Name: quantifying antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in a tumor spheroid model: application for drug discovery
Uploaded: 2024-04-26T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity in a Tumor Spheroid Model: Application for Drug Discovery at JoVE.com

LV received funding from National Research, Development and Innovation Office grants GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00010 TUMORDNS&#34;, GINOP-2.3.2-15-2016-00048-STAYALIVE, OTKA K132193 and K147482. This project has received funding from the HUN-REN Hungarian Research Network. CD16.176V.NK-92 cells were obtained from Dr. Kerry S. Campbell (Fox Chase Center, Philadelphia, PA, on behalf of Brink Biologics, lnc. San Diego, CA), are protected by patents worldwide, and were licensed by Nantkwest, lnc. (www.nantkwest.com). Authors are thankful to Gy&#246;rgy Vereb and &#193;rp&#225;d Sz&#246;&#337;r for their help with the use of the NK-92 cell line and the TR-F(ab&#8217;)2, and for technical advice.

1. Setting up the JIMT-1-enhanced fluorescent protein (EGFP) spheroid model
<ol>
	<li>To form a U-shaped cell-repellent bottom, coat the 96-well plate with 0.5% agarose-PBS solution (30 &#181;L/well). Incubate the plate at room temperature for approximately 30-45 min.</li>
	<li>Wash the JIMT-1-EGFP cells twice with 2 mL of sterile PBS (generation of JIMT1-EGFP cell line was reported in a previous publication17). Use T25 tissue culture flasks and JIMT-1 media (DMEM/F-12 medium su...

