This work was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft to SB (BR-2215; SFB 497/A9).

NOTE: All animal experiments were carried out in accordance with the German law and were approved by the government offices in T&#252;bingen.
1. Preparation of Micropipettes, Solutions and Membranes
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of Micropipettes
	<ol>
		<li>Pull glass micropipettes using a micropipette puller with the following program: Heat: 540, Pull: 125, Velocity: 20 and Delay: 140. The needle length amounts to 5.5 cm.</li>
		<li>Bevel needles using a microgrinder to obtain a suitable tip size o...

<ol>
	<li>Kempermann, G., Jessberger, S., Steiner, B., Kronenberg, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Milestones+of+neuronal+development+in+the+adult+hippocampus.">Milestones of neuronal development in the adult hippocampus.</a> Trends Neurosci. 27, 447-452 (2004).</li><li>Frotscher, M., Zhao, S., Forster, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+cell+and+fiber+layers+in+the+dentate+gyrus.">Development of cell and fiber layers in the dentate gyrus.</a> Prog Brain Res. 163, 133-142 (2007).</li><li>Muramatsu, R., Ikegaya, Y., Matsuki, N., Koyama, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neonatally+born+granule+cells+numerically+dominate+adult+mice+dentate+gyrus.">Neonatally born granule cells numerically dominate adult mice dentate gyrus.</a> Neuroscience. 148, 593-598 (2007).</li><li>Li, G., Pleasure, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Morphogenesis+of+the+dentate+gyrus:+what+we+are+learning+from+mouse+mutants.">Morphogenesis of the dentate gyrus: what we are learning from mouse mutants.</a> Dev Neurosci. 27, 93-99 (2005).</li><li>Hsieh, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Orchestrating+transcriptional+control+of+adult+neurogenesis.">Orchestrating transcriptional control of adult neurogenesis.</a> Genes Dev. 26, 1010-1021 (2012).</li><li>Li, G., Pleasure, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+regulation+of+dentate+gyrus+morphogenesis.">Genetic regulation of dentate gyrus morphogenesis.</a> Prog Brain Res. 163, 143-152 (2007).</li><li>Collas, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+current+state+of+chromatin+immunoprecipitation.">The current state of chromatin immunoprecipitation.</a> Mol Biotechnol. 45, 87-100 (2010).</li><li>Simon, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+dual+function+of+Bcl11b/Ctip2+in+hippocampal+neurogenesis.">A dual function of Bcl11b/Ctip2 in hippocampal neurogenesis.</a> Embo J. 31, 2922-2936 (2012).</li><li>Pilaz, L. J., Silver, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+imaging+of+mitosis+in+the+developing+mouse+embryonic+cortex.">Live imaging of mitosis in the developing mouse embryonic cortex.</a> J Vis Exp. (88), (2014).</li><li>Pacary, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+and+genetic+manipulation+of+dendrites+and+spines+in+the+mouse+cerebral+cortex+and+hippocampus+using+in+utero+electroporation.">Visualization and genetic manipulation of dendrites and spines in the mouse cerebral cortex and hippocampus using in utero electroporation.</a> J Vis Exp. (65), (2012).</li><li>Hand, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphorylation+of+Neurogenin2+specifies+the+migration+properties+and+the+dendritic+morphology+of+pyramidal+neurons+in+the+neocortex.">Phosphorylation of Neurogenin2 specifies the migration properties and the dendritic morphology of pyramidal neurons in the neocortex.</a> Neuron. 48, 45-62 (2005).</li><li>Polleux, F., Ghosh, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+slice+overlay+assay:+a+versatile+tool+to+study+the+influence+of+extracellular+signals+on+neuronal+development.">The slice overlay assay: a versatile tool to study the influence of extracellular signals on neuronal development.</a> Sci STKE. 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(2), (2007).</li><li>Sugiyama, T., Osumi, N., Katsuyama, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+germinal+matrices+in+the+developing+dentate+gyrus+are+composed+of+neuronal+progenitors+at+distinct+differentiation+stages.">The germinal matrices in the developing dentate gyrus are composed of neuronal progenitors at distinct differentiation stages.</a> Dev Dyn. 242, 1442-1453 (2013).</li><li>Lechler, T., Fuchs, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Desmoplakin:+an+unexpected+regulator+of+microtubule+organization+in+the+epidermis.">Desmoplakin: an unexpected regulator of microtubule organization in the epidermis.</a> J Cell Biol. 176, 147-154 (2007).</li><li>Nichols, A. J., O'Dell, R. S., Powrozek, T. A., Olson, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ex+utero+electroporation+and+whole+hemisphere+explants:+a+simple+experimental+method+for+studies+of+early+cortical+development.">Ex utero electroporation and whole hemisphere explants: a simple experimental method for studies of early cortical development.</a> J Vis Exp. (74), (2013).</li></ol>

