained plant epidermis. The second method describes how to identify stomatal ligands and monitor their biological activities.

Identification of the Genes Involved in Stomatal Development via Epidermal Phenotype Scoring

Stomata are small pores on the surface of land plants that are involved in gas exchange and water vapor release, and their function is critical for plant ...

The two phenotypic analysis methods presented here offers high-quality images that are sufficient for conducting quantitative phenotypic analysis and for demonstrating phenotypic responses of peptide treatment with epidermal details. Consequently, these two methods can be used for understanding epidermal cell patterning and development. These two methods are relatively easy and reliable techniques as they do not require any toxic chemicals or epidermal piece that are widely used for epidermal phenotypic analysis.However, the techniques are complicated and they require specialized training. To begin, carefully select and cut out one of the cotyledons from the individual seedlings that are growing uniformly with other seedlings on the plate to limit variability. Place each cotyledon into a microcentrifuge tube containing one milliliter of a fixing solution using forceps and leave the sample in the fixing solution overnight at room temperature.Remove the fixing solution and add one milliliter of 70%ethanol. Invert the tube a couple of times and leave the tube containing the samples at room temperature for around 30 minutes. Repeat this step using one milliliter of 50%ethanol and then 20%ethanol.Replace the one milliliter of 20%ethanol with one milliliter of distilled water, invert the tube containing the cotyledon samples a few times and leave it for around 30 minutes. Remove all the distilled water from the tube and immediately add around 200 microliters of Toluidine Blue O or TBO staining solution for around two minutes. Remove the TBO staining solution as thoroughly as possible and then immediately wash the samples a couple of times by adding one milliliter of fresh distilled water.In a laminar flow hood, carefully transplant 10 to 12 one-day-old Arabidopsis seedlings from each of the two prepared plates into a 24-well plate containing 1.5 milliliters of half MS liquid medium in each well. Add either 50 millimolar tris HCL buffer alone or two different concentrations of the peptide to each well containing the seedlings germinated on half MS agar plates. Gently mix the seedlings with the buffer alone or a peptide solution using a pipette and seal the plate with micropore tape.Incubate the assay plate under long day conditions for five to seven days at 22 degrees Celsius. Transfer seedling from the well on a cover slide and dissect the cotyledon of the seedling. Place the abaxial side of the cotyledon up using forceps and cut it into small pieces.Take another clean microscope slide and place a drop of propidium iodide solution on it. Place one of the small pieces of cotyledon into the drop using forceps and gently place the coverslip. Apply additional propidium iodide solution on the edge of the coverslip to remove any air bubbles that are formed.Image the abaxial side of the cotyledon using a confocal microscope and compare the images with the images from seedlings grown in half MS medium containing buffer only. Abaxial cotyledon images from 10-day-old seedlings of three Arabidopsis genotypes, wild type, a STOMAGEN silenced line, and epf1 epf2 mutants are shown here. Here, the STOMAGEN silenced line represents the genotypes with low numbers of stomata and the epf1 epf2 mutants represent the genotypes with high numbers of stomata.The representative epidermis images of cotyledons from 10-day-old seedlings of wild type, tmm, and transgenic lines carrying an estradiol inducible epf2 or epf1 overexpression construct were used for the quantitative analysis of the epidermal phenotype. The representative confocal images of wild type and epf2 cotyledon epidermis grown for six to seven days in a buffer solution and an epf2 cotyledon epidermis grown with two different batches of epf2 peptides are shown in this figure. By performing this procedure, make sure to cut one of the cotyledons from an individual seedling that is already growing uniformly with the other seedlings.Also choose a seedling that do not touch the MS media to limit variability. Another point to remember is that do not place more than five cotyledons in a single microcentrifuge tube. Also, gently flick the tube to ensure even distribution of the TBO stains around the cotyledons to stain them good.Considering multiple structural peptides exist in a peptide solution, this bioassay method will be very useful for the identification of properly folded and bioactive forms of peptide and their biological functions.

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Gene deletion and protein overexpression are common methods for studying functions of proteins. In this article, we describe a protocol for analysis of ...