<ol>
	<li>Jubelin, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+in+vitro+culture+models+in+oncology+research.">Three-dimensional in vitro culture models in oncology research.</a> Cell Biosci. 12 (1), 155 (2022).</li><li>Mittler, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-content+monitoring+of+drug+effects+in+a+3D+spheroid+model.">High-content monitoring of drug effects in a 3D spheroid model.</a> Front Oncol. 7, 293 (2017).</li><li>Badr-Eldin, S. M., Aldawsari, H. M., Kotta, S., Deb, P. K., Venugopala, K. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+in+vitro+cell+culture+models+for+efficient+drug+discovery:+Progress+so+far+and+future+prospects.">Three-dimensional in vitro cell culture models for efficient drug discovery: Progress so far and future prospects.</a> Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 15 (8), 926 (2022).</li><li>Brancato, V., Oliveira, J. M., Correlo, V. M., Reis, R. L., Kundu, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Could+3D+models+of+cancer+enhance+drug+screening.">Could 3D models of cancer enhance drug screening.</a> Biomaterials. 232, 119744 (2020).</li><li>Pinto, B., Henriques, A. C., Silva, P. M. A., Bousbaa, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+spheroids+as+in+vitro+preclinical+models+for+cancer+research.">Three-dimensional spheroids as in vitro preclinical models for cancer research.</a> Pharmaceutics. 12 (12), 1186 (2020).</li><li>Fitzgerald, A. A., Li, E., Weiner, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+culture+systems+for+exploring+cancer+immunology.">3D culture systems for exploring cancer immunology.</a> Cancers (Basel). 13 (1), 56 (2020).</li><li>Zanoni, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tumor+spheroid+models+for+in+vitro+therapeutic+screening:+A+systematic+approach+to+enhance+the+biological+relevance+of+data+obtained.">3D tumor spheroid models for in vitro therapeutic screening: A systematic approach to enhance the biological relevance of data obtained.</a> Sci Rep. 6, 19103 (2016).</li><li>Boucherit, N., Gorvel, L., Olive, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3D+tumor+models+and+their+use+for+the+testing+of+immunotherapies.">3D tumor models and their use for the testing of immunotherapies.</a> Front Immunol. 11, 603640 (2020).</li><li>Li, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+progress+on+immunotherapy+for+breast+cancer:+Tumor+microenvironment,+nanotechnology+and+more.">Recent progress on immunotherapy for breast cancer: Tumor microenvironment, nanotechnology and more.</a> Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 9, 680315 (2021).</li><li>Lo Nigro, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NK-mediated+antibody-dependent+cell-mediated+cytotoxicity+in+solid+tumors:+Biological+evidence+and+clinical+perspectives.">NK-mediated antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity in solid tumors: Biological evidence and clinical perspectives.</a> Ann Transl Med. 7 (5), 105 (2019).</li><li>Sun, Y. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Risk+factors+and+preventions+of+breast+cancer.">Risk factors and preventions of breast cancer.</a> Int J Biol Sci. 13 (11), 1387-1397 (2017).</li><li>Liu, P. H., Wei, J. C., Wang, Y. H., Yeh, M. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Female+breast+cancer+incidence+predisposing+risk+factors+identification+using+nationwide+big+data:+A+matched+nested+case-control+study+in+taiwan.">Female breast cancer incidence predisposing risk factors identification using nationwide big data: A matched nested case-control study in taiwan.</a> BMC Cancer. 22 (1), 849 (2022).</li><li>Burguin, A., Diorio, C., Durocher, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breast+cancer+treatments:+Updates+and+new+challenges.">Breast cancer treatments: Updates and new challenges.</a> J Pers Med. 11 (8), 808 (2021).</li><li>Costa, R. L. B., Czerniecki, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+development+of+immunotherapies+for+HER2(+)+breast+cancer:+A+review+of+HER2-directed+monoclonal+antibodies+and+beyond.">Clinical development of immunotherapies for HER2(+) breast cancer: A review of HER2-directed monoclonal antibodies and beyond.</a> NPJ Breast Cancer. 6, 10 (2020).</li><li>Musolino, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+fcgamma+receptors+in+HER2-targeted+breast+cancer+therapy.">Role of fcgamma receptors in HER2-targeted breast cancer therapy.</a> J Immunother Cancer. 10 (1), e003171 (2022).</li><li>Petricevic, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trastuzumab+mediates+antibody-dependent+cell-mediated+cytotoxicity+and+phagocytosis+to+the+same+extent+in+both+adjuvant+and+metastatic+HER2/NEU+breast+cancer+patients.">Trastuzumab mediates antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity and phagocytosis to the same extent in both adjuvant and metastatic HER2/NEU breast cancer patients.</a> J Transl Med. 11, 307 (2013).</li><li>Guti, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+multitargeted+receptor+tyrosine+kinase+inhibitor+sunitinib+induces+resistance+of+HER2+positive+breast+cancer+cells+to+Trastuzumab-mediated+ADCC.">The multitargeted receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor sunitinib induces resistance of HER2 positive breast cancer cells to Trastuzumab-mediated ADCC.</a> Cancer Immunol Immunother. 71 (9), 2151-2168 (2022).</li><li>Barok, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trastuzumab+decreases+the+number+of+circulating+and+disseminated+tumor+cells+despite+Trastuzumab+resistance+of+the+primary+tumor.">Trastuzumab decreases the number of circulating and disseminated tumor cells despite Trastuzumab resistance of the primary tumor.</a> Cancer Lett. 260 (1-2), 198-208 (2008).</li><li>Toth, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+combination+of+Trastuzumab+and+Pertuzumab+administered+at+approved+doses+may+delay+development+of+Trastuzumab+resistance+by+additively+enhancing+antibody-dependent+cell-mediated+cytotoxicity.">The combination of Trastuzumab and Pertuzumab administered at approved doses may delay development of Trastuzumab resistance by additively enhancing antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.</a> MAbs. 8 (7), 1361-1370 (2016).</li><li>Ehlers, F. a. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ADCC-inducing+antibody+Trastuzumab+and+selection+of+KIR-HLA+ligand+mismatched+donors+enhance+the+NK+cell+anti-breast+cancer+response.">ADCC-inducing antibody Trastuzumab and selection of KIR-HLA ligand mismatched donors enhance the NK cell anti-breast cancer response.</a> Cancers (Basel). 13 (13), 3232 (2021).</li><li>Gangadhara, S., Smith, C., Barrett-Lee, P., Hiscox, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=3d+culture+of+Her2++breast+cancer+cells+promotes+AKT+to+MAPK+switching+and+a+loss+of+therapeutic+response.">3d culture of Her2+ breast cancer cells promotes AKT to MAPK switching and a loss of therapeutic response.</a> BMC Cancer. 16, 345 (2016).</li><li>Balalaeva, I. V., Sokolova, E. A., Puzhikhina, A. D., Brilkina, A. A., Deyev, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spheroids+of+Her2-positive+breast+adenocarcinoma+for+studying+anticancer+immunotoxins+in+vitro.">Spheroids of Her2-positive breast adenocarcinoma for studying anticancer immunotoxins in vitro.</a> Acta Naturae. 9 (1), 38-43 (2017).</li><li>Selis, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pegylated+Trastuzumab+fragments+acquire+an+increased+in+vivo+stability+but+show+a+largely+reduced+affinity+for+the+target+antigen.">Pegylated Trastuzumab fragments acquire an increased in vivo stability but show a largely reduced affinity for the target antigen.</a> Int J Mol Sci. 17 (4), 491 (2016).</li><li>Johnston, R. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High+content+screening+application+for+cell-type+specific+behaviour+in+heterogeneous+primary+breast+epithelial+subpopulations.">High content screening application for cell-type specific behaviour in heterogeneous primary breast epithelial subpopulations.</a> Breast Cancer Res. 18 (1), 18 (2016).</li><li>Kandaswamy, C., Silva, L. M., Alexandre, L. A., Santos, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-content+analysis+of+breast+cancer+using+single-cell+deep+transfer+learning.">High-content analysis of breast cancer using single-cell deep transfer learning.</a> J Biomol Screen. 21 (3), 252-259 (2016).</li><li>Esquer, H., Zhou, Q., Abraham, A. D., Labarbera, D. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advanced+high-content-screening+applications+of+clonogenicity+in+cancer.">Advanced high-content-screening applications of clonogenicity in cancer.</a> SLAS Discov. 25 (7), 734-743 (2020).</li><li>Pickl, M., Ries, C. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+3D+and+2D+tumor+models+reveals+enhanced+Her2+activation+in+3D+associated+with+an+increased+response+to+trastuzumab.">Comparison of 3D and 2D tumor models reveals enhanced Her2 activation in 3D associated with an increased response to trastuzumab.</a> Oncogene. 28 (3), 461-468 (2009).</li></ol>

Despite significant improvements in treating BC over the past several decades, patients still regularly develop medication resistance or experience negative side effects24. The high morbidity and mortality linked to BC demand a continuing investigation into the underlying molecular mechanisms, just as robust screening platforms to identify new molecules actionable for therapeutic development25. These strategies require cell culture-based translational assays. 3D tumor cultu...

Multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTS) are widely used three-dimensional (3D) models that form due to the tendency of adherent cells to aggregate and represent an important tool for gaining mechanistic insight into cancer cell biology. They can be generated from a broad range of cell types by numerous techniques, such as liquid-based and scaffold-based 3D cultures1. Their main advantage over monolayer 2D models is that they recapitulate the main features of in vivo tumors, namely structural organization and hypoxia, by mimicking the biological behavior of tumor cells, especially the mechanisms leading to therapeutic escape and drug resistance2. Thus, since MCTS can improve the predictability of toxicity and drug sensitivity, they are widely used to study cancers in 3D and could enhance the development of effective drugs for different types of cancer3.
To study any disease, there is a critical need for relevant and convenient models. Setting up models for cancer immunology studies is challenging because the immune system consists of multiple cell types. Each cell type has several subtypes and a broad spectrum of activation states. These different immune cell types interact with cancer cells and other tumor components, ultimately influencing the outcome of the disease. 2D in vitro cell culture methods fail to recapitulate these complex cellular interactions, as they lack translatability and are unable to predict the action of a drug at the system level (e.g., in tissues)4,5. Moreover, mouse models also have severe limitations due to the fundamental differences between the human and murine immune systems. 3D culture systems can, therefore, fill the current gaps in available models, providing an alternative method and improving our understanding of cancer immunology6. Specifically, spheroid models might be used for testing immunotherapies, mainly to assess the efficiency of drug screening and therapeutic antibodies for enhancing immune cell infiltration and anti-tumoral effects against the spheroid targets7. Furthermore, the potential of MCTS composed of cells in different metabolic and proliferative states to study the interactions between stroma cells (e.g., lymphocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts) and cancer cells and for the development of new anticancer strategies has been amply demonstrated8. Hence, there is a vital need to corroborate predictive and accurate platforms in order to boost the drug-testing process, taking into account the pathophysiology of the tumor microenvironment.
Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequent cancer diagnosed worldwide in women. The clinical classification of this heterogeneous disease is based on the presence of transmembrane receptors e.g., estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PR) receptors (collectively called hormone receptors, HR) along with the overexpression or amplification of the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) protein/oncogene. Based on the immunohistochemical expression of these receptors, four subtypes are commonly recognized: luminal A (HR+/HER2-), luminal B (HR+/HER2+), HER2-positive (HR-/HER2+) and triple-negative breast cancer (HR-/HER2-). The HER2+ group constitutes 10-15% of BC cases and is characterized by high HER2 expression with absence of ER and PR, having a worse prognosis compared to luminal tumors, and requiring specific drugs directed against the HER2/neu protein9.
BC development is a multi-step process, and an early diagnosis is essential for a successful treatment of the disease10. However, despite recently emerged personalized BC treatment options (e.g., endocrine and anti-HER2 antibody therapies), BC continues to challenge oncologists. Just like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, these personalized therapies can also have severe adverse effects and patients can develop resistance to these agents, making it a long-term challenge to determine the best strategy11,12. Hence, improved understanding of the interplay between the tumor and its microenvironment is essential and expected to provide new directions for the development of novel treatments that are taking into account the specificities of the different BC subtypes13. A new wave of immunotherapies, such as antibody drug conjugates, adoptive T-cell therapies, vaccines and novel HER2-directed monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are being studied in a broad population of patients with HER2-expressing tumors14.
Trastuzumab, for example, represents an efficient treatment modality for HER2+ BC. As part of its mode of action, Trastuzumab mediates fragment crystallizable gamma receptor (Fc&#947;R)-dependent activities. Fc&#947;Rs are distinguished by their affinity for the Fc fragment and the immune response they initiate. Activating Fc&#947;RIIIa (CD16A) on natural killer (NK) cells is crucial for mediating antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), while triggering Fc&#947;RIIa (CD32A) and Fc&#947;RIIIa on macrophages induces antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis (ADCP)15. Studies on animal models showed that mice lacking Fc&#947;RI (CD64) and Fc&#947;RIII (CD16) receptors were unable to initiate protective immune responses against tumor-specific antigens, revealing that ADCC is likely a major mechanism of action for the mAb Trastuzumab16.
Since NK cells resort to tumor cell-bound Abs for cancer cell killing by ADCC, expression of Fc receptors is critical for an efficient treatment with Trastuzumab17 (Figure 1). Moreover, their action is efficiently balanced by a stimulation of activating and inhibitory receptors, e.g., Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like (KIR) receptors18.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65922/65922fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Mechanism of ADCC in the context of an antitumor response. The Fc&#947; receptor of a natural killer (NK) cell recognizes the Fc region of an antibody, which had previously bound to a surface antigen on a cancer cell. This immunological synapse leads to the degranulation of the NK cell which releases cytotoxic mediators such as granzymes and perforin. These molecules contribute to pore formation in the cell membrane and activate apoptotic pathways causing programmed cell death of the target cell (image created with Biorender.com). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65922/65922fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
Immunotherapy&#160;development for HER2+ BC represents an evolving field. In this case, one should consider interactions between various components of the immune system. Furthermore, previous publications have extensively tested combination therapies involving all types of traditional, immune or cell therapies to identify synergizing combinations19.
Several 3D models of HER2+ BC have previously been used for drug discovery. For instance, Balalaeva et al. used SKBR-3 spheroids overexpressing HER2 to assess the cytotoxicity of the HER2-targeted immunotoxin 4D5scFv-PE4020. In another study, a 3D Matrigel-based HER2+ BC culture system was established to measure cell growth in response to Trastuzumab and endocrine agents21. These studies highlight the importance of tumor spheroid models of HER2 overexpressing cancer cells in representing an effective strategy to clinically improve therapeutic responses22.
Our group previously identified Sunitinib, a multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor, as an inhibitor of Trastuzumab-dependent ADCC in JIMT-1 HER2+ BC cells in a 2D culture assay. The study revealed that Sunitinib induces autophagy and impairs NK cells killing function, downregulating HER2 expression and enhancing surface attachment of JIMT-1 cells17.
Here we established a novel 3D, spheroid ADCC model (NK.92.CD16+Trastuzumab+JIMT-1-EGFP cancer cells) to be used for high-throughput screening applications and, in order to validate the above-mentioned findings, Sunitinib was used as a model compound. First, we generated EGFP expressing JIMT-1 cells17 and grew spheroids from these cells. ADCC was induced by NK cells together with Trastuzumab, and spheroids were kept in culture in the presence or absence of test compounds for 24 h (Figure 2). Quantification of ADCC is based on the detection of apoptotic cancer cell death (Annexin V staining) using a High-Content Analysis system.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65922/65922fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. ADCC in a 3D spheroid co-culture system. Our experimental settings are based on a 3D spheroid system that can more accurately model the in vivo microenvironment compared to 2D models. JIMT-1 EGFP breast cancer cells were seeded on a concave cell repellent bottom to form a round-shaped cellular cluster, called spheroid. ADCC was then initiated by adding NK92.CD16 natural killer cells (E:T ratio = 20:1) and an anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody, Trastuzumab. The experimental model has proved efficient and easily applicable for the identification of ADCC modifying test compounds (image created with Biorender.com). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65922/65922fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
We demonstrated that acquiring data in this manner can be done in real time and is statistically robust for the use in high-content screening in cancer drug discovery. Importantly, this model allows for an extended validation of a larger set of compounds, and it can be applied to several assays of interest.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well glass bottom Cell Carrier Ultra microplates</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>LLC 6055302</td>
			<td>for spheroids measurements</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well tissue culture plates</td>
			<td>TPP</td>
			<td>92096</td>
			<td>for cell seeding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#945;-MEM medium</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M8042</td>
			<td>in NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A9539</td>
			<td>for spheroids seeding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Annexin V-Alexa Fluo 647 conjugate</td>
			<td>Invitrogen-ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A23204</td>
			<td>for apoptosis measurement with HCS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CD16.176 V.NK-92 cells</td>
			<td>Dr. Kerry S. Campbell (the Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA on behalf of Brink Biologics, Inc. San Diego, CA)</td>
			<td>ATCC CRL-2407</td>
			<td>for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Tracker Blue</td>
			<td>Invitrogen-Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA)</td>
			<td>C2110</td>
			<td>for staining of NK cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM/F-12 medium</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D8437</td>
			<td>in JIMT1-EGFP medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>D8418</td>
			<td>for coating HCS plate before transfering the spheroids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Biosera</td>
			<td>FB-1090/500</td>
			<td>JIMT-1-EGFP and NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutamine</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>35,050&#8211;061</td>
			<td>in NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GraphPad Prism 8.0.1</td>
			<td>GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for statistical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Harmony software</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for HCA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IL-2</td>
			<td>Proleukin, Novartis Hung&#225;ria Kft., Budapest, Hungary</td>
			<td>PHC0026</td>
			<td>in NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Insulin (Humulin R)</td>
			<td>Eli Lilly</td>
			<td>HI0219</td>
			<td>JIMT-1-EGFP medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>JIMT-1 breast cancer cells</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MEM Non-essential Amino Acids (MEM-NEAA)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11,140&#8211;050</td>
			<td>in NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na-pyruvate</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>BE13-115E</td>
			<td>in NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Opera Phenix High-Content Analysis equipment</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA</td>
			<td>HH14001000</td>
			<td>for HCA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS (Posphate buffered saline)</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>BE17-517Q</td>
			<td>for washing the cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td>Biosera</td>
			<td>LM-A4118</td>
			<td>JIMT-1-EGFP and NK medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pLP-1, pLP-2, pLP-VSV-G, pWOXEGFP</td>
			<td>Invitrogen, (Prof. J&#243;zsef T<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65922/65922eq01v2.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />zs&#233;r, University of Debrecen)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for JIMT-1-EGFP cell line</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluronic-F127</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P2443</td>
			<td>for coating HCS plate before transfering the spheroids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sunitinib malate</td>
			<td>SigmaAldrich</td>
			<td>PZ0012</td>
			<td>for treatments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trastuzumab Ab (humanized anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody)</td>
			<td>Herzuma&#174;, EGIS Pharmaceuticals, Budapest, Hungary</td>
			<td>NDC-63459-303-43</td>
			<td>for treatments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trastuzumab-F(ab&#39;)2</td>
			<td>Gift from Prof. Gy&#246;rgy Vereb and &#193;rp&#225;d Sz&#246;<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/65922/65922eq01v2.jpg" style="margin: auto;" />r&#160;</td>
			<td>Department of Biophysics and Cell Biology, University of Debrecen</td>
			<td>for treatments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan blue 0.4% solution</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T8154</td>
			<td>for cell counting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin-EDTA 1X in PBS</td>
			<td>Biosera</td>
			<td>LM-T1706</td>
			<td>for cells detachment</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quantifying antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in a tumor spheroid model: application for drug discovery

