Questo lavoro è stato supportato dal Career Award Burroughs Wellcome a livello di interfaccia scientifico (ARD), il National Institutes of Health tramite il programma New Innovator il direttore NIH Award 1-DP2-OD007078 (ARD), il William Bowes Jr. Stanford Graduate Fellowship (ASA ), e la Stanford Cardiovascular Institute Fellowship Giovane Predoctoral (JC). Gli autori ringraziano James Spudich prestito attrezzature per microscopia.

1. Cella di flusso Preparazione <ol><li> Vetrini coprioggetto (# 1.5, 22x22 mm e 22x40 millimetri, VWR) vengono puliti con ultrasuoni. <ol><li> Aggiungere i coprioggetti ad un piccolo contenitore di vetro capace di contenere coprioggetto e montaggio nel sonicatore (vedi punto 2). </li><li> Riempire il contenitore con isopropanolo e sonicare in un bagno sonicatore per 20 minuti. </li><li> Eliminare l&#39;isopropanolo e sciacquare i coprioggetti con abbondanti quantità di acqua deionizzata prodotta da un apparato Barnsted MilliQ o un dispositivo simile. Riempire il contenitore con acqua e ultrasuoni per 20 minuti. </li><li> Dopo sonicazione, asciugare i coprioggetti in un flusso di filtrata, priva di polvere nell&#39;aria. Utilizzare solo i coprioggetto che appaiono puliti (cioè senza sbavature). </li><li> Delicatamente i coprioggetti fiamma per alcuni secondi per pulirli di eventuali residui di polvere e umidità: passano i coprioggetti attraverso una fiamma del gas prodotto con un becco Bunsen, facendo attenzione a non deformare il coprioggetti a causa del calore in eccesso. Questa fase rimuove superficie residuacontaminanti. </li></ol></li><li> Utilizzando del nastro biadesivo scotch, collegare i due coprioggetti insieme. Tagliare il nastro ~ 3 cm di lunghezza e 0,3 cm di larghezza. Fissare il nastro su coprioggetto 22x40 millimetri lasciando un canale di 1,6 cm al centro. Utilizzare un puntale per premere delicatamente verso il basso sul vetrino per garantire che il nastro è correttamente rispettati. </li></ol> 2. Magnetic Tweezers Setup e calibrazione <ol><li> Pinzette magnetiche erano installazione utilizzando permanenti magneti in terre rare come descritto in precedenza 10,12. Un alluminio L-staffa è stato costruito con un foro 1 mm di diametro e montato su un verticale z traduttore (Thorlabs) per modulare l&#39;altezza delle pinzette. Due permanenti magneti in terre rare sono stati attaccati alla staffa su entrambi i lati del foro per creare la trappola magnetica (Figura 1). </li><li> Preparazione del DNA: DNA fago lambda marcato al suo 5 &#39;e 3&#39; termina con biotina e digossigenina (IDT DNA, San Diego, CA) è stato usato per calibrare il MAGpinzette magnetiche. <ol><li> Mescolare 50 pl di 4 nM λ-DNA con 2 pl di 40 nM biotina oligonucleotide coniugato e scaldare a 60 ° C per 10 minuti. Poi, lentamente raffreddare a temperatura ambiente per 1 ora. </li><li> Aggiungere DNA ligasi secondo le specifiche del costruttore e legare a temperatura ambiente per 3 ore. </li><li> Aggiungere 2 microlitri di 400 nM oligonucleotide digossigenina coniugato ed incubare a temperatura ambiente per 45 minuti. </li><li> Aggiungere 1,5 microlitri di 10 mM ATP e continuare ligazione dell&#39;oligonucleotide digossigenina coniugato alla λ-DNA per 3 ore. </li><li> Rimuovere gli oligonucleotidi in eccesso e la DNA ligasi con 100 filtri di spin kDa (Microcon Ultracell YM-100). Un totale di 1000 volte scambio tampone in tampone TE è sufficiente a rimuovere i oligonucleotidi eccesso. Nota: è importante non utilizzare velocità di rotazione&gt; 500xG perché porterà al taglio del DNA. </li><li> Esaminare un campione di DNA tramite elettroforesi su un gel di agarosio 0,7% per garantire che il DNA is non denaturato o tranciati. </li><li> Misurare la concentrazione di DNA. L&#39;uso di un NanoDrop UV-Vis spettrofotometro (Thermo Scientific) è raccomandato poiché il volume del campione disponibile può essere molto piccolo. </li></ol></li><li> Preparare celle di flusso come descritto nella sezione 1. </li><li> Per il fissaggio del DNA alla cella a flusso, aggiungere anticorpo anti-digossigenina (pecora IgG; 1 mg mL -1; Bioscience Roche, Mannheim, Germania) e consentono di aderire alla superficie di vetro per 15 minuti. </li><li> Passivazione della superficie della cella di flusso per prevenire non-specifica incollaggio di DNA aggiungendo 2 mg mL -1 BSA, 0,1% Tween-20 in PBS 1x. Incubare a temperatura ambiente per 45 minuti. </li><li> Ripetere il punto 2.5. </li><li> Aggiungere 50 pM di fuctionalized λ-DNA e permettono di allegare al vetrino per 15 minuti. </li><li> Lavare via il DNA in eccesso con PBS 1x. </li><li> Aggiungere streptavidina-perle rivestite superparamagnetiche (1 perline micron = 2 mg mL -1; 2,8 perle um = 20 pg mL -1 </sup&gt;) e consentire loro di allegare al DNA immobilizzato per 15 minuti. </li><li> Lavare via perline in eccesso con PBS 1x. </li><li> Magnetic Tweezers calibrazione <ol><li> Spostare i magneti permanenti ad una posizione che è lontano dalla superficie del campione (&gt; 15 mm). </li><li> Posizionare la cella preparato flusso nel