Name: monitoring bacterial colonization and maintenance on arabidopsis thaliana roots in a floating hydroponic system
Uploaded: 2019-05-28T09:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Bacterial Colonization and Maintenance on Arabidopsis thaliana Roots in a Floating Hydroponic System at JoVE.com

This work was supported by research funds provided by the Department of Energy Biological and Environmental Research (DOE-BER 0000217519 to E.A.S.), the National Science Foundation (INSPIRE IOS-1343020 to E.A.S). SLH was also supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship Program. We thank Dr. Jeffery Dangl for providing bacterial strains and invaluable insight. We thank Dr. Andrew Klein and Matthew J. Powers for experimental suggestions. Finally, SLH would like to thank connections on social media for reminding us that disseminating science is a privilege and a responsibility, especially through creative and accessible means.

NOTE: The experimental setup is described for clarity and used to generate the representative results included in this report, but conditions can be modified as desired. All steps should be performed using PPE and following institutional and federal reccomendations for safety, according to the BSL status of the bacteria used.
1. Characterization of bacteria
<ol>
	<li>Determine the morphology of bacteria on the growth medium agar plate. Resuspend cells at an approximate OD600 = 0.5...

<ol>
	<li>Strange, R. N., Scott, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+disease:+a+threat+to+global+food+security.">Plant disease: a threat to global food security.</a> Annual Review of Phytopathology. 43, 83-116 (2005).</li><li>Cook, A. M., Grossenbacher, H., H&#252;tter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+cultivation+of+microbes+with+biodegradative+potential.">Isolation and cultivation of microbes with biodegradative potential.</a> Experientia. 39 (11), 1191-1198 (1983).</li><li>Vacheron, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+growth-promoting+rhizobacteria+and+root+system+functioning.">Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and root system functioning.</a> Fronteirs in Plant Science. 4, 356 (2013).</li><li>Backer, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+Growth-Promoting+Rhizobacteria:+Context,+Mechanisms+of+Action,+and+Roadmap+to+Commercialization+of+Biostimulants+for+Sustainable+Agriculture.">Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria: Context, Mechanisms of Action, and Roadmap to Commercialization of Biostimulants for Sustainable Agriculture.</a> Fronteirs in Plant Science. 9, 1473 (2018).</li><li>Zamioudis, C., Pieterse, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modulation+of+host+immunity+by+beneficial+microbes.">Modulation of host immunity by beneficial microbes.</a> Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions. 25 (2), 139-150 (2012).</li><li>Kr&#246;ber, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+the+strain+Bacillus+amyloliquefaciens+FZB42+on+the+microbial+community+in+the+rhizosphere+of+lettuce+under+field+conditions+analyzed+by+whole+metagenome+sequencing.">Effect of the strain Bacillus amyloliquefaciens FZB42 on the microbial community in the rhizosphere of lettuce under field conditions analyzed by whole metagenome sequencing.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 5, 252 (2014).</li><li>Bulgarelli, D., Schlaeppi, K., Spaepen, S., Ver Loren van Themaat, E., Schulze-Lefert, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure+and+functions+of+the+bacterial+microbiota+of+plants.">Structure and functions of the bacterial microbiota of plants.</a> Annual Review of Plant Biology. 64, 807-838 (2013).</li><li>Niu, B., Paulson, J. N., Zheng, X., Kolter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Simplified+and+representative+bacterial+community+of+maize+roots.">Simplified and representative bacterial community of maize roots.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 114 (12), E2450-E2459 (2017).</li><li>Richter-Heitmann, T., Eickhorst, T., Knauth, S., Friedrich, M. W., Schmidt, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+of+Strategies+to+Separate+Root-Associated+Microbial+Communities:+A+Crucial+Choice+in+Rhizobiome+Research.">Evaluation of Strategies to Separate Root-Associated Microbial Communities: A Crucial Choice in Rhizobiome Research.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 7, 773 (2016).</li><li>Shank, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+coculture+to+detect+chemically+mediated+interspecies+interactions.">Using coculture to detect chemically mediated interspecies interactions.