Monoclonal antibody-based immunotherapy targeting tumor antigens is now a mainstay of cancer treatment. One of the clinically relevant mechanisms of action of the antibodies is antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), where the antibody binds to the cancer cells and engages the cellular component of the immune system, e.g., natural killer (NK) cells, to kill the tumor cells. The effectiveness of these therapies could be improved by identifying adjuvant compounds that increase the sensitivity of the cancer cells or the potency of the immune cells. In addition, undiscovered drug interactions in cancer patients co-medicated for previous conditions or cancer-associated symptoms may determine the success of the antibody therapy; therefore, such unwanted drug interactions need to be eliminated. With these goals in mind, we created a cancer ADCC model and describe here a simple protocol to find ADCC-modulating drugs. Since 3D models such as cancer cell spheroids are superior to 2D cultures in predicting in vivo responses of tumors to anticancer therapies, spheroid co-cultures of EGFP-expressing HER2+ JIMT-1 breast cancer cells and the NK92.CD16 cell lines were set up and induced with Trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody clinically approved against HER2-positive breast cancer. JIMT-1 spheroids were allowed to form in cell-repellent U-bottom 96-well plates. On day 3, NK cells and Trastuzumab were added. The spheroids were then stained with Annexin V-Alexa 647 to measure apoptotic cell death, which was quantitated in the peripheral zone of the spheroids with an automated microscope. The applicability of our assay to identify ADCC-modulating molecules is demonstrated by showing that Sunitinib, a receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor approved by the FDA against metastatic cancer, almost completely abolishes ADCC. The generation of the spheroids and image acquisition and analysis pipelines are compatible with high-throughput screening for ADCC-modulating compounds in cancer cell spheroids.