microscopio. </li><li> Spostare i magneti permanenti in posizione sopra la cella di flusso. </li><li> Scegliere il piano focale di λ-DNA perline funzionalizzati concentrandosi sui talloni da entrambe le superfici di vetro. Il piano focale corretta è quella in cui le perle desiderati hanno un centro luminoso. </li><li> Prendete un video del movimento del tallone a 80 Hz o maggiore di 500 frames. </li><li> Spostare il magnete vicino alla superficie del campione. Per distanze superiori a 5 mm, si muovono in incrementi di 1 mm. Per distanze comprese tra 1 e 5 mm, si muovono in incrementi di 0,5 mm. Per distanze inferiori a 1 mm, si muovono in incrementi di 0,25 mm. </li><li> Ripetere i punti 2.11.5 e 2.11.6 ad ogni nuova posizione del magnete. </li><li> Per ciascun datoimpostare, monitorare il centro delle sfere utilizzando una vestibilità 2D gaussiana. </li><li> Calcolare la forza tramite le fluttuazioni browniani utilizzando: </li></ol><img alt="Equazione 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520eq1.jpg" /> dove k B T è l&#39;energia termica Boltzmann, L è la lunghezza di λ-DNA, e &lt;x 2&gt; è la varianza in posizione centroide. <ol start="10"><li> Confermare l&#39;accuratezza delle forze controllando il calcolo della forza tramite un fit Lorentzian spettro di potenza al fine di trovare la frequenza attenuazione. Forza applicata è legata alla frequenza di attenuazione dalla relazione: </li></ol><img alt="Equazione 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520eq2.jpg" /> Dove 0 ƒ è la frequenza rolloff, a è il raggio tallone, e μ è la viscosità del fluido 12. </li></ol> 3. Collagene Allegato Peptide alle celle di flusso Per fornire un esempio concreto per l&#39;applicazione del nostro metodo, si descrive un recente lavoro nostro laboratorio che caratterizza la proteolisi di un peptide trimerico modello collagene. Prevediamo che questo approccio generale può essere diffusamente applicate ad altre proteine ​​e polinucleotidi. <ol><li> Il peptide modello collagene è costituito da un N-terminale 6x His-tag per la purificazione, seguita da un tag 5x myc, (GPP) 10 per applicare formazione tripla elica, il collagene a1 residui 772-786 (GPQGIAGQRGVVGL), che costituiscono la MMP- 1 sito di riconoscimento, la sequenza foldon (GSGYIPEAPRDGQAYVRKDGEWVLLSTFL), ed un C-terminale per facilitare KKCK etichettatura con biotina-maleimide. Foldon deriva dal fago T4-fibritin proteina, e stabilizza trimeri modello collagene quando fuse sia nella N - o C-terminale 13,14. </li><li> Il peptide collagene e MMP-1 proteine ​​sono state espresse e purificate come descritto in precedenza 4,15. &lt;/ Li&gt; <li> Aggiungere anti-myc (15 pg ml -1) alla cella a flusso e incubare a temperatura ambiente per 20 minuti per consentire l&#39;anti-myc per attaccarsi alla superficie della cella di flusso. </li><li> Passivazione della cella di flusso per prevenire non-specifica fissaggio di proteine ​​usando 5 mg mL -1 BSA allo stesso modo come descritto al punto 2.5. </li><li> Aggiungere 150 pM peptide di collagene e permettono di allegare l&#39;anticorpo tramite il tag myc per 45 minuti. </li><li> Lavare via collagene in eccesso con tampone PBS. </li><li> Aggiungi perle rivestite di streptavidina superparamagnetiche perle (1 micron = 2 mg ml -1 e 2,8 perline micron = 20 mg ml -1) e consentire loro di attaccare le molecole di collagene per 45 minuti. Le perle di 1 micron deve essere diluito fino alla concentrazione desiderata in PBS. Le perle 3 um deve essere separato dalla soluzione tramite magneti, poi risolubilizzato in PBS. Questo processo deve essere ripetuto 3 volte. Abbiamo notato che questo passaggio è essenziale per la get le 3 perle micron di legarsi alla superficie-peptide immobilizzato collagene. </li></ol> 4. Forza proteolisi Assay <ol><li> Una volta che la cella a flusso è assemblato con il peptide collagene e biglie magnetiche, l&#39;immagine cella di flusso nella trappola magnetica in basso, ~ 1 forza pN. Nella nostra esperienza, una sottopopolazione delle perle è talvolta debolmente aderire alla superficie in un modo non specifico. L&#39;applicazione della forza modesta assicura che queste perle sono liberati. </li><li> Aggiungere enzima attivato alla cella a flusso. In questo caso MMP-1 è stato pre-attivato con l&#39;aggiunta di 3,5 mM APMA (4-aminophenylmercuric acetato) e incubate a 37 ° C per 3 ore. L&#39;attivazione è stata verificata mediante SDS-PAGE. </li><li> Appena la cella di flusso viene nuovamente introdotto nell&#39;apparecchio magnetico pinzette, registrare un video estende alcuni campi di vista, tipicamente ottenendo diverse centinaia perline allegate. Questo sarà t = 0. </li><li> Ripetere lo stesso processo di registrazione di diversi campi di vista (mentre tornava tO lo stesso campo di vista) in punti regolari di tempo, fino a tutte le perline si staccano o non proteolisi più è percepibile. </li><li> Kinetic analisi dei dati <ol><li> Contare le perline nei vari campi di vista a tempi diversi e loro media. Normalizza il numero di perle dividendo il numero medio di perline in