The hippocampus has an important function in learning and memory. The dentate gyrus is also one of two brain regions where neurogenesis occurs not only during development but also throughout adulthood. Postnatal and adult hippocampal neurogenesis proceeds in a similar way involving many common factors. Defining the regulatory mechanisms of these factors will be very helpful in understanding neurodegenerative diseases which in turn will lead to new therapies and preventive measures. To obtain this information one requires...

The hippocampus plays an important role in memory and learning as well as emotional behavior. One main function consists of the consolidation of short-term memory into long-term memory, which requires high plasticity of the nervous system. The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus acts as the primary gateway for input information and is also one of two brain regions with ongoing neurogenesis throughout adulthood1,2. The development of the hippocampal structure occurs during late embryogenesis and particularly during the first 3 to 4 weeks postnatal3. During early development of the dentate gyrus a stem cell pool is established required for postnatal as well as adult neurogenesis4. Developing neurons pass through various stages, from the stem cell through several stages of progenitor cells to the immature and finally the mature neuron during postnatal as well as adult neurogenesis. At different stages of neurogenesis the expression of specific genes is required to allow the maturation and integration of new neurons into the hippocampal circuitry5,6.
Using mouse genetics and phenotype analysis by immunohistochemistry as well as molecular methods allowed defining the expression pattern and function of many of these genes. In addition microarray analysis as well as chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) provided information about potential direct and indirect target genes7,8. However, there are still many open questions concerning the regulatory mechanisms of hippocampal development, in particular the development of the dentate gyrus. To gain further insight how specific genes are regulated a system is required allowing the manipulation of a small number of cells by down- or up-regulation of the gene of interest and/or its target genes and follow their fate during development. In utero electroporation of shRNAs, cDNA of genes of interest or Cre recombinase provides such a tool. To ensure the presence of the desired DNA or small RNAs expression plasmids should be used for electroporation. This approach is very successfully implemented in studying cortical development9,10, but is a more challenging approach examining the development of the dentate gyrus due to the position of the hippocampal structures in deeper brain layers.
Ex utero electroporation followed by organotypic slice culture is one approach to circumvent this problem11,12. In contrast to in utero electroporation not the whole embryo but only the head is used allowing therefore to place the electrodes in a more favorable way to direct the shRNA/DNA towards the hippocampus and dentate gyrus. Our group successfully employed ex utero electroporation to study the role of the transcription factor Bcl11b during dentate gyrus development8. Bcl11b has a dual role in dentate gyrus development by regulating progenitor cell proliferation as well as differentiation as was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. To further define a mechanism for Bcl11b involvement in these processes, protocols of the Polleux group11,12 were adjusted to study the dentate gyrus as described below in the protocol section. In a first approach the question was addressed whether Bcl11b is regulating neuronal cell differentiation cell autonomously. A second approach examined whether Desmoplakin, a direct target gene of Bcl11b, is sufficient to rescue the Bcl11b phenotype.

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			<td height="106" style="height:106px;width:71px;">Flaming/ Brown Micropipette Puller</td>
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			<td style="width:63px;">P-97</td>
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			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:71px;">Fine Glass Pipettes</td>
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			<td style="width:64px;">3 mm electrodes for E15.5</td>
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			<td height="106" style="height:106px;width:71px;">Tweezers with disk electrodes</td>
			<td style="width:73px;">BEX Company</td>
			<td style="width:63px;">LF650P5</td>
			<td style="width:64px;">5 mm electrodes for E18.5</td>
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			<td style="width:73px;">Parker Hannifin Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:63px;">P/N 052-0500-900</td>
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			<td height="148" style="height:148px;width:71px;">HM 650V Vibrating Blade Microtome, 230V</td>
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			<td style="width:63px;">920120</td>
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			<td height="64" style="height:64px;width:71px;">Confocal Microscope</td>
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ex utero electroporation and organotypic slice culture of mouse hippocampal tissue