Chromosomics: Detection of Numerical and Structural Alterations in All 24 Human Chromosomes Simultaneously Using a Novel OctoChrome FISH Assay

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that allows specific DNA sequences to be detected on metaphase or interphase chromosomes in cell nuclei1. The technique uses DNA probes with unique sequences that hybridize to whole chromosomes or specific chromosomal regions, and serves as a powerful adjunct to classic cytogenetics. For instance, many earlier studies reported the frequent detection of increased chromosome aberrations in leukemia patients related with benzene exposure, benzene-poisoning patients, and healthy workers exposed to benzene, using classic cytogenetic analysis2. Using FISH, leukemia-specific chromosomal alterations have been observed to be elevated in apparently healthy workers exposed to benzene3-6, indicating the critical roles of cytogentic changes in benzene-induced leukemogenesis. 
Generally, a single FISH assay examines only one or a few whole chromosomes or specific loci per slide, so multiple hybridizations need to be conducted on multiple slides to cover all of the human chromosomes. Spectral karyotyping (SKY) allows visualization of the whole genome simultaneously, but the requirement for special software and equipment limits its application7. Here, we describe a novel FISH assay, OctoChrome-FISH, which can be applied for Chromosomics, which we define here as the simultaneous analysis of all 24 human chromosomes on one slide in human studies, such as chromosome-wide aneuploidy study (CWAS)8. The basis of the method, marketed by Cytocell as the Chromoprobe Multiprobe System, is an OctoChrome device that is divided into 8 squares, each of which carries three different whole chromosome painting probes (Figure 1). Each of the three probes is directly labeled with a different colored fluorophore, green (FITC), red (Texas Red), and blue (Coumarin). The arrangement of chromosome combinations on the OctoChrome device has been designed to facilitate the identification of the non-random structural chromosome alterations (translocations) found in the most common leukemias and lymphomas, for instance t(9;22), t(15;17), t(8;21), t(14;18)9. Moreover, numerical changes (aneuploidy) in chromosomes can be detected concurrently. The corresponding template slide is also divided into 8 squares onto which metaphase spreads are bound (Figure 2), and is positioned over the OctoChrome device. The probes and target DNA are denatured at high-temperature and hybridized in a humid chamber, and then all 24 human chromosomes can be visualized simultaneously. 
OctoChrome FISH is a promising technique for the clinical diagnosis of leukemia and lymphoma and for detection of aneuploidies in all chromosomes. We have applied this new Chromosomic approach in a CWAS study of benzene-exposed Chinese workers8,10.

A novel fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) method that simultaneously examines both numerical and structural chromosome alterations, particularly the specific chromosomal translocations associated with leukemia and lymphoma, of all 24 human chromosomes on a single device in one hybridization, is described.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a technique that allows specific DNA sequences to be detected on metaphase or interphase chromosomes in cell ...

Fluorescence-microscopy Screening and Next-generation Sequencing: Useful Tools for the Identification of Genes Involved in Organelle Integrity

This protocol describes a fluorescence microscope-based screening of Arabidopsis seedlings and describes how to map recessive mutations that alter the subcellular distribution of a specific tagged fluorescent marker in the secretory pathway. Arabidopsis is a powerful biological model for genetic studies because of its genome size, generation time, and conservation of molecular mechanisms among kingdoms. The array genotyping as an approach to map the mutation in alternative to the traditional method based on molecular markers is advantageous because it is relatively faster and may allow the mapping of several mutants in a really short time frame. This method allows the identification of proteins that can influence the integrity of any organelle in plants. Here, as an example, we propose a screen to map genes important for the integrity of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Our approach, however, can be easily extended to other plant cell organelles (for example see1,2), and thus represents an important step toward understanding the molecular basis governing other subcellular structures.

A fundamental quest in cell biology is to define the mechanisms that underlie the identity of the organelles that make eukaryotic cells. Here we propose a method to identify the genes responsible for the morphological and functional integrity of plant organelles using fluorescence microscopy and next-generation sequencing tools.