</a> Journal of Visual Experiments. (80), e50863 (2013).</li><li>Woodward, A. W., Bartel, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biology+in+Bloom:+A+Primer+on+the+Arabidopsis+thaliana+Model+System.">Biology in Bloom: A Primer on the Arabidopsis thaliana Model System.</a> Genetics. 208 (4), 1337-1349 (2018).</li><li>Alatorre-Cobos, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved,+low-cost,+hydroponic+system+for+growing+Arabidopsis+and+other+plant+species+under+aseptic+conditions.">An improved, low-cost, hydroponic system for growing Arabidopsis and other plant species under aseptic conditions.</a> BMC Plant Biology. 14, 69 (2014).</li><li>Haney, C. H., Samuel, B. S., Bush, J., Ausubel, F. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Associations+with+rhizosphere+bacteria+can+confer+an+adaptive+advantage+to+plants.">Associations with rhizosphere bacteria can confer an adaptive advantage to plants.</a> Nature Plants. 1 (6), (2015).</li><li>Massalha, H., Korenblum, E., Malitsky, S., Shapiro, O. H., Aharoni, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+imaging+of+root-bacteria+interactions+in+a+microfluidics+setup.">Live imaging of root-bacteria interactions in a microfluidics setup.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 114 (17), 4549-4554 (2017).</li><li>Townsley, L., Yannarell, S. M., Huynh, T. N., Woodward, J. J., Shank, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cyclic+di-AMP+Acts+as+an+Extracellular+Signal+That+Impacts.">Cyclic di-AMP Acts as an Extracellular Signal That Impacts.</a> MBio. 9 (2), (2018).</li><li>Beauregard, P. B., Chai, Y., Vlamakis, H., Losick, R., Kolter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bacillus+subtilis+biofilm+induction+by+plant+polysaccharides.">Bacillus subtilis biofilm induction by plant polysaccharides.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A. 110 (17), E1621-E1630 (2013).</li><li>Matthysse, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adherence+of+Bacteria+to+Plant+Surfaces+Measured+in+the+Laboratory.">Adherence of Bacteria to Plant Surfaces Measured in the Laboratory.</a> Journal of Visual Experiments. 136 (136), (2018).</li><li>Garcia-Betancur, J. C., Yepes, A., Schneider, J., Lopez, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-cell+analysis+of+Bacillus+subtilis+biofilms+using+fluorescence+microscopy+and+flow+cytometry.">Single-cell analysis of Bacillus subtilis biofilms using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry.</a> Journal of Visual Experiments. (60), (2012).</li><li>Cole, B. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+identification+of+bacterial+plant+colonization+genes.">Genome-wide identification of bacterial plant colonization genes.</a> PLoS Biology. 15 (9), e2002860 (2017).</li><li>Lundberg, D. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Defining+the+core+Arabidopsis+thaliana+root+microbiome.">Defining the core Arabidopsis thaliana root microbiome.</a> Nature. 488 (7409), 86-90 (2012).</li><li>Grandchamp, G. M., Caro, L., Shank, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pirated+Siderophores+Promote+Sporulation+in+Bacillus+subtilis.">Pirated Siderophores Promote Sporulation in Bacillus subtilis.</a> Applied Environmental Microbiology. 83 (10), (2017).</li><li>Gange, A. C., Gadhave, K. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Plant+growth-promoting+rhizobacteria+promote+plant+size+inequality.">Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria promote plant size inequality.</a> Science Reports. 8 (1), 13828 (2018).</li><li>Levy, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+features+of+bacterial+adaptation+to+plants.">Genomic features of bacterial adaptation to plants.</a> Nature Genetics. 50 (1), 138-150 (2018).</li><li>Mart&#237;nez-Hidalgo, P., Maymon, M., Pule-Meulenberg, F., Hirsch, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engineering+root+microbiomes+for+healthier+crops+and+soils+using+beneficial,+environmentally+safe+bacteria.">Engineering root microbiomes for healthier crops and soils using beneficial, environmentally safe bacteria.</a> Canada Journal of Microbiology. , 1-14 (2018).</li><li>Niu, B., Kolter, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+the+Composition+Dynamics+of+a+Maize+Root-associated+Simplified+Bacterial+Community+and+Evaluation+of+Its+Biological+Control+Effect.">Quantification of the Composition Dynamics of a Maize Root-associated Simplified Bacterial Community and Evaluation of Its Biological Control Effect.</a> Bio Protocol. 8 (12), (2018).</li></ol>