Mouse genetics offers a powerful tool determining the role of specific genes during development. Analyzing the resulting phenotypes by immunohistochemical and molecular methods provides information of potential target genes and signaling pathways. To further elucidate specific regulatory mechanisms requires a system allowing the manipulation of only a small number of cells of a specific tissue by either overexpression, ablation or re-introduction of specific genes and follow their fate during development. To achieve this ex utero electroporation of hippocampal structures, especially the dentate gyrus, followed by organotypic slice culture provides such a tool. Using this system to generate mosaic deletions allows determining whether the gene of interest regulates cell-autonomously developmental processes like progenitor cell proliferation or neuronal differentiation. Furthermore it facilitates the rescue of phenotypes by re-introducing the deleted gene or its target genes. In contrast to in utero electroporation the ex utero approach improves the rate of successfully targeting deeper layers of the brain like the dentate gyrus. Overall ex utero electroporation and organotypic slice culture provide a potent tool to study regulatory mechanisms in a semi-native environment mirroring endogenous conditions.

Ablation of the transcription factor Bcl11b causes the impairment of progenitor cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation resulting in a reduced dentate gyrus size and cell number. Furthermore mutant neurons fail to integrate into the hippocampal circuitry causing learning and memory impairment8. To answer questions concerning the regulatory mechanism(s) of Bcl11b in these processes ex utero electroporation was employed.
Addressing the question whether Bcl11b cell-aut...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Ex Utero Electroporation and Organotypic Slice Culture of Mouse Hippocampal Tissue at JoVE.com

Ex Utero Electroporation and Organotypic Slice Culture of Mouse Hippocampal Tissue

Here we present a protocol providing a tool to examine regulatory mechanisms of specific genes during hippocampal development. Employing ex utero electroporation and organotypic slice culture allows the up- and down-regulation of the expression of genes of interest in single cells and follow their fate during development.

Ex Utero Electroporation and Organotypic Slice Culture of Mouse Hippocampal Tissue

Mouse genetics offers a powerful tool determining the role of specific genes during development. Analyzing the resulting phenotypes by immunohistochemical ...

ex-utero-electroporation-organotypic-slice-culture-mouse-hippocampal

Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

9.4K Aufrufe.  University of Ulm. Here we present a protocol providing a tool to examine regulatory mechanisms of specific genes during hippocampal development. Employing ex utero electroporation and organotypic slice culture allows the up- and down-regulation of the expression of genes of interest in single cells and follow their fate during development.

Serie: Ex Utero Electroporation and Organotypic Slice Culture of Mouse Hippocampal Tissue

Here we present a protocol providing a tool to examine regulatory mechanisms of specific genes during hippocampal development. Employing ex utero electroporation and organotypic slice culture allows the up- and down-regulation of the expression of genes of interest in single cells and follow their fate during...

time-lapse confocal imaging of migrating neurons in organotypic slice culture of embryonic mouse brain using in utero electroporation

Time-lapse Confocal Imaging of Migrating Neurons in Organotypic Slice Culture of Embryonic Mouse Brain Using In Utero Electroporation

This protocol provides instructions for direct observation of radially migrating cortical neurons. In utero electroporation, organotypic slice culture, and time-lapse confocal imaging are combined to directly and dynamically study the effects of overexpression or downregulation of genes of interest in migrating neurons and to analyze their differentiation during...

Time-lapse Confocal Imaging of Migrating Neurons in Organotypic Slice Culture of Embryonic Mouse Brain Using In Utero Electroporation

ex utero electroporation and organotypic slice cultures of embryonic mouse brains for live-imaging of migrating gabaergic interneurons

Ex Utero Electroporation and Organotypic Slice Cultures of Embryonic Mouse Brains for Live-Imaging of Migrating GABAergic Interneurons

Here, we provide a low-cost and reliable method to generate electroporated brain organotypic slice cultures from mouse embryos suitable for confocal microscopy and live-imaging...

