Ringraziamo Sarah Wu e Camille Graham per lo sviluppo di prime fasi del saggio freddo della sonda, il Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center per gli stock Fly, ed i membri del laboratorio Galko per la lettura critica del manoscritto. Questo lavoro è stato sostenuto da NIH NRSA (NIH F31NS083306) per HNT, e dal NIH R01NS069828, R21NS087360 e Università del Texas MD Anderson Clark Fellowship nella ricerca di base a MJG.

1. Preparazione di larve <ol><li> Sollevare azioni o incroci genetici in un incubatore a 25 ° C. <ol><li> Se la coltura di una croce, utilizzare 20-25 femmine vergini e 15-20 maschi per flaconcino contenente regolare dei media farina di mais mosca. Consentire femmine depongono le uova per circa 48 ore prima di trasferirli ad un nuovo flacone di cibo. </li></ol></li><li> 4-5 giorni dopo lay uovo, raccogliere 3 ° larve instar del genotipo desiderato spruzzando delicatamente un flusso d&#39;acqua nel cibo incurvato e larve, e versare il contenuto in una scatola di Petri pulito medie (60 mm x 15 mm). </li><li> Successivamente, ordinare delicatamente larve formato usando pinze o un pennello per precludere maggiore &quot;vagare 3 ° instar&quot; o piccole larve malato di essere testato. Scartare larve contenente eventuali marcatori genetici indesiderate o di bilanciamento. </li><li> Avere un compagno di piatti a base di etichette membri laboratorio o contenitori in cui le larve ordinato verrà posizionato in modo che lo sperimentatore può essere &quot;cieco&quot; per la excondizione Perimental o il genotipo delle larve, se applicabile. Lo sperimentatore può applicare etichette decodificati i dati raccolti dopo l&#39;esperimento utilizzando una chiave generata da un laboratorio-membro. </li><li> Utilizzando uno scoopula, trasferire una monetina piccola quantità di alimenti freschi in (35 mm x 10 mm o 60 mm x 15 mm) etichettata e pulita piastra di Petri riempita a metà strada con acqua a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Spostare delicatamente le larve ordinato sul cibo (per evitare la fame o disidratazione se il test è previsto per prendere più di 20 minuti) con pinze o pennello. </li></ol> 2. freddo Probe Assay <ol><li> Accendere l&#39;unità sonda di freddo che permette a pochi minuti che si raffreddi alla temperatura desiderata. Se l&#39;impostazione a temperature più basse, la formazione di condensa è probabile che si formano lungo la sonda. </li><li> Eliminare l&#39;umidità in eccesso con un laboratorio wipe prima dell&#39;applicazione per la larva. Quando non è in uso immediato, posto isolante tappo sulla sonda sia isolare e per mantenere la punta pulita e prevenire danni. </li><li> Posizionare una metà 3 ° larva su un pezzo sottile di vinile mobile scuro (tipicamente, utilizzare un piccolo pezzo tagliato da un legante notebook) sotto un microscopio a campo luminoso. Gli aiuti di vinile nero a contrasto e la visualizzazione in movimento la larva senza toccarlo per allinearlo correttamente con la sonda. </li><li> Regolare il microscopio (vedi Tabella Materiali) e parabola (vedi Tabella Materiali) a luminosità media (50-75% luminosità max) per fornire contrasto ed impedire la larva si secchi troppo rapidamente. </li><li> Eliminare qualsiasi larve che non prima esposizione normale locomozione peristaltica come potrebbero confondere i risultati. La larva dovrebbe essere umido dalla piastra di Petri di acqua altrimenti la larva si attacchi al vinile inibizione normale locomozione. L&#39;acqua non deve pozza intorno alla larva. </li><li> Avanzare la sonda manualmente verso la larva ad un angolo di 90 ° rispetto all&#39;asse del corpo anteroposteriore, utilizzando il vinile per spostare la larva in corposizione rect (vedere Figura 1A). </li><li> Orientare la punta della sonda per gettare delicatamente sulla superficie dorsale metà della larva con la