Plants in all environments interact with thousands to millions of different bacteria and fungi5,7. These interactions can either negatively and positively impact plant health, with potential effects on crop yield and food production. Recent work also suggests that variable colonization of crops by PGPBs may account for unpredictable plant size and crop yield in field trials22. Understanding the mechanisms behind these interactions might al...

Crop destruction by bacterial and fungal diseases results in lowered food production and can severely disrupt global stability1. Based on the discovery that microbes in suppressive soils are responsible for increasing plant health2, scientists have asked whether the plant microbiome can be leveraged to support plant growth by modifying the presence and abundance of particular bacterial species3. Bacteria found to aid in plant growth or development are collectively termed plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). More recently, studies have shifted from simply identifying potential PGPB to understanding how interkingdom interactions in the soil, around roots, or in the rhizosphere (the area directly surrounding and including the root surface) may be impacting PGPB activity4.
Rhizosphere colonization by PGPB can increase the health or the development of host plants in response to diverse stressors relative to uncolonized plants5. However, results are often more variable in native soil conditions compared to those observed in the closely controlled greenhouse and laboratory settings6. One hypothesis for this difference is that the growth or behavior of PGPB may be inhibited by native soil bacteria or fungi in the fields7,8. Beneficial effects by rhizosphere bacteria generally depend on the ability of the bacteria to 1) locate and move towards the root, 2) colonize the root through biofilm formation, and 3) interact with the host plant or pathogens via production of small molecule metabolites7,9. Any of these colonization behaviors may be affected by the presence and activity of neighboring microbes10.
We designed a system to quantify and visualize these distinct bacterial colonization stages of the rhizosphere (Figure 1). This approach will facilitate studies investigating why long-term PGPB maintenance is sometimes not observed following transfer of plants into new environments, such as during the planting of pre-inoculated seedlings. Arabidopsis thaliana as were chosen as a plant model due to its extensive use in laboratory studies as well as the ample data available about its microbial interactions11. There are three stages in the system: 1) A. thaliana growth, 2) bacterial colonization, and 3) bacterial maintenance (see Figure 1). Because A. thaliana is a terrestrial plant, it was important to ensure that it was not suffering undue water stress in the hydroponic system12. Inspired by the methods used by Haney et al.13, the seedlings are grown on plastic mesh to separate the shoot from the liquid growth medium. This system does not appear to compromise the health and development of the plant host, and it improves A. thaliana growth in liquid11. As the plant shoot floats above the surface, the roots are fully exposed to colonization by bacteria inoculated into the liquid bacterial growth medium. This permits bacteria of interest to be examined for colonization in nutrients that are most conducive to growth, while then shifting conditions to allow the plant to continue growing in a nutrient medium designed to support its growth. Both stages include steady shaking to prevent anoxia of the root13. Bacteria can be visualized or quantified from the plant roots following transfer from either the colonization medium or the maintenance medium. This hydroponic system is very flexible, allowing experimental conditions and applied stresses to be easily altered depending on interests of the researchers.
This described method is important in the context of the larger body of literature about plant-microbe interactions because it provides a robust system for studying these interactions at the root surface while also being customizable to the growth preferences of different bacteria. Plant biology labs often perform plant-microbe colonization experiments on solid agar, allowing for only planar movement (if that) of bacteria while also requiring the potentially destructive manipulation of plants during subsequent transfer. In contrast, microbiology labs have frequently prioritized the health of the bacteria within their experiments, to the detriment of the plants14,15. These different priorities of plant- and microbiology-focused labs have historically made it difficult to compare results between these groups, since each typically optimizes experimental conditions to optimize their organism of interest15.&#160;The floating-mesh-plant-growth system described here prevents full plant submersion, a notable advantage to previous microbiology-oriented studies, while also temporarily optimizing the growth and survival of bacteria to facilitate colonization. Thus, the assay we present here may address concerns from both plant biologists (about over-hydration and tactile manipulation of the plant) while satisfying the criteria of microbiologists (allowing for different bacterial growth conditions and multiple species&#8217; interactions)7. This protocol is designed to be adaptable for use with various bacteria, plants, and environmental conditions.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Required Materials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL eppendorf tubes</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-well plates</td>
			<td>BD Falcon</td>
			<td>1801343</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aeraseal</td>
			<td>Excel Scientific</td>
			<td>BE255A2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoclave</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacteria of Interest</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Stored at -80&#730;C in 40% glycerol preferred</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BactoAgar</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>2306428; REF 214010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bleach</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conviron</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Short Day Light-Dark Cycles: 460-600 &#181;moles/m&#178;/s set at 9/15 hours light/dark at 18/21&#730;C, with inner power outlet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dessicator Jar: glass or heavy plastic</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flame</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>At optimal temperature for growth of specified bacteria</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric Acid</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lennox LB Broth</td>
			<td>RPI</td>
			<td>L24066-1000.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipetters</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Volumes 5 &#181;L to 1000 &#181;L</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope (preferably fluorescence)</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Could be light if best definition not important</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MS Salts + MES</td>
			<td>RPI</td>
			<td>M70300-50.0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital Plate Shaker</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Capable of running at 220 rpm for at least 96 hours</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri Dishes</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>50 mL total volume</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reservoirs</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Standard Hole Punch</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Approximately 7mm punch diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile water</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical Tape</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td>MMM1538-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teflon Mesh</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr</td>
			<td>1100t41</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasonicator</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortex Mixer</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-gal</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>x4281c</td>
			<td>other vendors available</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Suggested Materials</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24 Prong Ultrasonicator attachment</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>For sonicating multiple samples at once. Can be done individually</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alumaseal II</td>
			<td>Excel Scientific</td>
			<td>FE124F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass beads</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multipetter/Repetter</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile 96-well plates</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>For serial dilutions. Can be replaced by eppendorf tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biological Materials Used</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arabidopsis thaliana seeds</td>
			<td>any</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>We recommend Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center for seed stocks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Arthrobacter nicotinovorans</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Levy, et al. 2018</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curtobacterium oceanosedimentum</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Levy, et al. 2018</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microbacterium oleivorans</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Levy, et al. 2018</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pseudomonas simiae WCS417r</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Published in a similar system in Haney, et al. 2015. Strain used developed in Cole, et al. 2017</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

monitoring bacterial colonization and maintenance on arabidopsis thaliana roots in a floating hydroponic system