ogni punto temporale per il numero di perle di t = 0. In questo modo siamo in grado di confrontare i tassi di proteolisi da diversi esperimenti, perché il numero assoluto di perline sarà diverso da esperimento esperimento. </li><li> Tracciare il rapporto in funzione del tempo. In questo caso, abbiamo montato un decadimento esponenziale più una costante. </li></ol><img alt="Equazione 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520eq3.jpg" /> dove ƒ (t) è il rapporto delle perline allegate (o molecole di collagene unproteolyzed), t è il tempo, a è la frazione di sfere collegate da una ritenuta collagene, b è il tasso costante di decadimento, ecè la frazione di perle che sono attaccate in modo non specifico. <ol start="3"><li> Lo stesso esperimento viene ripetuto a varie forze e MMP-1 concentrazioni di chiarire l&#39;effetto della forza sulla proteolisi collagene di MMP-1. </li></ol></li></ol> 5. Risultati rappresentativi Il protocollo sopra descrive un nuovo uso di pinzette magnetico (Figura 1) per studiare l&#39;effetto della forza sulla proteolisi enzimatica. Abbiamo calibrato le pinzette di 1 um e 3 perline micron utilizzando sia l&#39;ampiezza delle fluttuazioni osservati browniani e calcolo del roll-off frequenza diverse posizioni magneti (Figura 2). In esperimenti di proteolisi delle forze, la configurazione è simile tranne che il DNA viene sostituito con collagene (figure 3, 4). Il numero normalizzato di perline rimanenti possono essere tracciate in funzione del tempo per trovare le tariffe proteolisi (Figura 5), e questo processo può essereripetuto per diverse concentrazioni degli enzimi e forze. <img alt="Figura 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520fig1.jpg" /> Figura 1. Schematica del processo di calibrazione magnetico trappola (non in scala). Due magneti permanenti terre rare creare un campo magnetico che tira sulla superparamagnetico tallone. Tradurre il magnete su e giù regola la forza applicata. Le perle vengono esposte con un convenzionale in campo chiaro microscopio con la luce che passa attraverso un forellino fra i due magneti Inset:. Immagine ripresa con un obiettivo 40x aria. I taglienti, macchie rotonde corrispondono ai talloni attaccati alla superficie coverslip. Gli out-of-focus oggetti sono perle indipendenti. <img alt="Figura 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520fig2.jpg" /> Figura 2. Grafici della forza calibrata in funzione della distanza dal magnete superficie del campione di 1 micron (sinistra) e 2,8 micron (a destra) di tallones. I dati sono stati adatti alla funzione empirica <img alt="Equation4" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520eq4.jpg" /> , Dove x è la distanza dal magnete. A = 31,8, b = 5,61, e c = 4,39 per le perle 1 um e uno = 140, b = 3,10 e c = 1,86 per le perle 3 micron. Questi valori sono specifici per il nostro strumento specifico e geometria sperimentale, e ciascuno strumento deve essere calibrato individualmente. Le barre di errore in ciascun punto rappresenta una variabilità ~ 10% in forza applicata su una base di tallone tallone, a causa della variabilità di dimensioni del tallone. La forza applicata è proporzionale al volume delle perline, e il volume tallone varia ~ 9% rispetto alla media (secondo le specifiche del costruttore). <img alt="Figura 3" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520fig3.jpg" /> Figura 3. Forza test di setup proteolisi (non in scala). Il modello trimero collagene è attaccato alla superficie del vetrino via mYC / anti-myc coniugazione. Le perle rivestite con streptavidina superparamagnetici sono attaccati alle trimeri collagene tramite un legame di biotina-streptavidina. Attivato MMP-1 tagli il collagene nel tempo, causando le perline a staccarsi dalla superficie e si allontana dal piano focale. <img alt="Figura 4" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520fig4.jpg" /> Figura 4. Cartone schematica di proteolisi in funzione del tempo. La vignetta mostra un campo di campione di vista nel corso del tempo, come accade proteolisi. Nel tempo, MMP-1 tagli il collagene e le perline staccare e allontanarsi dal piano focale sotto l&#39;influenza del campo magnetico. <img alt="Figura 5" src="/files/ftp_upload/3520/3520fig5.jpg" /> Tassi di proteolisi Figura 5. Dipendono forza applicata 16. Vengono mostrati i dati raccolti a 1,0 pN (3 uM MMP-1, nero), 6,2 pN (3 uM MMP-1, rosso) e 13 pN (0,2 uM MMP-1; magoNTA). I tassi di proteolisi parametri (fit) sono: 0,22 ± 0,02 min -1 (1 pN), 0,46 ± 0,09 min -1 (6,2 PN), e 2,08 ± 0,18 min -1 (13 PN). La frazione di perle unproteolyzed a tempi lunghi (&gt; 15 minuti) resta pressoché costante a ~ 0,25 in diversi esperimenti. Le barre di errore corrispondono alle statistiche Poisson che riflette il numero di osservazioni in ogni punto. L&#39;errore ad ogni tempo di perline n n è 1/2. L&#39;errore nella frazione di perline attaccate è stato calcolato errore propagation.1 perle um sono stati utilizzati per pN 1,0 e 6,2 esperimenti pN e 2,8 um perline sono state usate per gli esperimenti pN 13.

