Die Autoren möchten, um zu bestätigen, dass diese Arbeit wurde von der Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Zuschuss unterstützt.

<ol>
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J., Glotzer, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anillin+is+a+scaffold+protein+that+links+RhoA,+actin+and+myosin+during+cytokinesis.">Anillin is a scaffold protein that links RhoA, actin and myosin during cytokinesis.</a> Curr. Biol. 18, 30-36 (2008).</li><li>Hickson, G. R., O&#8217;Farrell, P. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rho-dependent+control+of+anillin+behavior+during+cytokinesis.">Rho-dependent control of anillin behavior during cytokinesis.</a> J. Cell Biol. 180, 285-294 (2008).</li><li>Fraser, A. G., Kamath, R. 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Die Autoren haben nichts zu offenbaren.

Dieses Protokoll beschreibt die Verwendung von verschiedenen Arten von Bildmikroskopie Zellteilungen in der Zwischenembryogenese. Insbesondere stellt dieses Protokoll, wie Bild die Aufteilung der Neuroblasten, epidermalen Zellen, die Morphogenese erleichtern können. Zell-Zell-Kommunikation wichtig für die Gewebebildung während metazoan Entwicklung und C. elegans ist ein ausgezeichnetes Modell zur Gewebebildung in vivo zu studieren. Ein Ereignis, das schön schildert das Zusammenspiel von epidermalen...