Bacteria form complex rhizosphere microbiomes shaped by interacting microbes, larger organisms, and the abiotic environment. Under laboratory conditions, rhizosphere colonization by plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) can increase the health or the development of host plants relative to uncolonized plants. However, in field settings, bacterial treatments with PGPB often do not provide substantial benefits to crops. One explanation is that this may be due to loss of the PGPB during interactions with endogenous soil microbes over the lifespan of the plant. This possibility has been difficult to confirm, since most studies focus on the initial colonization rather than maintenance of PGPB within rhizosphere communities. It is hypothesized here that the assembly, coexistence, and maintenance of bacterial communities are shaped by deterministic features of the rhizosphere microenvironment, and that these interactions may impact PGPB survival in native settings. To study these behaviors, a hydroponic plant-growth assay is optimized using Arabidopsis thaliana to quantify and visualize the spatial distribution of bacteria during initial colonization of plant roots and after transfer to different growth environments. This system&#8217;s reproducibility and utility are then validated with the well-studied PGPB Pseudomonas simiae. To investigate how the presence of multiple bacterial species may affect colonization and maintenance dynamics on the plant root, a model community from three bacterial strains (an Arthrobacter, Curtobacterium, and Microbacterium species) originally isolated from the A. thaliana rhizosphere is constructed. It is shown that the presence of these diverse bacterial species can be measured using this hydroponic plant-maintanence assay, which provides an alternative to sequencing-based bacterial community studies. Future studies using this system may improve the understanding of bacterial behavior in multispecies plant microbiomes over time and in changing environmental conditions.

The well-characterized PGPB P. simiae WCS417r is known to colonize the roots of A. thaliana in hydroponic culture. This naturally fluorescent bacterium can easily be visualized using microscopy on the roots of seedlings following colonization (Figure 2). Although it is possible to image the full length of these A. thaliana seedlings&#8217; (4&#8211;6 mm length) roots, doing so for many plants would take a prohibitive amount of time....

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Monitoring Bacterial Colonization and Maintenance on Arabidopsis thaliana Roots in a Floating Hydroponic System

Here we describe a hydroponic plant growth assay to quantify species presence and visualize the spatial distribution of bacteria during initial colonization of plant roots and after their transfer into different growth environments.

Monitoring Bacterial Colonization and Maintenance on Arabidopsis thaliana Roots in a Floating Hydroponic System

Bacteria form complex rhizosphere microbiomes shaped by interacting microbes, larger organisms, and the abiotic environment. Under laboratory conditions, ...