Ex Utero Electroporation and Organotypic Slice Cultures of Embryonic Mouse Brains for Live-Imaging of Migrating GABAergic Interneurons

single-cell electroporation across different organotypic slice culture of mouse hippocampal excitatory and class-specific inhibitory neurons

Single-Cell Electroporation across Different Organotypic Slice Culture of Mouse Hippocampal Excitatory and Class-Specific Inhibitory Neurons

Presented here is a protocol for single-cell electroporation that can deliver genes in both excitatory and inhibitory neurons across a range of in vitro hippocampal slice culture ages. Our approach provides precise and efficient expression of genes in individual cells, which can be used to examine cell-autonomous and intercellular...

organotypic hippocampal slice cultures

Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures

We describe a method to prepare organotypic hippocampal slices that can be easily adapted to other brain regions.  Brain slices are laid on porous membranes and culture media is allowed to form an interface. This method preserves the gross architecture of the hippocampus for up to 2 weeks in...

the organotypic hippocampal slice culture model for examining neuronal injury

The Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Culture Model for Examining Neuronal Injury

The organoptypic hippocampal slice culture model is an in vitro model used to examine neuronal injury in a variety of paradigms. In this article, we describe the methods for generating slice cultures and quantifying neuronal...

in utero and ex vivo electroporation for gene expression in mouse retinal ganglion cells

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

Here we present two techniques for manipulating gene expression in murine retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) by in utero and ex vivo electroporation.  These techniques enable one to examine how alterations in gene expression affect RGC development, axon guidance, and functional...

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

organotypic slice culture of e18 rat brains

Organotypic Slice Culture of E18 Rat Brains

Organotypic slice cultures from embryonic rodent brains are widely used to study brain development. While there are often advantages to an in-vivo system, ...

ex utero culture of mouse embryos from pregastrulation to advanced organogenesis

Ex Utero Culture of Mouse Embryos from Pregastrulation to Advanced Organogenesis

An enhanced platform for whole-embryo culture allows continuous and robust ex utero development of postimplantation mouse embryos for up to six days, from pregastrulation stages until advanced organogenesis. In this protocol, we detail the standard procedure for successful embryo culture using static plates and rotating bottle...

Ex Utero Culture of Mouse Embryos from Pregastrulation to Advanced Organogenesis

the analysis of neurovascular remodeling in entorhino-hippocampal organotypic slice cultures

The Analysis of Neurovascular Remodeling in Entorhino-hippocampal Organotypic Slice Cultures

A protocol for entorhino-hippocampal organotypic slice cultures, which allows reproducing many aspects of ischemic brain injury, is presented. By studying changes of the neurovasculature in addition to changes in the neurons, this protocol is a versatile tool to study plastic changes in neural tissue after...

single cell electroporation in organotypic brain slice cultures: an in vitro technique to deliver plasmids inside targeted neurons in brain hippocampal slices

This video demonstrates the protocol for single-cell electroporation of genes in both excitatory and inhibitory neurons across a range of in vitro hippocampal slice cultures. The technique is useful to examine specific molecular and physiological functions of neurons, including cell autonomous mechanisms and transsynaptic protein...

Single Cell Electroporation in Organotypic Brain Slice Cultures: An In Vitro Technique to Deliver Plasmids Inside Targeted Neurons in Brain Hippocampal Slices

ex utero electroporation and whole hemisphere explants: a simple experimental method for studies of early cortical development

Ex utero Electroporation and Whole Hemisphere Explants: A Simple Experimental Method for Studies of Early Cortical Development

This protocol describes an improved explant procedure that involves ex utero electroporation, dissection and culture of entire cerebral hemispheres from the embryonic mouse. The preparation facilitates pharmacological studies and assays of gene function during early cortical...

Ex utero Electroporation and Whole Hemisphere Explants: A Simple Experimental Method for Studies of Early Cortical Development

organotypic hippocampal slice cultures as a model to study neuroprotection and invasiveness of tumor cells

Organotypic Hippocampal Slice Cultures As a Model to Study Neuroprotection and Invasiveness of Tumor Cells

Organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSC) represent an in vitro model that simulates the in vivo situation very well. Here we describe a vibratome-based improved slicing protocol to obtain high quality slices for use in assessing the neuroprotective potential of novel substances or the biological behavior of tumor...

in utero intraventricular injection and electroporation of e15 mouse embryos

In Utero Intraventricular Injection and Electroporation of E15 Mouse Embryos

In-utero in-vivo injection and electroporation of the embryonic mouse neocortex provides a powerful tool for the manipulation of individual progenitors ...