<ol>
	<li>Ingber, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Can+cancer+be+reversed+by+engineering+the+tumor+microenvironment.">Can cancer be reversed by engineering the tumor microenvironment.</a> Semin. Cancer Biol. 18, 356-364 (2008).</li><li>Hahn, C., Schwartz, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanotransduction+in+vascular+physiology+and+atherogenesis.">Mechanotransduction in vascular physiology and atherogenesis.</a> Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 10, 53-62 (2009).</li><li>Laurens, N., Koolwijk, P., de Maat, M. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fibrin+structure+and+wound+healing.">Fibrin structure and wound healing.</a> J. Thromb. Haemost. 4, 932-939 (2006).</li><li>Adhikari, A. S., Chai, J., Dunn, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+Load+Induces+a+100-Fold+Increase+in+the+Rate+of+Collagen+Proteolysis+by+MMP-1.">Mechanical Load Induces a 100-Fold Increase in the Rate of Collagen Proteolysis by MMP-1.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133, (2011).</li><li>Zareian, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+collagen/enzyme+mechanochemistry+in+native+tissue+with+dynamic,+enzyme-induced+creep.">Probing collagen/enzyme mechanochemistry in native tissue with dynamic, enzyme-induced creep.</a> Langmuir. 26, (2010).</li><li>Ellsmere, J. C., Khanna, R. A., Lee, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+loading+of+bovine+pericardium+accelerates+enzymatic+degradation.">Mechanical loading of bovine pericardium accelerates enzymatic degradation.</a> Biomaterials. 20, 1143-1150 (1999).</li><li>Jesudason, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+forces+regulate+elastase+activity+and+binding+site+availability+in+lung+elastin.">Mechanical forces regulate elastase activity and binding site availability in lung elastin.</a> Biophys. J. 99, 3076-3083 (2010).</li><li>Neuman, K. C., Block, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optical+trapping.">Optical trapping.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 75, 2787-2809 (2004).</li><li>Lee, C. K., Wang, Y. M., Huang, L. S., Lin, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+force+microscopy:+determination+of+unbinding+force,+off+rate+and+energy+barrier+for+protein-ligand+interaction.">Atomic force microscopy: determination of unbinding force, off rate and energy barrier for protein-ligand interaction.</a> Micron. 38, 446-461 (2007).</li><li>Smith, S. B., Finzi, L., Bustamante, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+mechanical+measurements+of+the+elasticity+of+single+DNA+molecules+by+using+magnetic+beads.">Direct mechanical measurements of the elasticity of single DNA molecules by using magnetic beads.</a> Science. 258, 1122-1126 (1992).</li><li>Tanase, M., Biais, N., Sheetz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+tweezers+in+cell+biology.">Magnetic tweezers in cell biology.</a> Methods Cell Biol. 83, 473-493 (2007).</li><li>Neuman, K. C., Nagy, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+force+spectroscopy:+optical+tweezers,+magnetic+tweezers+and+atomic+force+microscopy.">Single-molecule force spectroscopy: optical tweezers, magnetic tweezers and atomic force microscopy.</a> Nat. Methods. 5, 491-505 (2008).</li><li>Frank, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stabilization+of+short+collagen-like+triple+helices+by+protein+engineering.">Stabilization of short collagen-like triple helices by protein engineering.</a> J. Mol. Biol. 308, 1081-1089 (2001).</li><li>Stetefeld, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collagen+stabilization+at+atomic+level:+crystal+structure+of+designed+(GlyProPro)10foldon.">Collagen stabilization at atomic level: crystal structure of designed (GlyProPro)10foldon.</a> Structure. 11, 339-346 (2003).</li><li>Chung, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Collagenase+unwinds+triple-helical+collagen+prior+to+peptide+bond+hydrolysis.">Collagenase unwinds triple-helical collagen prior to peptide bond hydrolysis.</a> EMBO J. 23, 3020-3030 (2004).</li><li>Bell, G. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Models+for+the+specific+adhesion+of+cells+to+cells.">Models for the specific adhesion of cells to cells.</a> Science. 200, 618-627 (1978).</li><li>Selvin, P. R., Ha, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Single-molecule techniques: a laboratory manual. , (2008).</li><li>Graneli, A., Yeykal, C. C., Prasad, T. K., Greene, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organized+arrays+of+individual+DNA+molecules+tethered+to+supported+lipid+bilayers.">Organized arrays of individual DNA molecules tethered to supported lipid bilayers.</a> Langmuir. 22, 292-299 (2006).</li><li>Danilowicz, C., Greenfield, D., Prentiss, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissociation+of+ligand-receptor+complexes+using+magnetic+tweezers.">Dissociation of ligand-receptor complexes using magnetic tweezers.</a> Anal. Chem. 77, 3023-3028 (2005).</li><li>Zhang, X., Halvorsen, K., Zhang, C. Z., Wong, W. P., Springer, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanoenzymatic+cleavage+of+the+ultralarge+vascular+protein+von+Willebrand+factor.">Mechanoenzymatic cleavage of the ultralarge vascular protein von Willebrand factor.</a> Science. 324, 1330-1334 (2009).</li><li>Woodside, M. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanomechanical+measurements+of+the+sequence-dependent+folding+landscapes+of+single+nucleic+acid+hairpins.">Nanomechanical measurements of the sequence-dependent folding landscapes of single nucleic acid hairpins.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 6190-6195 (2006).</li><li>del Rio, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stretching+single+talin+rod+molecules+activates+vinculin+binding.">Stretching single talin rod molecules activates vinculin binding.</a> Science. 323, 638-641 (2009).</li><li>Gosse, C., Croquette, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Magnetic+tweezers:+micromanipulation+and+force+measurement+at+the+molecular+level.">Magnetic tweezers: micromanipulation and force measurement at the molecular level.</a> Biophys. J. 82, 3314-3329 (2002).</li></ol>