sonda ad un angolo di circa 45 ° alla fase microscopio. </li><li> In caso di contatto della sonda, avviare un timer di laboratorio. Applicare abbastanza pressione verso il basso per far rientrare leggermente la superficie della cuticola larvale pur consentendo avanti o arretramento. </li><li> Tenere la sonda in posizione per un massimo di 10 s o fino a quando si osserva una risposta comportamentale evocata freddo - a seconda di quale si verifica prima. Quindi rimuovere la sonda. </li><li> Registrare la risposta comportamentale osservato e la latenza di risposta. Le larve che non risponde entro 10 s sono considerati &quot;non-responder&quot;. La latenza può essere registrato anche per responder e utilizzati per misurare cambiamenti nella risposta robustezza / ampiezza. </li><li> Eliminare larva e preparare il prossimo. </li><li> Ripetere i passaggi 2,3-2,11 fino a raggiungere il numero desiderato di test di larve (tre serie di n = 20-40 larve erano used qui). </li></ol>

<ol>
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I., Laurent, G., Benzer, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=painless,+a+Drosophila+gene+essential+for+nociception.">painless, a Drosophila gene essential for nociception.</a> Cell. 113 (2), 261-273 (2003).</li><li>Babcock, D. T., Landry, C., Galko, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytokine+signaling+mediates+UV-induced+nociceptive+sensitization+in+Drosophila+larvae.">Cytokine signaling mediates UV-induced nociceptive sensitization in Drosophila larvae.</a> Curr Biol. 19 (10), 799-806 (2009).</li><li>Chattopadhyay, A., Gilstrap, A. V., Galko, M. 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B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+sensory+feedback+circuit+coordinates+muscle+activity+in+Drosophila.">A sensory feedback circuit coordinates muscle activity in Drosophila.</a> Mol Cell Neurosci. 35 (2), 383-396 (2007).</li><li>Zhong, L., Hwang, R. Y., Tracey, W. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pickpocket+is+a+DEG/ENaC+protein+required+for+mechanical+nociception+in+Drosophila+larvae.">Pickpocket is a DEG/ENaC protein required for mechanical nociception in Drosophila larvae.</a> Curr Biol. 20 (5), 429-434 (2010).</li><li>Xiang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-avoidance-mediating+photoreceptors+tile+the+Drosophila+larval+body+wall.">Light-avoidance-mediating photoreceptors tile the Drosophila larval body wall.</a> Nature. 468 (7326), 921-926 (2010).</li><li>Neely, G. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TrpA1+regulates+thermal+nociception+in+Drosophila.">TrpA1 regulates thermal nociception in Drosophila.</a> PLoS One. 6 (8), e24343 (2011).</li><li>Zhou, Y., Cameron, S., Chang, W. T., Rao, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Control+of+directional+change+after+mechanical+stimulation+in+Drosophila.">Control of directional change after mechanical stimulation in Drosophila.</a> Mol Brain. 5, 39 (2012).</li><li>Im, S. 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Una domanda di brevetto negli Stati Uniti (CL) è in corso sulla progettazione della sonda fredda. Ulteriori informazioni sui dettagli dei numeri di parte della sonda fredda e la costruzione, nonché la consulenza per la realizzazione di strumento verranno forniti su richiesta.

Il test qui descritto può essere utilizzato per valutare qualitativamente e quantitativamente nocicezione o sensibilizzazione nocicettiva in larve di diversi background genetici, influenze ambientali, e / o le condizioni di danno-indotta. Poiché questo test consente di applicare focale di uno stimolo freddo, con questo strumento si può valutare la funzione di un sottoinsieme di neuroni sensoriali periferici specificamente in risposta alle basse temperature. È interessante notare che questi comportamenti evocati fred...