Zwar gibt es Protokolle, die beschreiben, wie Bild der Zellteilung in der frühen C elegans Embryo, beschreibt dieses Protokoll, wie man Bild der Zellteilung in einem Gewebe während der Embryogenese Mitte. Eine der großen Herausforderungen bei der Abbildung Organismen während der Entwicklung ist ihre Empfindlichkeit gegenüber Phototoxizität. Allerdings hat erhöhte Zugänglichkeit zu drehenden Scheibe konfokalen Mikroskopen oder Wischfeld-Mikroskopen weiter verbreitet Imaging-Anwendungen erlaubt. Beide Systeme verwenden Festkörperlaser und gestreuten Lichts, die Begrenzung der Pegel von UV, das die Organismen ausgesetzt sind. Allerdings kann Weitfeld steht immer noch für die Bildgebung in vivo verwendet werden, insbesondere, wenn sie mit Kameras mit hoher Empfindlichkeit (z. B. EMCCD), Blendensteuerung und Lichtsteuerung (zB LEDs oder verstellbare Quecksilberbirnen) ausgestattet. Dieses Protokoll beschreibt, wie Sie entweder auf der Basis eines konfokalen System oder ein Weitfeld-System, um Bild die Zellteilung in den Entwicklungs C verwenden elegans &lt;/ Em&gt; Embryos. Als wir beispielsweise, wie man Bild Neuroblast Zellteilung zu beschreiben. Neuroblasten kann epidermalen Morphogenese durch chemische oder mechanische Signale zu den darüberliegenden Epidermiszellen zu erleichtern, und liefern ein ausgezeichnetes Beispiel für die Bedeutung der interzellulären Kommunikation bei der Bildung von Geweben. Caenorhabditis elegans ist ein idealer Modellorganismus für die Mikroskopie basierte Studien aufgrund seiner Transparenz und einfache Gewebeorganisation ein. Außerdem C. elegans zugänglich ist genetischen Methoden und RNAi, und da viele der Gene humanen Homologen, kann es verwendet werden, um konservierte Mechanismen zur Gewebebildung 2-5 identifizieren. In C. elegans, die Bildung der Epidermis tritt in der Zwischenembryogenese, wenn der Embryo&gt; 300 Zellen. Epidermalen Morphogenese besteht aus mehreren Hauptphasen, in denen der Embryo wird in eine Schicht aus epidermalen Zellen, eingeschlossen verengen und zu erweitern, um die Transformation embryo aus eiförmigen Form in die längliche Form eines Schnecken 6. Ventrale Gehäuse beschreibt eine der morphogenetischen Ereignisse, als die ventralen epidermalen Zellen wandern in Richtung der ventralen Mittellinie, um die Bauchseite des Embryos (Abbildung 1) zu decken. Zuerst werden zwei Paare von vorderen Führungskante liegt Zellen wandern in Richtung der ventralen Mittellinie, wo sie anhaften und Sicherung mit ihren Nachbarn kontralateralen 6. Dies wird durch die Migration der hinteren Tasche befindet sich Zellen, die keilartige Formen Schaffung einer Bauchtasche 6-7 bilden gefolgt. Der Mechanismus, der die Tasche geschlossen ist nicht gut verstanden. Eine Möglichkeit ist, dass eine supra Aktin-Myosin kontraktile Struktur bindet die Tasche Zellen zusammen in einer Tabaksbeutel wie Mode, ähnlich wie Wundheilungs 8. Interessanterweise wird die Migration einiger der Tasche Zellen durch spezifische Teilmengen von Basisneuroblasten 9 (neuronale Vorläufer, die unter der epidermi gefunden werden vermitteltens, Fig. 1B). Frühere Studien zeigten, dass die Neuroblasten regulieren ventralen epidermalen Zellmigration und ventralen Gehäuse. VAB-1 (Ephrin-Rezeptor) und VAB-2 (Ephrin-Liganden) sind hoch in der Neuroblasten ausgedrückt und voneinander erleichtert das Sortieren der vorderen und hinteren Neuroblasten und Mutationen in vab-1-oder-2 vab Ursache ventralen Gehäuse Phänotypen 10-13. Jedoch Promotor Rettungsexperimente zeigten, daß VAB-1 wird auch in der darüberliegenden Bauch epidermalen Zellen und Rezeptoren für andere Führungssignale von den Neuroblasten sezerniert erforderlich sind in den ventralen Hautzellen 9 ausgedrückt. Obwohl Mutationen in einem dieser Rezeptoren verursachen Bauch Gehäuse Phänotypen, ist es nicht klar, ob Defekte entstehen durch Probleme in der Neuroblast Positionierung oder durch Ausfall der ventralen epidermalen Zellen zu reagieren Führung 14 Queues. Ändern der Teilung der Neuroblasten wiThout die ihre Fähigkeit, Führungssignale absondern könnte Licht auf die Rolle der Neuroblasten und ihre Fähigkeit, mechanische Eingangs während epidermalen Morphogenese bieten zu vergießen. Kürzlich wurde festgestellt, daß eine Zellteilung Gen ani-1 (Anillin) ist hoch in Neuroblasten (2A) ausgedrückt und seine Erschöpfung verursacht Neuroblasten Teilungsfehler. Interessant ist, dass diese Embryonen anzuzeigen ventralen Gehäuse Phänotypen (Fotopoulos, Wernicke und Piekny, unveröffentlichte Beobachtungen). Anillin ist für die Zellteilung erforderlich ist, und insbesondere für die Cytokinese, die das Verfahren, bei dem eine Mutterzelle physikalisch unterteilt in zwei Tochterzellen beschreibt. Zytokinese wird durch die Bildung eines Aktomyosin Kontraktionsring, der fest in Raum und Zeit gesteuert werden, um sicherzustellen, dass er richtig mit Schwester-Chromatid-Trennung gekoppelt werden muss angetrieben. Die Master-Regulator der Zellteilung ist metazoan RhoA (RHO-1 in C. elegans), eine kleine GTPase, die eine istctive in seiner GTP-gebundenen Form. Die GEF Ect2/ECT-2 RhoA aktiviert, nach der RhoA-GTP interagiert mit Effektoren, die die Kontraktionsring zu bilden und zu vermitteln seine Eindringen 15. Anillin ist ein Multidomänen-Protein, das RhoA über seinen C-Terminus und an Actin und Myosin über seinen N-Terminus bindet. Anillin erforderlich ist, um die Position des kontraktilen Ring in Säugetier-oder Drosophila S2 Zellen 16 zu stabilisieren. Anillin Erschöpfung verursacht Kontraktionsringe, um seitliche Schwingungen zu unterziehen, und Zytokinese schließlich ausfällt Bildung kernigen Zellen 17-19. Interessant, wenn auch C. elegans ani-1-Koordinaten Aktomyosin Kontraktilität im Embryo, ist es nicht wesentlich für die Cytokinese. Jedoch, wie oben beschrieben, ani-1 ist für Neuroblast Zytokinese in der Zwischenembryogenese (Fotopoulos, Wernicke und Piekny, unveröffentlichte Beobachtungen) erforderlich. Cytokinesis Scheitern würde die Anzahl und Position der Neuroblasten verändern und könnte die Lok beeinflussenation von chemischen Führungssignale, oder es könnte die mechanischen Eigenschaften des Gewebes verändern. Beide Modelle unterstreichen die Rolle der nichtautonomen für Neuroblasten ventralen Gehäuse, und die Bedeutung der Gewebe-Gewebe-Kommunikation während der embryonalen Entwicklung. Das Versuchsprotokoll beschreibt, wie Bild Zellteilung während C. elegans Mitte Embryogenese unter Verwendung von Fluoreszenzmikroskopie. Die Mehrzahl der Experimente, die die Mechanismen der Zellteilung in Einzelzellen in Kulturschalen (zB. HeLa-Zellen oder S2) oder in frühen Embryonen mit einer begrenzten Anzahl von Zellen (z. B. C. elegans ein Embryo, Xenopus oder stachelhäuter durch Embryonen). Jedoch ist es wichtig, auch die Zellteilung im Gewebe zu untersuchen, wie es externe Signale, die den Zeitpunkt und die Platzierung der Teilungsebene beeinflussen können. Weiterhin können Zellen, chemische oder mechanische Signale bereitzustellen, um die Entwicklung der benachbarten Gewebe beeinflussens, und es ist wichtig zu verstehen, wie die interzelluläre Kommunikation hilft Geweben während der Entwicklung zu bilden.