EGFP expressing JIMT-1 cells were generated, and spheroids were grown from these cells. Sunitinib was used as a test compound as it was previously shown to affect the course of ADCC17. Spheroids were allowed to clump for 72 h. On day 3, 10 &#181;g/mL of Trastuzumab (or equimolar 6.6 &#181;g/mL TR-F(ab&#39;)219) and NK cells (20:1) were added to the spheroids in the presence or the absence of 20 &#181;M Sunitinib (1 h pre-treatment), for a total time of 24 h. JIMT...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity in a Tumor Spheroid Model: Application for Drug Discovery at JoVE.com

Quantifying Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity in a Tumor Spheroid Model: Application for Drug Discovery

Here, we present a method to identify compounds that modulate the ADCC mechanism, an important cancer cell-killing mechanism of antitumor antibodies. The cytotoxic effect of NK cells is measured in breast cancer cell spheroids in the presence of Trastuzumab. Image analysis identifies live and dead killer and target cells in spheroids.

Monoclonal antibody-based immunotherapy targeting tumor antigens is now a mainstay of cancer treatment. One of the clinically relevant mechanisms of ...

quantifying-antibody-dependent-cellular-cytotoxicity-tumor-spheroid

Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the context of a whole organism. Sophisticated techniques to generate genetic mosaics facilitate induction of visually marked, genetically defined clones surrounded by normal tissue. The clones can be analyzed through diverse molecular, cellular and omics approaches. This study describes how to generate fluorescently labeled clonal tumors of varying malignancy in the eye/antennal imaginal discs (EAD) of Drosophila larvae using the Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) technique. It describes procedures how to recover the mosaic EAD and brain from the larvae and how to process them for simultaneous imaging of fluorescent transgenic reporters and antibody staining. To facilitate molecular characterization of the mosaic tissue, we describe a protocol for isolation of total RNA from the EAD. The dissection procedure is suitable to recover EAD and brains from any larval stage. The fixation and staining protocol for imaginal discs works with a number of transgenic reporters and antibodies that recognize Drosophila proteins. The protocol for RNA isolation can be applied to various larval organs, whole larvae, and adult flies. Total RNA can be used for profiling of gene expression changes using candidate or genome-wide approaches. Finally, we detail a method for quantifying invasiveness of the clonal tumors. Although this method has limited use, its underlying concept is broadly applicable to other quantitative studies where cognitive bias must be avoided.