Non ci sono conflitti di interesse dichiarati.

Questo protocollo descrive un nuovo uso per una tecnica classica singola molecola. Pinzette magnetiche consentono medio high-throughput saggi singola molecola in un modo economicamente efficiente. Tuttavia, come tutte le tecniche sperimentali ci sono sfide e le insidie ​​potenziali. Limitazioni di pinzette magnetiche Rispetto ad una trappola ottica la risoluzione spaziale e temporale di un apparato MT è bassa. Inoltre, le forze generate dal MT semplice qui desc...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> Nome del reagente </td><td> Azienda </td><td> Numero di catalogo </td></tr><tr><td> Micro copertura in vetro # 1.5 (22x22) </td><td> VWR </td><td> 48366-067 </td></tr><tr><td> Micro copertura in vetro # 1.5 (22x40) </td><td> VWR </td><td> 48393-048 </td></tr><tr><td> Lambda DNA </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 25250-010 </td></tr><tr><td> DNA ligasi T4 </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 15224-041 </td></tr><tr><td> Microcon Ultracel YM-100 </td><td> Millipore </td><td> 42413 </td></tr><tr><td> Anti-digossigenina </td><td> Roche Diagnostics </td><td> 11-333-089-001 </td></tr><tr><td> Tween 20 </td><td> Sigma </td><td> P9416-100ML </td></tr&gt; <tr><td> Anticorpo anti-myc </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 46-0603 </td></tr><tr><td> Albumina di siero bovino </td><td> Sigma </td><td> B4287-5G </td></tr><tr><td> Dynabeads M-280 streptavidina </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 658.01D </td></tr><tr><td> Dynabeads MyOne T1 Streptavidina </td><td> Invitrogen </td><td> 658.01D </td></tr><tr><td> p-acetato Aminophenylmercuric </td><td> Calbiochem </td><td> 164610 </td></tr><tr><td> Biotina-maleimmide </td><td> Sigma Aldrich </td><td> B1267 </td></tr><tr><td> Marcate con biotina oligo </td><td> IDT DNA </td><td> Sintesi personalizzata </td></tr><tr><td> Digossigenina marcato oligo </td><td> IDT DNA </td><td> Sintesi personalizzata </td></tr><tr><td> Collagenegene del peptide </td><td> DNA 2,0 </td><td> Sintesi personalizzata </td></tr><tr><td> MMP-1 cDNA </td><td> Harvard Database plasmide </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> z-traduttore </td><td> Thorlabs </td><td> MTS50 </td></tr><tr><td> Servo regolatore di traduttore </td><td> Thorlabs </td><td> TDC001 </td></tr></tbody></table>

multiplexed single-molecule force proteolysis measurements using magnetic tweezers

La generazione e la rilevazione delle forze meccaniche è un aspetto onnipresente della fisiologia cellulare, con rilevanza diretta per metastasi tumorali 1, 2 e aterogenesi la guarigione della ferita 3. In ciascuno di questi esempi, le cellule sia esercitare una forza sul loro ambiente e contemporaneamente enzimaticamente rimodellare la matrice extracellulare (ECM). L&#39;effetto delle forze di ECM è diventata così una zona di notevole interesse per la sua importanza biologica e medica probabile 4-7. Tecniche di singola molecola come intrappolamento ottico 8, 9 microscopia a forza atomica, e pinzette magnetici 10,11 consentono ai ricercatori di sondare la funzione di enzimi a livello molecolare esercitando forze su singole proteine. Di queste tecniche, pinzette magnetiche (MT) si distinguono per il loro basso costo ed elevate prestazioni. MT esercitare forze nell&#39;intervallo di 1-100 ~ pN e può fornire risoluzione temporale millisecondo,qualità che sono ben abbinate allo studio del meccanismo enzimatico a singola molecola di livello 12. Qui riportiamo un saggio MT altamente parallelizzabile per studiare l&#39;effetto della forza sulla proteolisi di singole molecole proteiche. Presentiamo l&#39;esempio specifico della proteolisi di un peptide collagene trimerico da metalloproteinasi della matrice 1 (MMP-1), tuttavia, questa analisi può essere facilmente adattato per studiare altri substrati e proteasi.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Multiplexed Single-molecule Force Proteolysis Measurements Using Magnetic Tweezers at JoVE.com

Multiplexed Single-molecule Force Proteolysis Measurements Using Magnetic Tweezers

In questo articolo si descrivono l&#39;uso di una pinzetta magnetici per studiare l&#39;effetto della forza sulla proteolisi enzimatica a livello di singola molecola in modo altamente parallelizzabile.

Multiplex singola molecola Forza Misure proteolisi con delle pinzette magnetiche

The  generation and detection of mechanical forces is a ubiquitous aspect of cell physiology,  with direct relevance to cancer metastasis1, atherogenesis2 ...

multiplexed-single-molecule-force-proteolysis-measurements-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

11.5K Views.  Stanford University. In questo articolo si descrivono l'uso di una pinzetta magnetici per studiare l'effetto della forza sulla proteolisi enzimatica a livello di singola molecola in modo altamente parallelizzabile.