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			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IPTG (isopropylthio-&#946;-galactoside)</td>
			<td>Bio Basic Inc.</td>
			<td>#367-93-1</td>
			<td>Store powder and dissolved IPTG at -20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">KH2PO4 (potassium phosphate, monobasic)</td>
			<td>BioShop Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>#PPM666.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">K2HPO4 (potassium phosphate, dibasic)</td>
			<td>BioShop Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>#PPD303.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">L4440&#160; (feeding vector)</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>#1654</td>
			<td>Keep as glycerol stock at -80 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MgSO4&#160;&#160; (magnesium sulfate)</td>
			<td>BioShop Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>#MAG511.500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">NaCl (sodium chloride)</td>
			<td>Bio Basic Inc.</td>
			<td>#7647-14-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Na2HPO4 (sodium phosphate, dibasic)</td>
			<td>Bio Basic Inc.</td>
			<td>#7558-79-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Normal Donkey Serum (NDS)</td>
			<td>Wisent Bioproducts</td>
			<td>#035-110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">n-propyl 3.4.5-trihydroxybenzoate (propyl gallate)</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>#A10877</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Poly-L-lysine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>#P8920</td>
			<td>For optimal results coat microscope slides three times&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Streptomycin</td>
			<td>BioShop Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>#STP101.50</td>
			<td>Store powder at 4 &#176;C and dissolved streptomycin at -20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tetracyclin</td>
			<td>BioShop Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>#TET701.10</td>
			<td>Store powder at 4 &#176;C and dissolved tetracycline at -20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tween-20</td>
			<td>Bio Basic Inc.</td>
			<td>CAS#9005-64-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tryptone</td>
			<td>BioShop Canada Inc.</td>
			<td>#TRP402.500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Yeast Extract</td>
			<td>Bio Basic Inc.</td>
			<td>#8013-01-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

visualizing neuroblast cytokinesis during c. elegans embryogenesis

Dieses Protokoll beschreibt die Verwendung von Fluoreszenzmikroskopie, um Bildteilenden Zellen in den Entwicklungs Caenorhabditis elegans Embryonen. Insbesondere konzentriert sich dieses Protokoll auf, wie man Bild Division Neuroblasten, die unterhalb der epidermalen Zellen zu finden sind und kann wichtig für den epidermalen Morphogenese sein. Gewebebildung ist entscheidend für die Entwicklung Metazoen und setzt auf externe Signale von benachbarten Geweben. C elegans ist ein ausgezeichneter Modellorganismus zur Morphogenese in vivo aufgrund seiner Transparenz und einfache Organisation zu studieren, was seine Gewebe einfach über Mikroskopie zu untersuchen. Ventralen Gehäuse ist der Prozess, wo die ventrale Oberfläche des Embryos durch eine einzige Schicht von Epithelzellen bedeckt. Dieses Ereignis wird angenommen, durch die zugrunde liegenden Neuroblasten, die chemische Führungssignale bereitzustellen, um die Migration der darüberliegenden Epithelzellen vermitteln erleichtert werden. Jedoch sind die Neuroblasten hochproliferative und kann auch handelnals mechanischer Träger für die ventrale Epidermiszellen. Studien mit diesen experimentellen Protokoll könnte die Bedeutung der interzellulären Kommunikation bei der Gewebebildung zu enthüllen, und könnte verwendet werden, um die Rollen von Genen in die Zellteilung in sich entwickelnden Geweben beteiligt zu offenbaren.