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

This protocol demonstrates how to generate fluorescently marked, genetically defined clonal tumors in the Drosophila eye/antennal imaginal discs (EAD). It describes how to dissect the EAD and brain from the third instar larvae and how to process them to visualize and quantify gene expression changes and tumor invasiveness.

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the ...

Generation of High-Throughput Three-Dimensional Tumor Spheroids for Drug Screening

Cancer cells have routinely been cultured in two dimensions (2D) on a plastic surface. This technique, however, lacks the true environment a tumor mass is exposed to in vivo. Solid tumors grow not as a sheet attached to plastic, but instead as a collection of clonal cells in a three-dimensional (3D) space interacting with their neighbors, and with distinct spatial properties such as the disruption of normal cellular polarity. These interactions cause 3D-cultured cells to acquire morphological and cellular characteristics which are more relevant to in vivo tumors. Additionally, a tumor mass is in direct contact with other cell types such as stromal and immune cells, as well as the extracellular matrix from all other cell types. The matrix deposited is comprised of macromolecules such as collagen and fibronectin.
In an attempt to increase the translation of research findings in oncology from bench to bedside, many groups have started to investigate the use of 3D model systems in their drug development strategies. These systems are thought to be more physiologically relevant because they attempt to recapitulate the complex and heterogeneous environment of a tumor. These systems, however, can be quite complex, and, although amenable to growth in 96-well formats, and some now even in 384, they offer few choices for large-scale growth and screening. This observed gap has led to the development of the methods described here in detail to culture tumor spheroids in a high-throughput capacity in 1536-well plates. These methods represent a compromise to the highly complex matrix-based systems, which are difficult to screen, and conventional 2D assays. A variety of cancer cell lines harboring different genetic mutations are successfully screened, examining compound efficacy by using a curated library of compounds targeting the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase or MAPK pathway. The spheroid culture responses are then compared to the response of cells grown in 2D, and differential activities are reported. These methods provide a unique protocol for testing compound activity in a high-throughput 3D setting.

Across a wide variety of disease indications, more physiologically relevant models are being developed and implemented into drug discovery programs. The new model system described here demonstrates how three-dimensional tumor spheroids can be cultured and screened in a high-throughput 1536-well plate-based system to search for new oncology drugs.

Cancer cells have routinely been cultured in two dimensions (2D) on a plastic surface. This technique, however, lacks the true environment a tumor mass is ...

A 3D Organotypic Melanoma Spheroid Skin Model

Malignant transformation of melanocytes, the pigment cells of human skin, causes formation of melanoma, a highly aggressive cancer with increased metastatic potential. Recently, mono-chemotherapies continue to improve by melanoma specific combination therapies with targeted kinase inhibitors. Still, metastatic melanoma remains a life-threatening disease because tumors exhibit primary resistance or develop resistance to novel therapies, thereby regaining tumorigenic capacity. In order to improve the therapeutic success of malignant melanoma, the determination of molecular mechanisms conferring resistance against conventional treatment approaches is necessary; however, it requires innovative cellular in vitro models. Here, we introduce an in vitro three-dimensional (3D) organotypic melanoma spheroid model that can portray the in vivo architecture of malignant melanoma and may warrant new insights into intra-tumoral as well as tumor-host interactions. The model incorporates defined numbers of mature and differentiated melanoma spheroids in a 3D human full skin reconstruction model consisting of primary skin cells. The cellular composition and differentiation status of the embedded melanoma spheroids is similar to the one of cutaneous melanoma metastasis in vivo. Using this organotypic melanoma spheroid model as a drug screening platform may support the identification of responders to selected combination therapies, while sparing the unnecessary treatment burden for non-responders, thereby increasing the benefit of therapeutic interventions.

Here, we present a protocol to generate a 3D organotypic melanoma spheroid skin model that recapitulates both the architecture and multicellular complexity of an organ/tumor in vivo but at the same time accommodates systematic experimental intervention.

Malignant transformation of melanocytes, the pigment cells of human skin, causes formation of melanoma, a highly aggressive cancer with increased ...

A GPC3-targeting Bispecific Antibody, GPC3-S-Fab, with Potent Cytotoxicity

This protocol describes the construction and functional studies of a bispecific antibody (bsAb), GPC3-S-Fab. bsAbs can recognize two different epitopes through their two different arms. bsAbs have been actively studied for their ability to directly recruit immune cells to kill tumor cells. Currently, the majority of bsAbs are produced in the form of recombinant proteins, either as Fc-containing bsAbs or as smaller bsAb derivatives without the Fc region. In this study, GPC3-S-Fab, an antibody fragment (Fab) based bispecific antibody, was designed by linking the Fab of anti-GPC3 antibody GC33 with an anti-CD16 single domain antibody. The GPC3-S-Fab can be expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by two affinity chromatographies. The purified GPC3-S-Fab can specifically bind to and kill GPC3 positive liver cancer cells by recruiting natural killer cells, suggesting a potential application of GPC3-S-Fab in liver cancer therapy.