Most experiments study plant-microbe interactions by focusing on colonization, but our protocol is designed to look both at colonization and maintenance of the bacteria on the root. We can change the experiment to fit different bacteria and plants, and we can even test multiple bacteria in each 24-well plate. To begin, use a standard hole puncher to create disks of plastic mesh.Collect the disks in a glass container, and cover loosely. Sterilize using an autoclave set to a 20-minute dry cycle. Use flame-sterilized tweezers to distribute approximately 40 sterilized mesh disks in a single layer across the surface of previously prepared plant growth medium agar plate.Place two previously sterilized seeds at the center of each mesh. Seal the plate with surgical tape, and incubate for two to six days at four degrees Celsius in darkness to vernalize the seeds. Then, place the plate agar-side down in a plant growth chamber for eight to 10 days under short-day settings of nine hours of light at 21 degrees Celsius and 15 hours of dark at 18 degrees Celsius to germinate and grow seedlings.Add one milliliter of bacterial growth medium to each well of a sterile 24-well plate. To transfer the germinated seedlings embedded in mesh, use flame-sterilized forceps to gently peel the mesh containing two germinated, equally sized, and undamaged seedlings up and off the agar plate. Transfer one float with seedlings to each well of bacterial growth liquid, root-side down.Next, resuspend bacteria grown overnight on agar plates in liquid bacterial growth medium. Add 10 microliters of bacterial suspension to each well, except for media-only control wells, for a final concentration of one million colony-forming units of bacteria per well. To seal the plate for sterile growth, carefully press gas-permeable film across the plate without touching the sticky side.Apply pressure around each of the rings made by the wells to ensure that each well has been individually sealed. Then, close the plate with its plastic lid snuggly over the gas-permeable film. Place the plate in a plant growth chamber on an orbital plate shaker set to 220 rpm, and incubate for 18 hours under the same conditions as the seedlings were originally germinated.To rinse all floats with plants, add one milliliter of sterile water to each well of a new 24-well plate. Remove gas-permeable film from the plate with plants, and use sterile forceps to transfer floats to wells with water, and incubate for 10 minutes at room temperature without agitation. Then, fill each well of a new 24-well plate with one milliliter of plant growth medium.Transfer one mesh to each well, and cover with a gas-permeable seal. Incubate for 72 hours on the orbital plate shaker at 220 rpm in plant growth chamber. After the incubation, rinse the plants as previously done.After the rinsing, remove the seedlings from the mesh by gently placing flame-sterilized forceps below the leaves on the leaf side of the mesh. Lightly pinch the stem, and wiggle the seedlings up and away from the mesh to dislodge the root without breaking it. To remove bacteria from plant roots, transfer seedlings from each mesh into individual wells of a 24-well sonication plate containing one milliliter of double-distilled water.Sonicate all samples within the plate at once using a multipronged sonicator as described in the manuscript. To quantify the bacteria, perform serial 10-fold dilutions of the sonicated samples in bacterial growth medium. Spread using sterile glass beads, and incubate at the optimal temperature for bacteria until individual colonies are countable.To collect intact plant root, use forceps to remove the seedlings from the mesh. Then, transfer each plant to a microscope slide by placing the tip of the root on the slide and dragging it away from the tip to set the shoot down flush with the slide, ensuring a straightened root for best imaging. Add a drop of water or sterile plant growth medium to each sample to hydrate interfaces between the coverslips and slides.Place a glass coverslip just above the root crown and below the shoot leaves to avoid slanting of the coverslip, and press down gently. Then, image the bacteria using appropriate excitation/emission filters to differentiate bacteria from each other and the plant root. Pseudomonas simiae, naturally fluorescent bacterium, colonized Arabidopsis thaliana roots and was maintained on the root following transfer to plant growth medium.Root crown, mid-length, and tip show fluorescence due to colonization of Pseudomonas simiae. The no-bacteria negative control showed no colonization. When Pseudomonas simiae on Arabidopsis thaliana roots were quantified after 18 hours of colonization or 72 hours of maintenance, total number of colony-forming units per seedling at either time point showed good reproducibility across biological replicates performed on different days.There was an increase in the number of colony-forming units per seedling after 72 hours in maintenance medium, as compared to the numbers observed at the post-colonization 18-hour time point, indicating that active growth of the colonized bacteria on the plant root occurred during the maintenance stage. Three species of bacteria isolated from Arabidopsis thaliana grown in natural soil under laboratory conditions were used to monitor the association of multiple species on plant roots. They were clearly differentiated on media containing X-gal due to differences in colony morphology and color, which allowed counting the colony-forming units per seedling of each species without antibiotic selection, even in multi-species coculture.These three species of bacteria were all colonized and maintained on the root, whether alone or in bacterial coculture. Each species showed trends that were similar across different biological and technical replicates, showing that this protocol can be used to measure both relative or total colony-forming units per root of each species. When grown alone, no individual species showed substantial increase in abundance during the maintenance stage, but the overall colony-forming units per root of the combined community increased in cocultures, indicating that these bacteria do not prohibit the colonization of the other strains.The most difficult steps are those that require the removal of intact plants from the mesh disks. Being patient and gentle will make this possible. If the bacterial cells are fluorescent, the samples could be sorted by flow cytometry to determine the relative numbers of cells.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Investigating the Effects of Probiotics on Pneumococcal Colonization Using an In Vitro Adherence Assay

Adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) to the epithelial lining of the nasopharynx can result in colonization and is considered a prerequisite for pneumococcal infections such as pneumonia and otitis media. In vitro adherence assays can be used to study the attachment of pneumococci to epithelial cell monolayers and to investigate potential interventions, such as the use of probiotics, to inhibit pneumococcal&#160;colonization.&#160;The protocol described here is used to investigate the effects of the probiotic Streptococcus salivarius on the adherence of pneumococci to the human epithelial cell line CCL-23 (sometimes referred to as HEp-2 cells). The assay involves three main steps: 1) preparation of epithelial and bacterial cells, 2) addition of bacteria to epithelial cell monolayers, and 3) detection of adherent pneumococci by viable counts (serial dilution and plating) or quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). This technique is relatively straightforward and does not require specialized equipment other than a tissue culture setup. The assay can be used to test other probiotic species and/or potential inhibitors of pneumococcal colonization and can be easily modified to address other scientific questions regarding pneumococcal adherence and invasion.

Investigating the Effects of Probiotics on Pneumococcal Colonization Using an In Vitro Adherence Assay

In vitro adherence assays can be used to study the attachment of Streptococcus pneumoniae to epithelial cell monolayers and to investigate potential interventions such as the use of probiotics for inhibiting pneumococcal colonization.

Adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) to the epithelial lining of the nasopharynx can result in colonization and is considered a ...