At the end of the perfusion, rinse the lines with the ionized autoclaved water for at least 30 minutes before perfusing with filter-sterilized aCSF containing 0.001 millimolar tetrodotoxin. Set the electroporator pulse to an amplitude of minus 5 volts, a square pulse, a train of 500 milliseconds, a frequency of 50 Hertz, and a pulse width of 500 microseconds. Fill a glass pipette with 5 microliters of plasmid-containing internal solution and gently flick and tap the tip multiple times to remove...

mouse in utero electroporation: controlled spatiotemporal gene transfection

Mouse in Utero Electroporation: Controlled Spatiotemporal Gene Transfection

A gene transfer method into the developing mouse brain is described by using a unique surgical method and special shape of electrodes.  This unique technique allows transfection of plasmid DNA temporally and spatially, which will aid many neuroscientists in studying brain...

Mouse in Utero Electroporation: Controlled Spatiotemporal Gene Transfection

organotypic slice culture of gfp-expressing mouse embryos for real-time imaging of peripheral nerve outgrowth

Organotypic Slice Culture of GFP-expressing Mouse Embryos for Real-time Imaging of Peripheral Nerve Outgrowth

We present a method to prepare organotypic slices of mid-gestation mouse embryos for the cultivation and time-lapse imaging of peripheral nerve outgrowth.

genetic manipulation of the mouse developing hypothalamus through in utero electroporation

Genetic Manipulation of the Mouse Developing Hypothalamus through In utero Electroporation

Despite the functional and medical importance of the hypothalamus, in utero genetic manipulation of its development has rarely been attempted. We show a detailed procedure for in utero electroporation into the mouse hypothalamus and show representative results of total and partial (regional) hypothalamic...

Genetic Manipulation of the Mouse Developing Hypothalamus through In utero Electroporation

organotypic slice cultures to study oligodendrocyte dynamics and myelination

Organotypic Slice Cultures to Study Oligodendrocyte Dynamics and Myelination

A technique to study NG2 cells and oligodendrocytes using a slice culture system of the forebrain and cerebellum is described.  This method allows examination of the dynamics of proliferation and differentiation of cells within the oligodendrocyte lineage where the extracellular environment can be easily manipulated while maintaining tissue...

paired whole cell recordings in organotypic hippocampal slices

Paired Whole Cell Recordings in Organotypic Hippocampal Slices

Pair recordings are simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling precise electrophysiological and pharmacological characterization of the synapses between individual neurons. Here we describe the detailed methodology and requirements for establishing this technique in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures in any laboratory equipped for...

Induction of Protein Deletion Through In Utero Electroporation to Define Deficits in Neuronal Migration in Transgenic Models

Genetic deletion using the Cre-Lox system in transgenic mouse lines is a powerful tool used to study protein function. However, except in very specific Cre models, deletion of a protein throughout a tissue or cell population often leads to complex phenotypes resulting from multiple interacting mechanisms. Determining whether a phenotype results from disruption of a cell autonomous mechanism, which is intrinsic to the cell in question, or from a non-cell autonomous mechanism, which would result from impairment of that cell&#8217;s environment, can be difficult to discern. To gain insight into protein function in an in vivo context, in utero electroporation (IUE) enables gene deletion in a small subset of cells within the developing cortex or some other selected brain region. IUE can be used to target specific brain areas, including the dorsal telencephalon, medial telencephalon, hippocampus, or ganglionic eminence. This facilitates observation of the consequences of cell autonomous gene deletion in the context of a healthy environment. The goal of this protocol is to show how IUE can be used to analyze a defect in radial migration in a floxed transgenic mouse line, with an emphasis on distinguishing between the cell autonomous and non-cell autonomous effects of protein deletion. By comparing the phenotype resulting from gene deletion within the entire cortex versus IUE-mediated gene deletion in a limited cell population, greater insight into protein function in brain development can be obtained than by using either technique in isolation.

Induction of Protein Deletion Through In Utero Electroporation to Define Deficits in Neuronal Migration in Transgenic Models

Neuron migration is regulated by numerous cell autonomous and non-cell autonomous factors. This protocol shows how in utero electroporation can be used to determine whether a phenotype in a transgenic mouse is due to disruption of a cell intrinsic mechanism or impairment of interaction between the neuron and its environment.

Genetic deletion using the Cre-Lox system in transgenic mouse lines is a powerful tool used to study protein function. However, except in very specific ...