This protocol describes a fluorescence microscope-based screening of Arabidopsis seedlings and describes how to map recessive mutations that alter the ...

Rat Mesentery Exteriorization: A Model for Investigating the Cellular Dynamics Involved in Angiogenesis

Microvacular network growth and remodeling are critical aspects of wound healing, inflammation, diabetic retinopathy, tumor growth and other disease conditions1, 2. Network growth is commonly attributed to angiogenesis, defined as the growth of new vessels from pre-existing vessels. The angiogenic process is also directly linked to arteriogenesis, defined as the capillary acquisition of a perivascular cell coating and vessel enlargement. Needless to say, angiogenesis is complex and involves multiple players at the cellular and molecular level3. Understanding how a microvascular network grows requires identifying the spatial and temporal dynamics along the hierarchy of a network over the time course of angiogenesis. This information is critical for the development of therapies aimed at manipulating vessel growth.
The exteriorization model described in this article represents a simple, reproducible model for stimulating angiogenesis in the rat mesentery. It was adapted from wound-healing models in the rat mesentery4-7, and is an alternative to stimulate angiogenesis in the mesentery via i.p. injections of pro-angiogenic agents8, 9. The exteriorization model is attractive because it requires minimal surgical intervention and produces dramatic, reproducible increases in capillary sprouts, vascular area and vascular density over a relatively short time course in a tissue that allows for the two-dimensional visualization of entire microvascular networks down to single cell level. The stimulated growth reflects natural angiogenic responses in a physiological environment without interference of foreign angiogenic molecules. Using immunohistochemical labeling methods, this model has been proven extremely useful in identifying novel cellular events involved in angiogenesis. Investigators can readily correlate the angiogenic metrics during the time course of remodeling with time specific dynamics, such as cellular phenotypic changes or cellular interactions4, 5, 7, 10, 11.

This article describes a simple model for stimulating angiogenesis in the rat mesentery. The model produces dramatic increases in capillary sprouting, vascular area and vascular density over a relatively short time course in a tissue that allows en face visualization of entire microvascular networks down to the single cell level.

Microvacular network growth and remodeling are critical aspects of wound healing, inflammation, diabetic retinopathy, tumor growth and other disease ...

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems including plants, invertebrates and vertebrates. There are various methods to achieve RNAi in vivo4,5. For example, the target gene may be transformed into an RNAi vector, and then either permanently or transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to achieve gene knockdown effects; alternatively synthesized double-strand oligonucleotides from specific target genes (RNAi oligos) may be transiently transformed into cell lines or primary cells to silence target genes; or synthesized double-strand RNA molecules may be microinjected into an organism. Since the nematode C. elegans uses bacteria as a food source, feeding the animals with bacteria expressing double-strand RNA against target genes provides a viable strategy6. Here we present an RNAi feeding method to score body size phenotype. Body size in C. elegans is regulated primarily by the TGF- &beta; - like ligand DBL-1, so this assay is appropriate for identification of TGF-&beta; signaling components7. We used different strains including two RNAi hypersensitive strains to repeat the RNAi feeding experiments. Our results showed that rrf-3 strain gave us the best expected RNAi phenotype. The method is easy to perform, reproducible, and easily quantified. Furthermore, our protocol minimizes the use of specialized equipment, so it is suitable for smaller laboratories or those at predominantly undergraduate institutions.

Using RNA-mediated Interference Feeding Strategy to Screen for Genes Involved in Body Size Regulation in the Nematode C. elegans

We demonstrate how to use the RNAi feeding technique to knock down target genes and score body size phenotype in C. elegans. This method could be used for a large scale screen to identify potential genetic components of interest, such as those involved in body size regulation by DBL-1/TGF-&beta; signaling.

Double-strand RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) is an effective strategy to knock down target gene expression1-3. It has been applied to many model systems ...