Monitoring the Assembly of a Secreted Bacterial Virulence Factor Using Site-specific Crosslinking

This article describes a method to detect and analyze dynamic interactions between a protein of interest and other factors in vivo. Our method is based on the amber suppression technology that was originally developed by Peter Schultz and colleagues1. An amber mutation is first introduced at a specific codon of the gene encoding the protein of interest. The amber mutant is then expressed in E. coli together with genes encoding an amber suppressor tRNA and an amino acyl-tRNA synthetase derived from Methanococcus jannaschii. Using this system, the photo activatable amino acid analog p-benzoylphenylalanine (Bpa) is incorporated at the amber codon. Cells are then irradiated with ultraviolet light to covalently link the Bpa residue to proteins that are located within 3-8 &#197;. Photocrosslinking is performed in combination with pulse-chase labeling and immunoprecipitation of the protein of interest in order to monitor changes in protein-protein interactions that occur over a time scale of seconds to minutes. We optimized the procedure to study the assembly of a bacterial virulence factor that consists of two independent domains, a domain that is integrated into the outer membrane and a domain that is translocated into the extracellular space, but the method can be used to study many different assembly processes and biological pathways in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In principle interacting factors and even specific residues of interacting factors that bind to a protein of interest can be identified by mass spectrometry.

This article illustrates the use of pulse-chase radio labeling in combination with site-specific photocrosslinking to monitor interactions between a protein of interest and other factors in E. coli. Unlike traditional chemical cross-linking methods, this approach generates high resolution &#8220;snapshots&#8221; of an ordered assembly pathway in a living cell.

This article describes a method to detect and analyze dynamic interactions between a protein of interest and other factors in vivo. Our method is based on ...

Assessing Bacterial Invasion of Cardiac Cells in Culture and Heart Colonization in Infected Mice Using Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen that is capable of causing serious invasive infections in immunocompromised patients, the elderly, and pregnant women. The most common manifestations of listeriosis in humans include meningitis, encephalitis, and fetal abortion. A significant but much less documented sequelae of invasive L. monocytogenes infection involves the heart. The death rate from cardiac illness can be up to 35% despite treatment, however very little is known regarding L. monocytogenes colonization of cardiac tissue and its resultant pathologies. In addition, it has recently become apparent that subpopulations of L. monocytogenes have an enhanced capacity to invade and grow within cardiac tissue. This protocol describes in detail in vitro and in vivo methods that can be used for assessing cardiotropism of L. monocytogenes isolates. Methods are presented for the infection of H9c2 rat cardiac myoblasts in tissue culture as well as for the determination of bacterial colonization of the hearts of infected mice. These methods are useful not only for identifying strains with the potential to colonize cardiac tissue in infected animals, but may also facilitate the identification of bacterial gene products that serve to enhance cardiac cell invasion and/or drive changes in heart pathology. These methods also provide for the direct comparison of cardiotropism between multiple L. monocytogenes strains.

Assessing Bacterial Invasion of Cardiac Cells in Culture and Heart Colonization in Infected Mice Using Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes causes fetal infections in pregnant women and meningitis in susceptible populations. Subpopulations of bacteria can colonize cardiac tissue, causing myocarditis in patients and laboratory animals. Here we present a protocol that describes how to assess L. monocytogenes cardiac cell invasion in vitro and cardiac colonization in infected animals.

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular pathogen that is capable of causing serious invasive infections in immunocompromised ...

Bacterial Leaf Infiltration Assay for Fine Characterization of Plant Defense Responses using the Arabidopsis thaliana-Pseudomonas syringae Pathosystem

In the absence of specialized mobile immune cells, plants utilize their localized programmed cell death and Systemic Acquired Resistance to defend themselves against pathogen attack. The contribution of a specific Arabidopsis gene to the overall plant immune response can be specifically and quantitatively assessed by assaying the pathogen growth within the infected tissue. For over three decades, the hemibiotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola ES4326 (Psm ES4326) has been widely applied as the model pathogen to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the Arabidopsis immune response. To deliver pathogens into the leaf tissue, multiple inoculation methods have been established, e.g., syringe infiltration, dip inoculation, spray, vacuum infiltration, and flood inoculation. The following protocol describes an optimized syringe infiltration method to deliver virulent Psm ES4326 into leaves of adult soil-grown Arabidopsis plants and accurately screen for enhanced disease susceptibility (EDS) towards this pathogen. In addition, this protocol can be supplemented with multiple pre-treatments to further dissect specific immune defects within different layers of plant defense, including Salicylic Acid (SA)-Triggered Immunity (STI) and MAMP-Triggered Immunity (MTI).

Bacterial Leaf Infiltration Assay for Fine Characterization of Plant Defense Responses using the Arabidopsis thaliana-Pseudomonas syringae Pathosystem

Quantification of pathogen growth is a powerful tool to characterize various Arabidopsis thaliana (hereafter: Arabidopsis) immune responses. The method described here presents an optimized syringe infiltration assay to quantify the Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola ES4326 growth in adult Arabidopsis leaves.