Efficient Gene Transfer in Chick Retinas for Primary Cell Culture Studies: An Ex-ovo Electroporation Approach

The cone photoreceptor-enriched cultures derived from embryonic chick retinas have become an indispensable tool for researchers around the world studying the biology of retinal neurons, particularly photoreceptors. The applications of this system go beyond basic research, as they can easily be adapted to high throughput technologies for drug development. However, genetic manipulation of retinal photoreceptors in these cultures has proven to be very challenging, posing an important limitation to the usefulness of the system. We have recently developed and validated an ex&#160;ovo plasmid electroporation technique that increases the rate of transfection of retinal cells in these cultures by five-fold compared to other currently available protocols1. In this method embryonic chick eyes are enucleated at stage 27, the RPE is removed, and the retinal cup is placed in a plasmid-containing solution and electroporated using easily constructed custom-made electrodes. The retinas are then dissociated and cultured using standard procedures. This technique can be applied to overexpression studies as well as to the downregulation of gene expression, for example via the use of plasmid-driven RNAi technology, commonly achieving transgene expression in 25% of the photoreceptor population. The video format of the present publication will make this technology easily accessible to researchers in the field, enabling the study of gene function in primary retinal cultures. We have also included detailed explanations of the critical steps of this procedure for a successful outcome and reproducibility.

Efficient Gene Transfer in Chick Retinas for Primary Cell Culture Studies: An Ex-ovo Electroporation Approach

Embryonic chick retinal cell cultures constitute valuable tools for the study of photoreceptor biology. We have developed an efficient gene transfer technique based on ex&#160;ovo plasmid electroporation of the retinas prior to culture. This technique considerably increases transfection efficiencies over currently available protocols, making genetic manipulation feasible for this system.

The cone photoreceptor-enriched cultures derived from embryonic chick retinas have become an indispensable tool for researchers around the world studying ...

Culture of Embryonic Mouse Cochlear Explants and Gene Transfer by Electroporation

Auditory hair cells located within the mouse organ of Corti detect and transmit sound information to the central nervous system. The mechanosensory hair cells are aligned in one row of inner hair cells and three rows of outer hair cells that extend along the basal to apical axis of the cochlea. The explant culture technique described here provides an efficient method to isolate and maintain cochlear explants from the embryonic mouse inner ear. Also, the morphology and molecular characteristics of sensory hair cells and nonsensory supporting cells within the cochlear explant cultures resemble those observed in vivo and can be studied within its intrinsic cellular environment. The cochlear explants can serve as important experimental tools for the identification and characterization of molecular and genetic pathways that are involved in cellular specification and patterning. Although transgenic mouse models provide an effective approach for gene expression studies, a considerable number of mouse mutants die during embryonic development thereby hindering the analysis and interpretation of developmental phenotypes. The organ of Corti from mutant mice that die before birth can be cultured so that their in vitro development and responses to different factors can be analyzed. Additionally, we describe a technique for electroporating embryonic cochlear explants ex vivo which can be used to downregulate or overexpress specific gene(s) and analyze their potential endogenous function and test whether specific gene product is necessary or sufficient in a given context to influence mammalian cochlear development1-8.

We present a method that describes isolation and culture of cochlear explants from embryonic mouse inner ear. We also demonstrate a method for gene transfer into cochlear explants via square-wave electroporation. The in vitro explant culture coupled with gene transfer technique enables researchers to study the effects of altering gene expression during development.

Auditory hair cells located within the mouse organ of Corti detect and transmit sound information to the central nervous system. The mechanosensory hair ...

Organotypic Slice Cultures for Studies of Postnatal Neurogenesis

Here we describe a technique for studying hippocampal postnatal neurogenesis in the rodent brain using the organotypic slice culture technique. This method maintains the characteristic topographical morphology of the hippocampus while allowing direct application of pharmacological agents to the developing hippocampal dentate gyrus. Additionally, slice cultures can be maintained for up to 4 weeks and thus, allow one to study the maturation process of newborn granule neurons. Slice cultures allow for efficient pharmacological manipulation of hippocampal slices while excluding complex variables such as uncertainties related to the deep anatomic location of the hippocampus as well as the blood brain barrier. For these reasons, we sought to optimize organotypic slice cultures specifically for postnatal neurogenesis research.

Here we describe a technique for studying hippocampal postnatal neurogenesis using the organotypic slice culture technique. This method allows for in vitro manipulation of adult neurogenesis and allows for the direct application of pharmacological agents to the cultured hippocampus.

Here we describe a technique for studying hippocampal postnatal neurogenesis in the rodent brain using the organotypic slice culture technique. This ...