Video: Multiplexed Single-molecule Force Proteolysis Measurements Using Magnetic Tweezers

Stretching Short Sequences of DNA with Constant Force Axial Optical Tweezers

Single-molecule techniques for stretching DNA of contour lengths less than a kilobase are fraught with experimental difficulties. However, many interesting biological events such as histone binding and protein-mediated looping of DNA1,2, occur on this length scale. In recent years, the mechanical properties of DNA have been shown to play a significant role in fundamental cellular processes like the packaging of DNA into compact nucleosomes and chromatin fibers3,4. Clearly, it is then important to understand the mechanical properties of short stretches of DNA. In this paper, we provide a practical guide to a single-molecule optical tweezing technique that we have developed to study the mechanical behavior of DNA with contour lengths as short as a few hundred basepairs.
The major hurdle in stretching short segments of DNA is that conventional optical tweezers are generally designed to apply force in a direction lateral to the stage5,6, (see Fig. 1). In this geometry, the angle between the bead and the coverslip, to which the DNA is tethered, becomes very steep for submicron length DNA. The axial position must now be accounted for, which can be a challenge, and, since the extension drags the microsphere closer to the coverslip, steric effects are enhanced. Furthermore, as a result of the asymmetry of the microspheres, lateral extensions will generate varying levels of torque due to rotation of the microsphere within the optical trap since the direction of the reactive force changes during the extension.
Alternate methods for stretching submicron DNA run up against their own unique hurdles. For instance, a dual-beam optical trap is limited to stretching DNA of around a wavelength, at which point interference effects between the two traps and from light scattering between the microspheres begin to pose a significant problem. Replacing one of the traps with a micropipette would most likely suffer from similar challenges. While one could directly use the axial potential to stretch the DNA, an active feedback scheme would be needed to apply a constant force and the bandwidth of this will be quite limited, especially at low forces.
We circumvent these fundamental problems by directly pulling the DNA away from the coverslip by using a constant force axial optical tweezers7,8. This is achieved by trapping the bead in a linear region of the optical potential, where the optical force is constant-the strength of which can be tuned by adjusting the laser power. Trapping within the linear region also serves as an all optical force-clamp on the DNA that extends for nearly 350 nm in the axial direction. We simultaneously compensate for thermal and mechanical drift by finely adjusting the position of the stage so that a reference microsphere stuck to the coverslip remains at the same position and focus, allowing for a virtually limitless observation period.

We illustrate the use of a constant force axial optical tweezers to explore the mechanical properties of short DNA molecules. By stretching DNA axially, we minimize steric hindrances and artifacts arising in conventional lateral manipulation, allowing us to study DNA molecules as short as ~100 nm.

Stretching brevi sequenze di DNA con pinzette costante forza assiale ottici

Single-molecule techniques for stretching DNA of contour lengths  less than a kilobase are fraught with experimental difficulties. However, many ...

Ricerca

Bioingegneria

Flexural Rigidity Measurements of Biopolymers Using Gliding Assays

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers which play a role in cell division, cell mechanics, and intracellular transport. Each of these functions requires microtubules that are stiff and straight enough to span a significant fraction of the cell diameter. As a result, the microtubule persistence length, a measure of stiffness, has been actively studied for the past two decades1. Nonetheless, open questions remain: short microtubules are 10-50 times less stiff than long microtubules2-4, and even long microtubules have measured persistence lengths which vary by an order of magnitude5-9.
	Here, we present a method to measure microtubule persistence length. The method is based on a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay10. By combining sparse fluorescent labeling of individual microtubules with single particle tracking of individual fluorophores attached to the microtubule, the gliding trajectories of single microtubules are tracked with nanometer-level precision. The persistence length of the trajectories is the same as the persistence length of the microtubule under the conditions used11. An automated tracking routine is used to create microtubule trajectories from fluorophores attached to individual microtubules, and the persistence length of this trajectory is calculated using routines written in IDL.
	This technique is rapidly implementable, and capable of measuring the persistence length of 100 microtubules in one day of experimentation. The method can be extended to measure persistence length under a variety of conditions, including persistence length as a function of length along microtubules. Moreover, the analysis routines used can be extended to myosin-based acting gliding assays, to measure the persistence length of actin filaments as well.

A method to measure the persistence length or flexural rigidity of biopolymers is described. The method uses a kinesin-driven microtubule gliding assay to experimentally determine the persistence length of individual microtubules and is adaptable to actin-based gliding assays.

Misure rigidezza flessionale di biopolimeri usando saggi Gliding

Microtubules are cytoskeletal polymers which  play a role in cell division, cell mechanics, and intracellular transport. Each of these functions requires ...

Investigating Receptor-ligand Systems of the Cellulosome with AFM-based Single-molecule Force Spectroscopy

Cellulosomes are discrete multienzyme complexes used by a subset of anaerobic bacteria and fungi to digest lignocellulosic substrates. Assembly of the enzymes onto the noncatalytic scaffold protein is directed by interactions among a family of related receptor-ligand pairs comprising interacting cohesin and dockerin modules. The extremely strong binding between cohesin and dockerin modules results in dissociation constants in the low picomolar to nanomolar range, which may hamper accurate off-rate measurements with conventional bulk methods. Single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) with the atomic force microscope measures the response of individual biomolecules to force, and in contrast to other single-molecule manipulation methods (i.e.&#160;optical tweezers), is optimal for studying high-affinity receptor-ligand interactions because of its ability to probe the high-force regime (&#62;120 pN). Here we present our complete protocol for studying cellulosomal protein assemblies at the single-molecule level. Using a protein topology derived from the native cellulosome, we worked with enzyme-dockerin and carbohydrate binding module-cohesin (CBM-cohesin) fusion proteins, each with an accessible free thiol group at an engineered cysteine residue. We present our site-specific surface immobilization protocol, along with our measurement and data analysis procedure for obtaining detailed binding parameters for the high-affinity complex. We demonstrate how to quantify single subdomain unfolding forces, complex rupture forces, kinetic off-rates, and potential widths of the binding well. The successful application of these methods in characterizing the cohesin-dockerin interaction responsible for assembly of multidomain cellulolytic complexes is further described.