Das Versuchsprotokoll beschreibt, wie Bild der Zellteilung in C. elegans Embryonen während der Embryogenese Mitte. Insbesondere beschreibt sie, wie man Bild Neuroblasten, die epidermalen Morphogenese erleichtern können. Epidermalen Morphogenese tritt aufgrund einer Kombination von epidermalen Zellformänderungen, Migration und Adhäsion, sondern stützt sich auf chemische oder mechanische Signale aus den zugrundeliegenden Neuroblasten (Abbildung 1B). Die Neuroblasten sezerFührungsSignale, di...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Visualizing Neuroblast Cytokinesis During C. elegans Embryogenesis at JoVE.com

Visualizing Neuroblast Cytokinesis During C. elegans Embryogenesis

Dieses Protokoll beschreibt, wie Bild teilenden Zellen innerhalb eines Gewebes in Caenorhabditis elegans Embryonen. Während mehrere Protokolle beschreiben, wie Bild der Zellteilung im frühen Embryo, beschreibt dieses Protokoll, wie man Bild der Zellteilung in einem Entwicklungs Gewebe während der Embryogenese Mitte spät.

Visualisierung Neuroblast Cytokinesis Während<em&gt; C. elegans</em&gt; Embryogenese

This protocol describes the use of fluorescence microscopy to image dividing cells within developing Caenorhabditis elegans embryos. In particular, this ...

visualizing-neuroblast-cytokinesis-during-c-elegans-embryogenesis

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Visualizing Neuroblast Cytokinesis During C. elegans Embryogenesis

11.7K Aufrufe.  Concordia University.  Dieses Protokoll beschreibt, wie Bild teilenden Zellen innerhalb eines Gewebes in Caenorhabditis elegans Embryonen. Während mehrere Protokolle beschreiben, wie Bild der Zellteilung im frühen Embryo, beschreibt dieses Protokoll, wie man Bild der Zellteilung in einem Entwicklungs Gewebe während der Embryogenese Mitte spät. 

Serie: Visualizing Neuroblast Cytokinesis During C. elegans Embryogenesis

Assaying &beta;-amyloid Toxicity using a Transgenic C. elegans Model

Accumulation of the &beta;-amyloid peptide (A&beta;) is generally believed to be central to the induction of Alzheimer's disease, but the relevant mechanism(s) of toxicity are still unclear. A&beta; is also deposited intramuscularly in Inclusion Body Myositis, a severe human myopathy. The intensely studied nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans can be transgenically engineered to express human A&beta;. Depending on the tissue or timing of A&beta; expression, transgenic worms can have readily measurable phenotypes that serve as a read-out of A&beta; toxicity. For example, transgenic worms with pan-neuronal A&beta; expression have defects is associative learning (Dosanjh et al. 2009), while transgenic worms with constitutive muscle-specific expression show a progressive, age-dependent paralysis phenotype (Link, 1995; Cohen et al. 2006). One particularly useful C. elegans model employs a temperature-sensitive mutation in the mRNA surveillance system to engineer temperature-inducible muscle expression of an A&beta; transgene, resulting in a reproducible paralysis phenotype upon temperature upshift (Link et al. 2003). Treatments that counter A&beta; toxicity in this model [e.g., expression of a protective transgene (Hassan et al. 2009) or exposure to Ginkgo biloba extracts (Wu et al. 2006)] reproducibly alter the rate of paralysis induced by temperature upshift of these transgenic worms. Here we describe our protocol for measuring the rate of paralysis in this transgenic C. elegans model, with particular attention to experimental variables that can influence this measurement.