In the absence of specialized mobile immune cells, plants utilize their localized programmed cell death and Systemic Acquired Resistance to defend ...

Implementation of a Permeable Membrane Insert-based Infection System to Study the Effects of Secreted Bacterial Toxins on Mammalian Host Cells

Many bacterial pathogens secrete potent toxins to aid in the destruction of host tissue, to initiate signaling changes in host cells or to manipulate immune system responses during the course of infection. Though methods have been developed to successfully purify and produce many of these important virulence factors, there are still many bacterial toxins whose unique structure or extensive post-translational modifications make them difficult to purify and study in in vitro systems. Furthermore, even when pure toxin can be obtained, there are many challenges associated with studying the specific effects of a toxin under relevant physiological conditions. Most in vitro cell culture models designed to assess the effects of secreted bacterial toxins on host cells involve incubating host cells with a one-time dose of toxin. Such methods poorly approximate what host cells actually experience during an infection, where toxin is continually produced by bacterial cells and allowed to accumulate gradually during the course of infection. This protocol describes the design of a permeable membrane insert-based bacterial infection system to study the effects of Streptolysin S, a potent toxin produced by Group A Streptococcus, on human epithelial keratinocytes. This system more closely mimics the natural physiological environment during an infection than methods where pure toxin or bacterial supernatants are directly applied to host cells. Importantly, this method also eliminates the bias of host responses that are due to direct contact between the bacteria and host cells. This system has been utilized to effectively assess the effects of Streptolysin S (SLS) on host membrane integrity, cellular viability, and cellular signaling responses. This technique can be readily applied to the study of other secreted virulence factors on a variety of mammalian host cell types to investigate the specific role of a secreted bacterial factor during the course of infection.

Here, a method using a permeable membrane insert-based infection system to study the effects of Streptolysin S, a secreted toxin produced by Group A Streptococcus, on keratinocytes is described. This system can be readily applied to the study of other secreted bacterial proteins on various host cell types during infection.

Many bacterial pathogens secrete potent toxins to aid in the destruction of host tissue, to initiate signaling changes in host cells or to manipulate ...

A Murine Model of Group B Streptococcus Vaginal Colonization

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus, GBS), is a Gram-positive, asymptomatic colonizer of the human gastrointestinal tract and vaginal tract of 10 - 30% of adults. In immune-compromised individuals, including neonates, pregnant women, and the elderly, GBS may switch to an invasive pathogen causing sepsis, arthritis, pneumonia, and meningitis. Because GBS is a leading bacterial pathogen of neonates, current prophylaxis is comprised of late gestation screening for GBS vaginal colonization and subsequent peripartum antibiotic treatment of GBS-positive mothers. Heavy GBS vaginal burden is a risk factor for both neonatal disease and colonization. Unfortunately, little is known about the host and bacterial factors that promote or permit GBS vaginal colonization. This protocol describes a technique for establishing persistent GBS vaginal colonization using a single &#946;-estradiol pre-treatment and daily sampling to determine bacterial load. It further details methods to administer additional therapies or reagents of interest and to collect vaginal lavage fluid and reproductive tract tissues. This mouse model will further the understanding of the GBS-host interaction within the vaginal environment, which will lead to potential therapeutic targets to control maternal vaginal colonization during pregnancy and to prevent transmission to the vulnerable newborn. It will also be of interest to increase our understanding of general bacterial-host interactions in the female vaginal tract.

A Murine Model of Group B Streptococcus Vaginal Colonization

The purpose of this protocol is to imitate human group B Streptococcus (GBS) vaginal colonization in a murine model. This method may be used to investigate host immune responses and bacterial factors contributing to GBS vaginal persistence, as well as to test therapeutic strategies.

Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus, GBS), is a Gram-positive, asymptomatic colonizer of the human gastrointestinal tract and vaginal tract of ...

Detection of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia Coli Colonization in Murine Host by Non-invasive In Vivo Bioluminescence System

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) O157:H7, which is a foodborne pathogen that causesdiarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis (HS), and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), colonize to the intestinal tract of humans. To study the detailed mechanism of EHEC colonization in vivo, it is essential to have animal models to monitor and quantify EHEC colonization. We demonstrate here a mouse-EHEC colonization model by transforming the bioluminescent expressing plasmid to EHEC to monitor and quantify EHEC colonization in living hosts. Animals inoculated with bioluminescence-labeled EHEC show intense bioluminescent signals in mice by detection with a non-invasive in vivo imaging system. After 1 and 2 days post infection, bioluminescent signals could still be detected in infected animals, which suggests that EHEC colonize in hosts for at least 2 days. We also demonstrate that these bioluminescent EHEC locate to mouse intestine, specifically in the cecum and colon, from ex vivo images. This mouse-EHEC colonization model may serve as a tool to advance the current knowledge of the EHEC colonization mechanism.