Identification of Metabolically Active Bacteria in the Gut of the Generalist Spodoptera littoralis via DNA Stable Isotope Probing Using 13C-Glucose

Guts of most insects are inhabited by complex communities of symbiotic nonpathogenic bacteria. Within such microbial communities it is possible to identify commensal or mutualistic bacteria species. The latter ones, have been observed to serve multiple functions to the insect, i.e. helping in insect reproduction1, boosting the immune response2, pheromone production3, as well as nutrition, including the synthesis of essential amino acids4, among others. &#160; &#160;
Due to the importance of these associations, many efforts have been made to characterize the communities down to the individual members. However, most of these efforts were either based on cultivation methods or relied on the generation of 16S rRNA gene fragments which were sequenced for final identification. Unfortunately, these approaches only identified the bacterial species present in the gut and provided no information on the metabolic activity of the microorganisms.
To characterize the metabolically active bacterial species in the gut of an insect, we used stable isotope probing (SIP) in vivo employing 13C-glucose as a universal substrate. This is a promising culture-free technique that allows the linkage of microbial phylogenies to their particular metabolic activity. This is possible by tracking stable, isotope labeled atoms from substrates into microbial biomarkers, such as DNA and RNA5. The incorporation of 13C isotopes into DNA increases the density of the labeled DNA compared to the unlabeled (12C) one. In the end, the 13C-labeled DNA or RNA is separated by density-gradient ultracentrifugation from the 12C-unlabeled similar one6. Subsequent molecular analysis of the separated nucleic acid isotopomers provides the connection between metabolic activity and identity of the species.
Here, we present the protocol used to characterize the metabolically active bacteria in the gut of a generalist insect (our model system), Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). The phylogenetic analysis of the DNA was done using pyrosequencing, which allowed high resolution and precision in the identification of insect gut bacterial community. As main substrate, 13C-labeled glucose was used in the experiments. The substrate was fed to the insects using an artificial diet.

Identification of Metabolically Active Bacteria in the Gut of the Generalist Spodoptera littoralis via DNA Stable Isotope Probing Using 13C-Glucose

The active bacterial community associated with the gut of Spodoptera littoralis, was determined by stable-isotope-probing (SIP) coupled to pyrosequencing. Using this methodology, identification of the metabolically active bacteria species within the community was done with high resolution and precision.

Guts of most insects are inhabited by complex communities of symbiotic nonpathogenic bacteria. Within such microbial communities it is possible to ...

Identification of Post-translational Modifications of Plant Protein Complexes

Plants adapt quickly to changing environments due to elaborate perception and signaling systems. During pathogen attack, plants rapidly respond to infection via the recruitment and activation of immune complexes. Activation of immune complexes is associated with post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins, such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, or ubiquitination. Understanding how these PTMs are choreographed will lead to a better understanding of how resistance is achieved.
Here we describe a protein purification method for nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR)-interacting proteins and the subsequent identification of their post-translational modifications (PTMs). With small modifications, the protocol can be applied for the purification of other plant protein complexes. The method is based on the expression of an epitope-tagged version of the protein of interest, which is subsequently partially purified by immunoprecipitation and subjected to mass spectrometry for identification of interacting proteins and PTMs.
This protocol demonstrates that: i). Dynamic changes in PTMs such as phosphorylation can be detected by mass spectrometry; ii). It is important to have sufficient quantities of the protein of interest, and this can compensate for the lack of purity of the immunoprecipitate; iii). In order to detect PTMs of a protein of interest, this protein has to be immunoprecipitated to get a sufficient quantity of protein.

We describe here a protocol for the purification and characterization of plant protein complexes. We demonstrate that by immunoprecipitating a single protein within a complex, so we can identify its post-translational modifications and its interacting partners.

Plants adapt quickly to changing environments due to elaborate perception and signaling systems. During pathogen attack, plants rapidly respond to ...

gDNA Enrichment by a Transposase-based Technology for NGS Analysis of the Whole Sequence of BRCA1, BRCA2, and 9 Genes Involved in DNA Damage Repair