Cellulosomes are multienzyme complexes designed for digesting cellulose. AFM-based SMFS was used to study the mechanical properties and folding configuration of cellulosome-associated protein assemblies. We present a complete workflow for protein immobilization, data acquisition, and data analysis to study the interactions of individual receptor-ligand complexes involved in cellulosome assembly.

Indagare Sistemi recettore-ligando del Cellulosome con sede a AFM singola molecola di Forza Spettroscopia

Cellulosomes are discrete multienzyme complexes used by a subset of anaerobic bacteria and fungi to digest lignocellulosic substrates. Assembly of the ...

Magnetic Tweezers for the Measurement of Twist and Torque

Single-molecule techniques make it possible to investigate the behavior of individual biological molecules in solution in real time. These techniques include so-called force spectroscopy approaches such as atomic force microscopy, optical tweezers, flow stretching, and magnetic tweezers. Amongst these approaches, magnetic tweezers have distinguished themselves by their ability to apply torque while maintaining a constant stretching force. Here, it is illustrated how such a &#8220;conventional&#8221; magnetic tweezers experimental configuration can, through a straightforward modification of its field configuration to minimize the magnitude of the transverse field, be adapted to measure the degree of twist in a biological molecule. The resulting configuration is termed the freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers. Additionally, it is shown how further modification of the field configuration can yield a transverse field with a magnitude intermediate between that of the &#8220;conventional&#8221; magnetic tweezers and the freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers, which makes it possible to directly measure the torque stored in a biological molecule. This configuration is termed the magnetic torque tweezers. The accompanying video explains in detail how the conversion of conventional magnetic tweezers into freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers and magnetic torque tweezers can be accomplished, and demonstrates the use of these techniques. These adaptations maintain all the strengths of conventional magnetic tweezers while greatly expanding the versatility of this powerful instrument.

Magnetic tweezers, a powerful single-molecule manipulation technique, can be adapted for the direct measurements of the twist (using a configuration called freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers) and torque (using a configuration termed magnetic torque tweezers) in biological macromolecules. Guidelines for performing such measurements are given, including applications to the study of DNA and associated nucleo-protein filaments.

Pinzetta magnetici per la misurazione di Twist and Torque

Single-molecule techniques make it possible to investigate the behavior of individual biological molecules in solution in real time. These techniques ...

High-resolution Spatiotemporal Analysis of Receptor Dynamics by Single-molecule Fluorescence Microscopy

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., kinetics, coexistence of different states and populations, transient interactions), which are typically hidden in ensemble measurements, such as those obtained with standard biochemical or microscopy methods. Thus, dynamic events, such as receptor-receptor interactions, can be followed in real time in a living cell with high spatiotemporal resolution. This protocol describes a method based on labeling with small and bright organic fluorophores and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to directly visualize single receptors on the surface of living cells. This approach allows one to precisely localize receptors, measure the size of receptor complexes, and capture dynamic events such as transient receptor-receptor interactions. The protocol provides a detailed description of how to perform a single-molecule experiment, including sample preparation, image acquisition and image analysis. As an example, the application of this method to analyze two G-protein-coupled receptors, i.e., &#946;2-adrenergic and &#947;-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) receptor, is reported. The protocol can be adapted to other membrane proteins and different cell models, transfection methods and labeling strategies.

This protocol describes how to use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize and track single receptors on the surface of living cells and thereby analyze receptor lateral mobility, size of receptor complexes as well as to visualize transient receptor-receptor interactions. This protocol can be extended to other membrane proteins.

Ad alta risoluzione Spatiotemporal Analisi del recettore Dynamics per singola molecola di microscopia a fluorescenza

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., ...

Single Molecule Fluorescence Microscopy on Planar Supported Bilayers

In the course of a single decade single molecule microscopy has changed from being a secluded domain shared merely by physicists with a strong background in optics and laser physics to a discipline that is now enjoying vivid attention by life-scientists of all venues 1. This is because single molecule imaging has the unique potential to reveal protein behavior in situ in living cells and uncover cellular organization with unprecedented resolution below the diffraction limit of visible light 2. Glass-supported planar lipid bilayers (SLBs) are a powerful tool to bring cells otherwise growing in suspension in close enough proximity to the glass slide so that they can be readily imaged in noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection illumination mode 3,4. They are very useful to study the protein dynamics in plasma membrane-associated events as diverse as cell-cell contact formation, endocytosis, exocytosis and immune recognition. Simple procedures are presented how to generate highly mobile protein-functionalized SLBs in a reproducible manner, how to determine protein mobility within and how to measure protein densities with the use of single molecule detection. It is shown how to construct a cost-efficient single molecule microscopy system with TIRF illumination capabilities and how to operate it in the experiment.

Preparation of protein-functionalized planar glass-supported lipid bilayers, determination of protein mobility within and measurement of protein densities is shown here. A roadmap to building a noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection microscope is outlined, which allows visualizing single bilayer-resident fluorochromes with high spatiotemporal resolution.

Singola molecola microscopia a fluorescenza su Planar bilayers supportati

In the course of a single decade single molecule microscopy has changed from being a secluded domain shared merely by physicists with a strong background ...

Label-free Single Molecule Detection Using Microtoroid Optical Resonators

Detecting small concentrations of molecules down to the single molecule limit has impact on areas such as early detection of disease, and fundamental studies on the behavior of molecules. Single molecule detection techniques commonly utilize labels such as fluorescent tags or quantum dots, however, labels are not always available, increase cost and complexity, and can perturb the events being studied. Optical resonators have emerged as a promising means to detect single molecules without the use of labels. Currently the smallest particle detected by a non-plasmonically-enhanced bare optical resonator system in solution is a 25 nm polystyrene sphere1. We have developed a technique known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that can surpass this limit and achieve label-free single molecule detection in aqueous solution2. As signal strength scales with particle volume, our work represents a &#62; 100x improvement in the signal to noise ratio (SNR) over the current state of the art. Here the procedures behind FLOWER are presented in an effort to increase its usage in the field.