Culture and Co-Culture of Mouse Ovaries and Ovarian Follicles

The mammalian ovary is composed of ovarian follicles, each follicle consisting of a single oocyte surrounded by somatic granulosa cells, enclosed together within a basement membrane. A finite pool of follicles is laid down during embryonic development, when oocytes in meiotic arrest form a close association with flattened granulosa cells, forming primordial follicles. By or shortly after birth, mammalian ovaries contain their lifetime&#8217;s supply of primordial follicles, from which point onwards there is a steady release of follicles into the growing follicular pool.
The ovary is particularly amenable to development in vitro, with follicles growing in a highly physiological manner in culture. This work describes the culture of whole neonatal ovaries containing primordial follicles, and the culture of individual ovarian follicles, a method which can support the development of follicles from an immature through to the preovulatory stage, after which their oocytes are able to undergo fertilization in vitro. The work outlined here uses culture systems to determine how the ovary is affected by exposure to external compounds. We also describe a co-culture system, which allows investigation of the interactions that occur between growing follicles and the non-growing pool of primordial follicles.

This protocol describes the primary culture/co-culture of mouse ovarian tissue, using ovaries from neonatal mice and individual ovarian follicles from prepubertal mice. The culture techniques support development in a highly physiological manner, allowing investigation of the effect of extrinsic agents on the ovary, and of interactions between ovarian follicles.

The mammalian ovary is composed of ovarian follicles, each follicle consisting of a single oocyte surrounded by somatic granulosa cells, enclosed together ...

Ex Vivo Culture of Chick Cerebellar Slices and Spatially Targeted Electroporation of Granule Cell Precursors

The cerebellar external granule layer (EGL) is the site of the largest transit amplification in the developing brain, and an excellent model for studying neuronal proliferation and differentiation. In addition, evolutionary modifications of its proliferative capability have been responsible for the dramatic expansion of cerebellar size in the amniotes, making the cerebellum an excellent model for evo-devo studies of the vertebrate brain. The constituent cells of the EGL, cerebellar granule progenitors, also represent a significant cell of origin for medulloblastoma, the most prevalent paediatric neuronal tumour. Following transit amplification, granule precursors migrate radially into the internal granular layer of the cerebellum where they represent the largest neuronal population in the mature mammalian brain. In chick, the peak of EGL proliferation occurs towards the end of the second week of gestation. In order to target genetic modification to this layer at the peak of proliferation, we have developed a method for genetic manipulation through ex vivo electroporation of cerebellum slices from embryonic Day 14 chick embryos. This method recapitulates several important aspects of in vivo granule neuron development and will be useful in generating a thorough understanding of cerebellar granule cell proliferation and differentiation, and thus of cerebellum development, evolution and disease.

Ex Vivo Culture of Chick Cerebellar Slices and Spatially Targeted Electroporation of Granule Cell Precursors

The cerebellar external granule layer is the site of the largest transit amplification in the developing brain. Here, we present a protocol to target genetic modification to this layer at the peak of proliferation using ex vivo electroporation and culture of cerebellar slices from embryonic Day 14 chick embryos.

The cerebellar external granule layer (EGL) is the site of the largest transit amplification in the developing brain, and an excellent model for studying ...

Dissection and Coronal Slice Preparation of Developing Mouse Pituitary Gland

The pituitary gland or hypophysis is an important endocrine organ secreting hormones essential for homeostasis. It consists of two glands with separate embryonic origins and functions &#8212; the neurohypophysis and the adenohypophysis. The developing mouse pituitary gland is tiny and delicate with an elongated oval shape. A coronal section is preferred to display both the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis in a single slice of the mouse pituitary.
The goal of this protocol is to achieve proper pituitary coronal sections with well-preserved tissue architectures from developing mice. In this protocol, we describe in detail how to dissect and process pituitary glands properly from developing mice. First, mice are fixed by transcardial perfusion of formaldehyde prior to dissection. Then three different dissecting techniques are applied to obtain intact pituitary glands depending on the age of mice. For fetal mice aged embryonic days (E) 17.5 - 18.5 and neonates up to 4 days, the entire sella regions including the sphenoid bone, gland, and trigeminal nerves are dissected. For pups aged postnatal days (P) 5 - 14, the pituitary glands connected with trigeminal nerves are dissected as a whole. For mice over 3 weeks old, the pituitary glands are carefully dissected free from the surrounding tissues. We also display how to embed the pituitary glands in a proper orientation by using the surrounding tissues as landmarks to obtain satisfying coronal sections. These methods are useful in analyzing histological and developmental features of pituitary glands in developing mice.