The widespread use of Next Generation Sequencing has opened up new avenues for cancer research and diagnosis. NGS will bring huge amounts of new data on cancer, and especially cancer genetics. Current knowledge and future discoveries will make it necessary to study a huge number of genes that could be involved in a genetic predisposition to cancer. In this regard, we developed a Nextera design to study 11 complete genes involved in DNA damage repair. This protocol was developed to safely study 11 genes (ATM, BARD1, BRCA1, BRCA2, BRIP1, CHEK2, PALB2, RAD50, RAD51C, RAD80, and TP53) from promoter to 3&#39;-UTR in 24 patients simultaneously. This protocol, based on transposase technology and gDNA enrichment, gives a great advantage in terms of time for the genetic diagnosis thanks to sample multiplexing. This protocol can be safely used with blood gDNA.

gDNA Enrichment by a Transposase-based Technology for NGS Analysis of the Whole Sequence of BRCA1, BRCA2, and 9 Genes Involved in DNA Damage Repair

gDNA enrichment for NGS sequencing is an easy and powerful tool for the study of constitutional mutations. In this article, we present the procedure to analyse simply the complete sequence of 11 genes involved in DNA damage repair.

The widespread use of Next Generation Sequencing has opened up new avenues for cancer research and diagnosis. NGS will bring huge amounts of new data on ...

Gap Junctional Intercellular Communication: A Functional Biomarker to Assess Adverse Effects of Toxicants and Toxins, and Health Benefits of Natural Products

This protocol describes a scalpel loading-fluorescent dye transfer (SL-DT) technique that measures intercellular communication through gap junction channels, which is a major intercellular process by which tissue homeostasis is maintained. Interruption of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) by toxicants, toxins, drugs, etc. has been linked to numerous adverse health effects. Many genetic-based human diseases have been linked to mutations in gap junction genes. The SL-DT technique is a simple functional assay for the simultaneous assessment of GJIC in a large population of cells. The assay involves pre-loading cells with a fluorescent dye by briefly perturbing the cell membrane with a scalpel blade through a population of cells. The fluorescent dye is then allowed to traverse through gap junction channels to neighboring cells for a designated time. The assay is then terminated by the addition of formalin to the cells. The spread of the fluorescent dye through a population of cells is assessed with an epifluorescence microscope and the images are analyzed with any number of morphometric software packages that are available, including free software packages found on the public domain. This assay has also been adapted for in vivo studies using tissue slices from various organs from treated animals. Overall, the SL-DT assay can serve a broad range of in vitro pharmacological and toxicological needs, and can be potentially adapted for high throughput set-up systems with automated fluorescence microscopy imaging and analysis to elucidate more samples in a shorter time.

This protocol describes a scalpel loading-fluorescent dye transfer technique that measures intercellular communication through gap junction channels. Gap junctional intercellular communication is a major cellular process by which tissue homeostasis is maintained and disruption of this cell signaling has adverse health effects.

This protocol describes a scalpel loading-fluorescent dye transfer (SL-DT) technique that measures intercellular communication through gap junction ...

Isolation of Mouse Epidermal Keratinocytes and Their In Vitro Clonogenic Culture

The protocol described here is a reliable method of harvesting primary keratinocytes from adult female mice (54 &#177; 2 days old) yielding approximately 30 x 106 viable cells per mouse. Primary adult mouse keratinocytes are harvested from the dorsal skin of female mice. Male mice (~6 weeks old) can be used for keratinocyte harvesting depending on the requirements of the experiment. Euthanized mice are shaved and sterilized with serial washes in povidone iodine and ethanol solutions (70% alcohol). After disinfecting the mice, the dorsal skin is removed and the subcutaneous fat and muscle are removed with a scalpel and discarded. The skins are cut into small pieces and treated with a mild, low temperature trypsinization to detach the lower dermis from the epidermis. The scraped epidermises are stirred at low speed, filtered to remove the hairs, counted, and re-suspended in culture medium. This method provides an excellent single cell suspension of highly culturable cells for many downstream applications.

The goal of this protocol is to isolate epidermal keratinocytes from the dorsal skin of adult mice for a variety of downstream applications such as molecular biology, biochemistry, fluorescence activated cell sorting, and primary in vitro uses (e.g., clonogenic keratinocytes).

The protocol described here is a reliable method of harvesting primary keratinocytes from adult female mice (54 &#177; 2 days old) yielding approximately ...