Detection of Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia Coli Colonization in Murine Host by Non-invasive In Vivo Bioluminescence System

A detailed protocol of a mouse model for enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) colonization by using bioluminescence-labeled bacteria is presented. The detection of these bioluminescent bacteria by a non-invasive in vivo imaging system in live animals can advance our current understanding of EHEC colonization.

Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) O157:H7, which is a foodborne pathogen that causesdiarrhea, hemorrhagic colitis (HS), and hemolytic uremic syndrome ...

A High-throughput Shigella-specific Bactericidal Assay

Serum bactericidal assays (SBAs) measure the functional activity of antibodies and have been used for many decades. SBAs directly measure antibody killing activity by assessing the ability of antibodies in serum to bind to bacteria and activate complement. This complement activation results in the lysis and killing of the target bacteria. These assays are valuable because they go beyond quantifying antibody production to elucidate the biological functions that these antibodies have, allowing researchers to study the role that antibodies may play in preventing infection. SBAs have been used to study immune responses for many human pathogens, but there is no widely accepted methodology for Shigella at present. Historically, SBAs have been very labor-intensive, requiring many time-consuming steps to accurately quantify surviving bacteria. This protocol describes a simple, robust, and high-throughput assay that measures functional antibodies specific for Shigella in serum in vitro. The method described here offers many advantages over traditional SBAs, including the use of frozen bacterial stocks, 96 well assay plates, a micro-culture system, and automated colony-counting. All of these modifications make this assay less labor-intensive and more high-throughput. This protocol is simpler and faster to perform than traditional SBAs while still using simple technologies and readily available reagents. The protocol has been successfully applied in multiple independent laboratories and the assay is robust and reproducible. The assay can be used to assess immune responses in pre-clinical as well as clinical studies. Quantifying shigellacidal antibody titers both before and after antigen exposure (either by immunization or infection) allows for a broader understanding of how functional antibody responses are generated and their contribution to protective immunity. The development of this standardized, well-characterized assay may greatly facilitate Shigella vaccine design.

A High-throughput Shigella-specific Bactericidal Assay

Here we present a protocol to measure Shigellacidal activity of antibodies in serum. Serum is mixed with bacteria and exogenous complement, incubated, and the reaction mixture is plated on agar plates. Viable bacteria form colonies which are counted, using an automated colony enumerator, and used to determine the bactericidal titer.

Serum bactericidal assays (SBAs) measure the functional activity of antibodies and have been used for many decades. SBAs directly measure antibody killing ...

Pattern-Triggered Oxidative Burst and Seedling Growth Inhibition Assays in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants have evolved a robust immune system to perceive pathogens and protect against disease. This paper describes two assays that can be used to measure the strength of immune activation in Arabidopsis thaliana following treatment with elicitor molecules. Presented first is a method for capturing the rapidly-induced and dynamic oxidative burst, which can be monitored using a luminol-based assay. Presented second is a method describing how to measure immune-induced inhibition of seedling growth. These protocols are fast and reliable, do not require specialized training or equipment, and are widely used to understand the genetic basis of plant immunity.

Pattern-Triggered Oxidative Burst and Seedling Growth Inhibition Assays in Arabidopsis thaliana

This paper describes two methods for quantifying defense responses in Arabidopsis thaliana following exposure to immune elicitors: the transient oxidative burst, and the inhibition of seedling growth.

Plants have evolved a robust immune system to perceive pathogens and protect against disease. This paper describes two assays that can be used to measure ...

A Precise Pathogen Delivery and Recovery System for Murine Models of Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia

Secondary bacterial pneumonias following influenza infections consistently rank within the top ten leading causes of death in the United States. To date, murine models of co-infection have been the primary tool developed to explore the pathologies of both the primary and secondary infections. Despite the prevalence of this model, considerable discrepancies regarding instillation procedures, dose volumes, and efficacies are prevalent among studies. Furthermore, these efforts have been largely incomplete in addressing how the pathogen may be directly influencing disease progression post-infection. Herein we provide a precise method of pathogen delivery, recovery, and analysis to be used in murine models of secondary bacterial pneumonia. We demonstrate that intratracheal instillation enables an efficient and accurate delivery of controlled volumes directly and evenly into the lower respiratory tract. Lungs can be excised to recover and quantify the pathogen burden. Following excision of the infected lungs, we describe a method to extract high quality pathogen RNA for subsequent transcriptional analysis. This procedure benefits from being a non-surgical method of delivery without the use of specialized laboratory equipment and provides a reproducible strategy to investigate pathogen contributions to secondary bacterial pneumonia.

Here, we present methods to improve secondary bacterial pneumonia studies by providing a non-invasive route of instillation into the lower respiratory tract followed by pathogen recovery and transcript analysis. These procedures are reproducible and can be performed without specialized equipment such as cannulas, guide wires, or fiber optic cables.

Secondary bacterial pneumonias following influenza infections consistently rank within the top ten leading causes of death in the United States. To date, ...