Assaying &amp;#946;-amyloid Toxicity using a Transgenic C. elegans Model

The intensely studied nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans can be transgenically engineered to express the human &beta;-amyloid peptide (A&beta;). Induced expression of A&beta; in C. elegans muscle leads to a rapid, reproducible paralysis phenotype that can be used to monitor treatments that modulate A&beta; toxicity.

Assaying β-Amyloid-Toxizität mit Hilfe eines transgenen C. elegans Modell

Accumulation of the &beta;-amyloid peptide (A&beta;) is generally believed to be central to the induction of Alzheimer's disease, but the relevant ...

Forschung

Neurowissenschaften

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment through neuron-specific detection of food and chemical odors1, 2, and can associate nutritive states with chemical odors3, temperature4, and the pathogenicity of a food source5.
Here, we describe assays of C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. We modified an aversive olfactory learning paradigm6 to instead produce a positive response; the assay involves starving ~400 worms, then feeding the worms in the presence of the AWC neuron-sensed volatile chemoattractant butanone at a concentration that elicits a low chemotactic index (similar to Toroyama et al.7). A standard population chemotaxis assay1 tests the worms' attraction to the odorant immediately or minutes to hours after conditioning.
After conditioning, wild-type animals' chemotaxis to butanone increases ~0.6 Chemotaxis Index units, its "Learning Index". Associative learning is dependent on the presence of both food and butanone during training. Pairing food and butanone for a single conditioning period ("massed training") produces short-term associative memory that lasts ~2 hours. Multiple conditioning periods with rest periods between ("spaced training") yields long-term associative memory (&lt;40 hours), and is dependent on the cAMP Response Element Binding protein (CREB),6 a transcription factor required for long-term memory across species.8
Our protocol also includes image analysis methods for quick and accurate determination of chemotaxis indices. High-contrast images of animals on chemotaxis assay plates are captured and analyzed by worm counting software in MatLab. The software corrects for uneven background using a morphological tophat transformation.9 Otsu's method is then used to determine a threshold to separate worms from the background.10 Very small particles are removed automatically and larger non-worm regions (plate edges or agar punches) are removed by manual selection. The software then estimates the size of single worm by ignoring regions that are above a specified maximum size and taking the median size of the remaining regions. The number of worms is then estimated by dividing the total area identified as occupied by worms by the estimated size of a single worm.
We have found that learning and short- and long-term memory can be distinguished, and that these processes share similar key molecules with higher organisms.6,8 Our assays can quickly test novel candidate genes or molecules that affect learning and short- or long-term memory in C. elegans that are relevant across species.

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, Short-term, and Long-term Associative Memory Assays

Here we describe methods to test C. elegans associative learning and short- and long-term associative memory. These population assays employ the worms abilities to chemotax toward volatile odorants, and form positive associations upon pairing food with the chemoattractant butanone. Increasing the number of conditioning periods induces long-term memory.

C. elegans Positive Butanone Learning, kurzfristige und langfristige Assoziative Speicher Assays

The memory of experiences and learned information is critical for organisms to make choices that aid their survival. C. elegans navigates its environment ...

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

In-vivo-Laser Axotomie in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Automated Quantification of Synaptic Fluorescence in C. elegans