We have developed a label-free biosensing system based on optical resonator technology known as Frequency Locking Optical Whispering Evanescent Resonator (FLOWER) that is capable of detecting single molecules in solution. Here the procedures behind this work are described and presented.

Singola molecola di rilevamento senza etichetta di testo usando Microtoroid ottici Risonatori

Detecting small concentrations of molecules down to the single molecule limit has impact on areas such as early detection of disease, and fundamental ...

Rapid Scan Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Opens New Avenues for Imaging Physiologically Important Parameters In Vivo

We demonstrate a superior method of 2D spectral-spatial imaging of stable radical reporter molecules at 250 MHz using rapid-scan electron-paramagnetic-resonance (RS-EPR), which can provide quantitative information under in vivo conditions on oxygen concentration, pH, redox status and concentration of signaling molecules (i.e., OH&#8226;, NO&#8226;). The RS-EPR technique has a higher sensitivity, improved spatial resolution (1 mm), and shorter acquisition time in comparison to the standard continuous wave (CW) technique. A variety of phantom configurations have been tested, with spatial resolution varying from 1 to 6 mm, and spectral width of the reporter molecules ranging from 16 &#181;T (160 mG) to 5 mT (50 G). A cross-loop bimodal resonator decouples excitation and detection, reducing the noise, while the rapid scan effect allows more power to be input to the spin system before saturation, increasing the EPR signal. This leads to a substantially higher signal-to-noise ratio than in conventional CW EPR experiments.

Rapid Scan Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Opens New Avenues for Imaging Physiologically Important Parameters In Vivo

A new electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) method, rapid scan EPR (RS-EPR), is demonstrated for 2D spectral spatial imaging which is superior to the traditional continuous wave (CW) technique and opens new venues for in vivo imaging. Results are demonstrated at 250 MHz, but the technique is applicable at any frequency.

Rapid Scan paramagnetica elettronica Risonanza apre nuove strade per l&#39;imaging Fisiologicamente parametri importanti<em&gt; In Vivo</em

We demonstrate a superior method of 2D spectral-spatial imaging of stable radical reporter molecules at 250 MHz using rapid-scan ...

Fabrication of a Multiplexed Artificial Cellular MicroEnvironment Array

Cellular microenvironments consist of a variety of cues, such as growth factors, extracellular matrices, and intercellular interactions. These cues are well orchestrated and are crucial in regulating cell functions in a living system. Although a number of researchers have attempted to investigate the correlation between environmental factors and desired cellular functions, much remains unknown. This is largely due to the lack of a proper methodology to mimic such environmental cues in vitro, and simultaneously test different environmental cues on cells. Here, we report an integrated platform of microfluidic channels and a nanofiber array, followed by high-content single-cell analysis, to examine stem cell phenotypes altered by distinct environmental factors. To demonstrate the application of this platform, this study focuses on the phenotypes of self-renewing human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Here, we present the preparation procedures for a nanofiber array and the microfluidic structure in the fabrication of a Multiplexed Artificial Cellular MicroEnvironment (MACME) array. Moreover, overall steps of the single-cell profiling, cell staining with multiple fluorescent markers, multiple fluorescence imaging, and statistical analyses, are described.

This article describes the detailed methodology to prepare a Multiplexed Artificial Cellular MicroEnvironment (MACME) array for high-throughput manipulation of physical and chemical cues mimicking in vivo cellular microenvironments and to identify the optimal cellular environment for human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) with single-cell profiling.

Fabbricazione di una matrice di multiplex artificiale microambiente cellulare

Cellular microenvironments consist of a variety of cues, such as growth factors, extracellular matrices, and intercellular interactions. These cues are ...

Characterizing Single-Molecule Conformational Changes Under Shear Flow with Fluorescence Microscopy

Single-molecule behavior under mechanical perturbation has been characterized widely to understand many biological processes. However, methods such as atomic force microscopy have limited temporal resolution, while F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) only allow conformations to be inferred. Fluorescence microscopy, on the other hand, allows real-time in situ visualization of single molecules in various flow conditions. Our protocol describes the steps to capture conformational changes of single biomolecules under different shear flow environments using fluorescence microscopy. The shear flow is created inside microfluidic channels and controlled by a syringe pump. As demonstrations of the method, von Willebrand factor (VWF) and lambda DNA are labeled with biotin and fluorophore and then immobilized on the channel surface. Their conformations are continuously monitored under variable shear flow using total internal reflection (TIRF) and confocal fluorescence microscopy. The reversible unraveling dynamics of VWF are useful for understanding how its function is regulated in human blood, while the conformation of lambda DNA offers insights into the biophysics of macromolecules. The protocol can also be widely applied to study the behavior of polymers, especially biopolymers, in varying flow conditions and to investigate the rheology of complex fluids.

We present a protocol for immobilizing single macromolecules in microfluidic devices and quantifying changes in their conformations under shear flow. This protocol is useful for characterizing the biomechanical and functional properties of biomolecules such as proteins and DNA in a flow environment.

Caratterizzazione dei cambiamenti conformazionali a singola molecola sotto il flusso di taglio con microscopia contro la fluorescenza

Single-molecule behavior under mechanical perturbation has been characterized widely to understand many biological processes. However, methods such as ...