We present a protocol to dissect pituitary glands and prepare pituitary coronal sections from developing mice.

The pituitary gland or hypophysis is an important endocrine organ secreting hormones essential for homeostasis. It consists of two glands with separate ...

CRISPR-mediated Loss of Function Analysis in Cerebellar Granule Cells Using In Utero Electroporation-based Gene Transfer

Brain malformation is often caused by genetic mutations. Deciphering the mutations in patient-derived tissues has identified potential causative factors of the diseases. To validate the contribution of a dysfunction of the mutated genes to disease development, the generation of animal models carrying the mutations is one obvious approach. While germline genetically engineered mouse models (GEMMs) are popular biological tools and exhibit reproducible results, it is restricted by time and costs. Meanwhile, non-germline GEMMs often enable exploring gene function in a more feasible manner. Since some brain diseases (e.g., brain tumors) appear to result from somatic but not germline mutations, non-germline chimeric mouse models, in which normal and abnormal cells coexist, could be helpful for disease-relevant analysis. In this study, we report a method for the induction of CRISPR-mediated somatic mutations in the cerebellum. Specifically, we utilized conditional knock-in mice, in which Cas9 and GFP are chronically activated by the CAG (CMV enhancer/chicken &#223;-actin) promoter after Cre-mediated recombination of the genome. The self-designed single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) and the Cre recombinase sequence, both encoded in a single plasmid construct, were delivered into cerebellar stem/progenitor cells at an embryonic stage using in utero electroporation. Consequently, transfected cells and their daughter cells were labeled with green fluorescent protein (GFP), thus facilitating further phenotypic analyses. Hence, this method is not only showing electroporation-based gene delivery into embryonic cerebellar cells but also proposing a novel quantitative approach to assess CRISPR-mediated loss-of-function phenotypes.

CRISPR-mediated Loss of Function Analysis in Cerebellar Granule Cells Using In Utero Electroporation-based Gene Transfer

Conventional loss-of-function studies of genes using knockout animals have often been costly and time-consuming. Electroporation-based CRISPR-mediated somatic mutagenesis is a powerful tool to understand gene functions in vivo. Here, we report a method to analyze knockout phenotypes in proliferating cells of the cerebellum.

Brain malformation is often caused by genetic mutations. Deciphering the mutations in patient-derived tissues has identified potential causative factors ...

Organotypic Culture Method to Study the Development Of Embryonic Chicken Tissues

The embryonic chicken is commonly used as a reliable model organism for vertebrate development. Its accessibility and short incubation period makes it ideal for experimentation. Currently, the study of these developmental pathways in the chicken embryo is conducted by applying inhibitors and drugs at localized sites and at low concentrations using a variety of methods. In vitro tissue&#160;culturing is a technique that enables the study of tissues separated from the host organism, while simultaneously bypassing many of the physical limitations present when working with whole embryos, such as the susceptibility of embryos to high doses of potentially lethal chemicals. Here, we present an organotypic culturing protocol for culturing the embryonic chicken half head in vitro, which presents new opportunities for the examination of developmental processes beyond the currently established methods.

Here, we present an organotypic culturing protocol to grow embryonic chicken organs in vitro. Using this method, the development of embryonic chicken tissue can be studied, while maintaining a high degree of control over the culture environment.

The embryonic chicken is commonly used as a reliable model organism for vertebrate development. Its accessibility and short incubation period makes it ...

Ovarian Tissue Culture to Visualize Phenomena in Mouse Ovary

Mammalian females periodically ovulate an almost constant number of oocytes during each estrus cycle. To sustain such regularity and periodicity, regulation occurs at the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis level and on developing follicles in the ovary. Despite active studies, follicle development mechanisms are not clear because of the several steps involved from the dormant primordial follicle activation to ovulation, and because of the regulation complexity that differs at each follicular stage. To investigate the mechanisms of follicle development, and the dynamics of follicles throughout the estrus cycle, we developed a mouse ovarian tissue culture model that can be used to observe follicle development using a microscope. Systematic follicle development, periodical ovulation, and follicle atresia can all be reproduced in the cultured ovary model, and the culture conditions can be experimentally modulated. Here, we demonstrate the usefulness of this method in the study of the regulatory mechanisms of follicle development and other ovarian phenomena.

Ovarian tissue cultures can be used as models of follicle development, ovulation, and follicle atresia and indicate regulatory mechanisms of dynamic ovarian processes.