Synapse strength refers to the amplitude of postsynaptic responses to presynaptic neurotransmitter release events, and has a major impact on overall neural circuit function. Synapse strength critically depends on the abundance of neurotransmitter receptors clustered at synaptic sites on the postsynaptic membrane. Receptor levels are established developmentally, and can be altered by receptor trafficking between surface-localized, subsynaptic, and intracellular pools, representing important mechanisms of synaptic plasticity and neuromodulation. Rigorous methods to quantify synaptically-localized neurotransmitter receptor abundance are essential to study synaptic development and plasticity. Fluorescence microscopy is an optimal approach because it preserves spatial information, distinguishing synaptic from non-synaptic pools, and discriminating among receptor populations localized to different types of synapses. The genetic model organism Caenorhabditis elegans is particularly well suited for these studies due to the small size and relative simplicity of its nervous system, its transparency, and the availability of powerful genetic techniques, allowing examination of native synapses in intact animals.
Here we present a method for quantifying fluorescently-labeled synaptic neurotransmitter receptors in C. elegans. Its key feature is the automated identification and analysis of individual synapses in three dimensions in multi-plane confocal microscope output files, tabulating position, volume, fluorescence intensity, and total fluorescence for each synapse. This approach has two principal advantages over manual analysis of z-plane projections of confocal data. First, because every plane of the confocal data set is included, no data are lost through z-plane projection, typically based on pixel intensity averages or maxima. Second, identification of synapses is automated, but can be inspected by the experimenter as the data analysis proceeds, allowing fast and accurate extraction of data from large numbers of synapses. Hundreds to thousands of synapses per sample can easily be obtained, producing large data sets to maximize statistical power. Considerations for preparing C. elegans for analysis, and performing confocal imaging to minimize variability between animals within treatment groups are also discussed. Although developed to analyze C. elegans postsynaptic receptors, this method is generally useful for any type of synaptically-localized protein, or indeed, any fluorescence signal that is localized to discrete clusters, puncta, or organelles.
The procedure is performed in three steps: 1) preparation of samples, 2) confocal imaging, and 3) image analysis. Steps 1 and 2 are specific to C. elegans, while step 3 is generally applicable to any punctate fluorescence signal in confocal micrographs.

Automated Quantification of Synaptic Fluorescence in C. elegans

The abundance of neurotransmitter receptors clustered at synapses strongly influences synaptic strength. This method quantifies fluorescently-labeled neurotransmitter receptors in three dimensions with single-synapse resolution in C. elegans, allowing hundreds of synapses to be rapidly characterized within a single sample without distortions introduced by z-plane projection.

Automatisierte Quantifizierung der Fluoreszenz-in Synaptic<em&gt; C elegans</em

Synapse strength refers to the amplitude of postsynaptic responses to presynaptic neurotransmitter release events, and has a major impact on overall ...

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the surface of an agar plate. For the study of the genetic, biochemical, and neuronal basis of behavior, C. elegans is an ideal organism because it is genetically tractable, amenable to microscopy, and shows a number of complex behaviors, including taxis, learning, and social interaction1,2. Behavioral analysis based on tracking the movements of worms as they crawl on agar plates have been particularly useful in the study of sensory behavior3, locomotion4, and general mutational phenotyping5. Our system works by moving the camera and illumination system as the worms crawls on a stationary agar plate, which ensures no mechanical stimulus is transmitted to the worm. Our tracking system is easy to use and includes a semi-automatic calibration feature. A challenge of all video tracking systems is that it generates an enormous amount of data that is intrinsically high dimensional. Our image processing and data analysis programs deal with this challenge by reducing the worms shape into a set of independent components, which comprehensively reconstruct the worms behavior as a function of only 3-4 dimensions6,7. As an example of the process we show that the worm enters and exits its reversal state in a phase specific manner.

C. elegans Tracking and Behavioral Measurement

We have developed a video-rate tracking microscope system that can record and quantify C. elegans behavior at high resolution and high speeds. We have also developed computational methods to reduce the dimensionality of the worm images to a fundamental set of measurements that completely describe the shape of the worm.

C. elegans Tracking und Behavioral Measurement

We have developed instrumentation, image processing, and data analysis techniques to quantify the locomotory behavior of C. elegans as it crawls on the ...