Here, we present a protocol to produce a bispecific antibody GPC3-S-Fab in Escherichia coli. The purified GPC3-S-Fab has potent cytotoxicity against GPC3 positive liver cancer cells.

This protocol describes the construction and functional studies of a bispecific antibody (bsAb), GPC3-S-Fab. bsAbs can recognize two different epitopes ...

Acellular and Cellular Lung Model to Study Tumor Metastasis

It is difficult to isolate tumor cells at different points of tumor progression. We created an ex vivo lung model that can show the interaction of tumor cells with a natural matrix and continual flow of nutrients, as well as a model that shows the interaction of tumor cells with normal cellular components and a natural matrix. The acellular ex vivo lung model is created by isolating a rat heart-lung block and removing all the cells using the decellularization process. The right main bronchus is tied off and tumor cells are placed in the trachea by a syringe. The cells move and populate the left lung. The lung is then placed in a bioreactor where the pulmonary artery receives a continual flow of media in a closed circuit. The tumor grown on the left lung is the primary tumor. The tumor cells that are isolated in the circulating media are circulating tumor cells and the tumor cells in the right lung are metastatic lesions. The cellular ex vivo lung model is created by skipping the decellularization process. Each model can be used to answer different research questions.

Here, we present a protocol for an ex vivo lung cancer model that mimics the steps of tumor progression and helps to isolate a primary tumor, circulating tumor cells, and metastatic lesions.

It is difficult to isolate tumor cells at different points of tumor progression. We created an ex vivo lung model that can show the interaction of tumor ...

A Spheroid Killing Assay by CAR T Cells

Immunotherapy has become a field of growing interest in the fight against cancer otherwise untreatable. Among all immunotherapeutic methods, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) redirected T cells obtained the most spectacular results, in particular with pediatric B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL). Classical validation methods of CAR T cells rely on the use of specificity and functionality assays of the CAR T cells against target cells in suspension and in xenograft models. Unfortunately, observations made in vitro are often decoupled from results obtained in vivo and a lot of effort and animals could be spared by adding another step: the use of 3D culture. The production of spheroids out of potential target cells that mimic the 3D structure of the tumor cells when they are engrafted into the animal model represents an ideal alternative. Here, we report an affordable, reliable and easy method to produce spheroids from a transduced colorectal cell line as a validation tool for adoptive cell therapy (exemplified here by CD19 CAR T cells). This method is coupled with an advanced live imaging system that can follow spheroid growth, effector cells cytotoxicity and tumor cell apoptosis.

This protocol is designed to assess immunotherapeutic redirected T-cell (CAR T-cell) cytotoxicity against 3D structured cancerous cells (spheroids) in real time.

Immunotherapy has become a field of growing interest in the fight against cancer otherwise untreatable. Among all immunotherapeutic methods, chimeric ...

Generation of Orthotopic Pancreatic Tumors and Ex vivo Characterization of Tumor-Infiltrating T Cell Cytotoxicity

In vivo models of pancreatic cancer provide invaluable tools for studying disease dynamics, immune infiltration and new therapeutic strategies. The orthotopic murine model can be performed on large cohorts of immunocompetent mice simultaneously, is relatively inexpensive and preserves the cognate tissue microenvironment. The quantification of T cell infiltration and cytotoxic activity within orthotopic tumors provides a useful indicator of an antitumoral response.
This protocol describes the methodology for surgical generation of orthotopic pancreatic tumors by injection of a low number of syngeneic tumor cells resuspended in 5 &#181;L basement membrane directly into the pancreas. Mice bearing orthotopic tumors take approximately 30 days to reach endpoint, at which point tumors can be harvested and processed for characterization of tumor-infiltrating T cell activity. Rapid enzymatic digestion using collagenase and DNase allows a single-cell suspension to be extracted from tumors. The viability and cell surface markers of immune cells extracted from the tumor are preserved; therefore, it is appropriate for multiple downstream applications, including flow-assisted cell sorting of immune cells for culture or RNA extraction, flow cytometry analysis of immune cell populations. Here, we describe the ex vivo stimulation of T cell populations for intracellular cytokine quantification (IFN&#947; and TNF&#945;) and degranulation activity (CD107a) as a measure of overall cytotoxicity. Whole-tumor digests were stimulated with phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin for 5 h, in the presence of anti-CD107a antibody in order to upregulate cytokine production and degranulation. The addition of brefeldin A and monensin for the final 4 h was performed to block extracellular transport and maximize cytokine detection. Extra- and intra-cellular staining of cells was then performed for flow cytometry analysis, where the proportion of IFN&#947;+, TNF&#945;+ and CD107a+ CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was quantified.
This method provides a starting base to perform comprehensive analysis of the tumor microenvironment.