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps shape attention and also protects cells from over-stimulation. Adaptation within the olfactory circuit of C. elegans was first described by Colbert and Bargmann1,2. Here, the authors defined parameters of the olfactory adaptation paradigm, which they used to design a genetic screen to isolate mutants defective in their ability to adapt to volatile odors sensed by the Amphid Wing cells type C (AWC) sensory neurons. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor3 for 30 min they will adapt their responsiveness to the odor and will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~1 hr. When wildtype C. elegans animals are exposed to an attractive AWC-sensed odor for ~1 hr they will then ignore the adapting odor in a chemotaxis behavioral assay for ~3 hr. These two phases of olfactory adaptation in C. elegans were described as short-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 30 min odor exposure), and long-term olfactory adaptation (induced after 60 min odor exposure). Later work from L'Etoile et al.,4 uncovered a Protein Kinase G (PKG) called EGL-4 that is required for both the short-term and long-term olfactory adaptation in AWC neurons. The EGL-4 protein contains a nuclear localization sequence that is necessary for long-term olfactory adaptation responses but dispensable for short-term olfactory adaptation responses in the AWC4. By tagging EGL-4 with a green fluorescent protein, it was possible to visualize the localization of EGL-4 in the AWC during prolonged odor exposure. Using this fully functional GFP-tagged EGL-4 (GFP::EGL-4) molecule we have been able to develop a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in the AWC5. Using this molecular readout of olfactory adaptation we have been able to perform both forward and reverse genetic screens to identify mutant animals that exhibit defective subcellular localization patterns of GFP::EGL-4 in the AWC6,7. Here we describe: 1) the construction of GFP::EGL-4 expressing animals; 2) the protocol for cultivation of animals for long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation assays; and 3) the scoring of the long-term odor-induced nuclear translocation event and recovery (re-sensitization) from the nuclear GFP::EGL-4 state.

A Molecular Readout of Long-term Olfactory Adaptation in C. elegans

Here we describe a molecular readout of long-term olfactory adaptation in Caenorhabditis elegans. The Protein Kinase G, EGL-4, is necessary for stable adaptation responses in the primary sensory neuron pair called AWC. During prolonged odor exposure EGL-4 translocates from the cytosol to nucleus of the AWC.

A Molecular Auslesen Langfristige Olfactory Anpassung in<em&gt; C. elegans</em

During sustained stimulation most sensory neurons will adapt their response by decreasing their sensitivity to the signal. The adaptation response helps ...

Hippocampal Insulin Microinjection and In vivo Microdialysis During Spatial Memory Testing

Glucose metabolism is a useful marker for local neural activity, forming the basis of methods such as 2-deoxyglucose and functional magnetic resonance imaging. However, use of such methods in animal models requires anesthesia and hence both alters the brain state and prevents behavioral measures. An alternative method is the use of in vivo microdialysis to take continuous measurement of brain extracellular fluid concentrations of glucose, lactate, and related metabolites in awake, unrestrained animals. This technique is especially useful when combined with tasks designed to rely on specific brain regions and/or acute pharmacological manipulation; for example, hippocampal measurements during a spatial working memory task (spontaneous alternation) show a dip in extracellular glucose and rise in lactate that are suggestive of enhanced glycolysis1-3,4-5, and intrahippocampal insulin administration both improves memory and increases hippocampal glycolysis6. Substances such as insulin can be delivered to the hippocampus via the same microdialysis probe used to measure metabolites. The use of spontaneous alternation as a measure of hippocampal function is designed to avoid any confound from stressful motivators (e.g. footshock), restraint, or rewards (e.g. food), all of which can alter both task performance and metabolism; this task also provides a measure of motor activity that permits control for nonspecific effects of treatment. Combined, these methods permit direct measurement of the neurochemical and metabolic variables regulating behavior.

Hippocampal Insulin Microinjection and In vivo Microdialysis During Spatial Memory Testing

Modulation of hippocampally-dependent spatial working memory by direct intrahippocampal microinjection, accompanied and followed by in vivo microdialysis for metabolites in conscious, behaving animals.

Hippocampus Insulin Mikroinjektion und<em&gt; In vivo</em&gt; Microdialysis Während Spatial Memory Testing

Glucose metabolism is a useful marker for local neural activity, forming the basis of methods such as 2-deoxyglucose and functional magnetic resonance ...

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, well-characterized nervous system allows identification and fluorescence imaging of any neuron within the intact animal. Simple immobilization techniques with minimal impact on the animal's physiology allow extended time-lapse imaging. The development of genetically-encoded calcium sensitive fluorophores such as cameleon 1 and GCaMP 2 allow in vivo imaging of neuronal calcium relating both cell physiology and neuronal activity. Numerous transgenic strains expressing these fluorophores in specific neurons are readily available or can be constructed using well-established techniques. Here, we describe detailed procedures for measuring calcium dynamics within a single neuron in vivo using both GCaMP and cameleon. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of both as well as various methods of sample preparation (animal immobilization) and image analysis. Finally, we present results from two experiments: 1) Using GCaMP to measure the sensory response of a specific neuron to an external electrical field and 2) Using cameleon to measure the physiological calcium response of a neuron to traumatic laser damage. Calcium imaging techniques such as these are used extensively in C. elegans and have been extended to measurements in freely moving animals, multiple neurons simultaneously and comparison across genetic backgrounds. C. elegans presents a robust and flexible system for in vivo neuronal imaging with advantages over other model systems in technical simplicity and cost.

In vivo Neuronal Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

With its small transparent body, well-documented neuroanatomy and a host of amenable genetic techniques and reagents, C. elegans makes an ideal model organism for in vivo neuronal imaging using relatively simple, low-cost techniques. Here we describe single neuron imaging within intact adult animals using genetically encoded fluorescent calcium indicators.

In vivo Neuronale Calcium Imaging in C. elegans

The nematode worm C. elegans is an ideal model organism  for relatively simple, low cost neuronal imaging in vivo. Its small transparent body and simple, ...

In Vivo Imaging of Dauer-specific Neuronal Remodeling in C. elegans

The mechanisms controlling stress-induced phenotypic plasticity in animals are frequently complex and difficult to study in vivo. A classic example of stress-induced plasticity is the dauer stage of C. elegans. Dauers are an alternative developmental larval stage formed under conditions of low concentrations of bacterial food and high concentrations of a dauer pheromone. Dauers display extensive developmental and behavioral plasticity. For example, a set of four inner-labial quadrant (IL2Q) neurons undergo extensive reversible remodeling during dauer formation. Utilizing the well-known environmental pathways regulating dauer entry, a previously established method for the production of crude dauer pheromone from large-scale liquid nematode cultures is demonstrated. With this method, a concentration of 50,000 - 75,000 nematodes/ml of liquid culture is sufficient to produce a highly potent crude dauer pheromone. The crude pheromone potency is determined by a dose-response bioassay. Finally, the methods used for in vivo time-lapse imaging of the IL2Qs during dauer formation are described.

In Vivo Imaging of Dauer-specific Neuronal Remodeling in C. elegans

Following exposure to specific environmental stressors, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans undergoes extensive phenotypic plasticity to enter into a stress-resistant &#8216;dauer&#8217; juvenile stage. We present methods for the controlled induction and imaging of neuroplasticity during dauer.

In-vivo-Imaging von Dauer-spezifische neuronale Remodeling in C. elegans

The mechanisms controlling stress-induced phenotypic plasticity in animals are frequently complex and difficult to study in vivo. A classic example of ...

An Assay for Measuring the Effects of Ethanol on the Locomotion Speed of Caenorhabditis elegans

Alcohol use disorders are a significant public health concern, for which there are few effective treatment strategies. One difficulty that has delayed the development of more effective treatments is the relative lack of understanding of the molecular underpinnings of the effects of ethanol on behavior. The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans (C.&#160;elegans), provides a useful model in which to generate and test hypotheses about the molecular effects of ethanol. Here, we describe an assay that has been developed and used to examine the roles of particular genes and environmental factors in behavioral responses to ethanol, in which locomotion is the behavioral output. Ethanol dose-dependently causes an acute depression of crawling on an agar surface. The effects are dynamic; animals exposed to a high concentration demonstrate an initial strong depression of crawling, referred to here as initial sensitivity, and then partially recover locomotion speed despite the continued presence of the drug. This ethanol-induced behavioral plasticity is referred to here as the development of acute functional tolerance. This assay has been used to demonstrate that these two phenotypes are distinct and genetically separable. The straightforward locomotion assay described here is suitable for examining the effects of both genetic and environmental manipulations on these acute behavioral responses to ethanol in C.&#160;elegans.

An Assay for Measuring the Effects of Ethanol on the Locomotion Speed of Caenorhabditis elegans

C. elegans is a useful model for studying the effects of ethanol on behavior. We present a behavioral assay that quantifies the effects of ethanol on the locomotion speed of crawling worms; both initial sensitivity and the development of acute functional tolerance to ethanol can be measured with this assay.

Ein Test zur Messung der Wirkung von Ethanol auf die Fortbewegungsgeschwindigkeit der<em&gt; Caenorhabditis elegans</em

Alcohol use disorders are a significant public health concern, for which there are few effective treatment strategies. One difficulty that has delayed the ...