Generation of Orthotopic Pancreatic Tumors and Ex vivo Characterization of Tumor-Infiltrating T Cell Cytotoxicity

This protocol describes the surgical generation of orthotopic pancreatic tumors and the rapid digestion of freshly isolated murine pancreatic tumors. Following digestion, viable immune cell populations can be used for further downstream analysis, including ex vivo stimulation of T cells for intracellular cytokine detection by flow cytometry.

In vivo models of pancreatic cancer provide invaluable tools for studying disease dynamics, immune infiltration and new therapeutic strategies. The ...

A Novel Stromal Fibroblast-Modulated 3D Tumor Spheroid Model for Studying Tumor-Stroma Interaction and Drug Discovery

Tumor-stroma interactions play an important role in cancer progression. Three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid models are the most widely used in vitro model in the study of cancer stem/initiating cells, preclinical cancer research, and drug screening. The 3D spheroid models are superior to conventional tumor cell culture and reproduce some important characters of real solid tumors. However, conventional 3D tumor spheroids are made up exclusively of tumor cells. They lack the participation of tumor stromal cells and have insufficient extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition, thus only partially mimicking the in vivo conditions of tumor tissues. We established a new multicellular 3D spheroid model composed of tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts that better mimics the in vivo heterogeneous tumor microenvironment and its native desmoplasia. The formation of spheroids is strictly regulated by the tumor stromal fibroblasts and is determined by the activity of certain crucial intracellular signaling pathways (e.g., Notch signaling) in stromal fibroblasts. In this article, we present the techniques for coculture of tumor cells-stromal fibroblasts, time-lapse imaging to visualize cell-cell interactions, and confocal microscopy to display the 3D architectural features of the spheroids. We also show two examples of the practical application of this 3D spheroid model. This novel multicellular 3D spheroid model offers a useful platform for studying tumor-stroma interaction, elucidating how stromal fibroblasts regulate cancer stem/initiating cells, which determine tumor progression and aggressiveness, and exploring involvement of stromal reaction in cancer drug sensitivity and resistance. This platform can also be a pertinent in vitro model for drug discovery.

A novel three-dimensional spheroid model based on the heterotypic interaction of tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts is established. Here, we present coculture of tumor cells and stromal fibroblasts, time-lapse imaging, and confocal microscopy to visualize the formation of spheroids. This three-dimensional model offers a pertinent platform to study tumor-stroma interactions and test cancer therapeutics.

Tumor-stroma interactions play an important role in cancer progression. Three-dimensional (3D) tumor spheroid models are the most widely used in vitro ...

Drug Screening of Primary Patient Derived Tumor Xenografts in Zebrafish

Patient derived xenograft models are critical in defining how different cancers respond to drug treatment in an in vivo system. Mouse models are the standard in the field, but zebrafish have emerged as an alternative model with several advantages, including the ability for high-throughput and low-cost drug screening. Zebrafish also allow for in vivo drug screening with large replicate numbers that were previously only obtainable with in vitro systems. The ability to rapidly perform large scale drug screens may open up the possibility for personalized medicine with rapid translation of results back to clinic. Zebrafish xenograft models could also be used to rapidly screen for actionable mutations based on tumor response to targeted therapies or to identify new anti-cancer compounds from large libraries. The current major limitation in the field has been quantifying and automating the process so that drug screens can be done on a larger scale and be less labor-intensive. We have developed a workflow for xenografting primary patient samples into zebrafish larvae and performing large scale drug screens using a fluorescence microscope equipped imaging unit and automated sampler unit. This method allows for standardization and quantification of engrafted tumor area and response to drug treatment across large numbers of zebrafish larvae. Overall, this method is advantageous over traditional cell culture drug screening as it allows for growth of tumor cells in an in vivo environment throughout drug treatment, and is more practical and cost-effective than mice for large scale in vivo drug screens.

Zebrafish xenograft models allow for high-throughput drug screening and fluorescent imaging of human cancer cells in an in vivo microenvironment. We developed a workflow for large scale, automated drug screening on patient-derived leukemia samples in zebrafish using an automated fluorescence microscope equipped imaging unit.

Patient derived xenograft models are critical in defining how different cancers respond to drug treatment in an in vivo system. Mouse models are the ...

A 3D Spheroid Model for Glioblastoma

Two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures do not mimic in vivo tumor growth satisfactorily. Therefore, three-dimensional (3D) culture spheroid models were developed. These models may be particularly important in the field of neuro-oncology. Indeed, brain tumors have the tendency to invade the healthy brain environment. We describe herein an ideal 3D glioblastoma spheroid-based assay that we developed to study tumor invasion. We provide all technical details and analytical tools to successfully perform this assay.

Here, we describe an easy-to-use invasion assay for glioblastoma. This assay is suitable for glioblastoma stem-like cells. A Fiji macro for easy quantification of invasion, migration, and proliferation is also described.

Two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures do not mimic in vivo tumor growth satisfactorily. Therefore, three-dimensional (3D) culture spheroid models were ...