Drosophila ha dimostrato di essere molto utile per l&#39;identificazione di nuovi geni conservati e circuiti neuronali che sottendono comportamenti complessi. Mosche forniscono un sofisticato toolkit genetico e un sistema nervoso semplificato che permettono precisa manipolazione genetica e neuronale 1, 2, 3, 4 per sezionare le basi cellulari e molecolari della nocicezione 5, 6, 7. Larve sono particolarmente utili per queste analisi, dato che saggi comportamentali per tocco delicato 8, 9, 10, 11 calore nocive, 12, 13 e sensazione meccanica di stimoli nocivi 4, </sup&gt; 11 sono già stati stabiliti, e la cuticola larvale trasparente permette l&#39;imaging dal vivo o fisso dell&#39;epidermide e neuroni sensoriali sottostanti. Recentemente, un saggio per freddo nocivo è stato anche sviluppato 7, che descriveremo in maggior dettaglio qui. Utilizzando una multa sonda fredda, conico-punta, mostriamo che Drosophila larve presentano un insieme di comportamenti reattivi specifici a freddo, distinto da comportamenti osservati durante la locomozione normale, seguito tocco delicato, o dopo duro stimolo meccanico temperatura o alta 7, 8, 11 . I comportamenti specifici a freddo includono un robusto contrazione tutto il corpo (CT), una 45-90º aumento dei segmenti posteriori (PR) e un aumento simultaneo del segmenti anteriore e posteriore in una forma ad U (US). La prevalenza di questi comportamenti aumenta con temperature decrescenti ma ciascuno picchi sleggermente diverse temperature fredde. Lavori recenti suggeriscono che le risposte CT sono mediati da diversi neuroni sensoriali periferici rispetto a quelle che rispondono a calore nocive o dura stimoli meccanici 7. Proprio come nocicettori vertebrati, Drosophila dendritiche multipla (md) neuroni sensoriali periferici hanno strutture dendritiche complesse che arborize oltre l&#39;epidermide 1. neuroni md sono presenti in ogni segmento corporeo larvale, proiettando loro assoni al cordone nervoso ventrale 14. neuroni sensoriali md sono suddivisi in quattro classi differenti (I-IV) basati sulla morfologia dendritica e hanno diverse funzioni sensoriali 4, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17. Mentre i neuroni classe IV sono necessari per larvali risposte rollio lateralea temperature elevate o rigide stimoli meccanici 4, classe III neuroni sono necessari per delicato tocco risposte 9, 10 e non solo sono attivati dal freddo, ma sono necessarie anche per le risposte comportamentali evocati freddo 7. Entrambi i neuroni classe III e IV utilizzano potenziali canali discreti transient receptor (TRP) per facilitare risposte comportamentali ai nociva 7, 11, 18 e stimoli 9, 10, 17, 19 non-nocivo. Inoltre, nocicezione larvale è sensibilizzato infortunio seguito, a livello cellulare 20 e comportamentali 12, 21. Il saggio descritto qui consente la quantification di una normale o potenzialmente alterato risposte comportamentali a basse temperature che variano da nocivi freddo (≤ 10 ° C), freschi innocui (11-17 ° C), a temperatura ambiente (18-22 ° C). Le temperature fredde utilizzati in questo test è in grado di attivare direttamente classe III neuroni sensoriali, suscitando robusti, aumenta calcio riproducibili e risposte comportamentali evocati freddo, che possono essere qualitativamente e quantitativamente analizzati 7. Questo test può essere applicato a larve di qualsiasi genotipo nonché di larve esposto a diverse condizioni ambientali (alimentazione alterato, lesioni, agenti farmacologici) per determinare i fattori sia genetici e ambientali che hanno un impatto nocicezione freddo, la sensibilizzazione nocicettiva e la plasticità nocicettivo. Dato che thermosensation è onnipresente in molte specie, questo test fornisce un valido strumento per lo studio della nocicezione e può scoprire bersagli gene nuovi o interazioni neuronali che migliorerannola nostra comprensione della nocicezione vertebrati. La sonda a freddo su misura (vedi sonda fredda, Table of Materials) utilizza una temperatura controllata ad anello chiuso dispositivo Peltier, che raffredda l&#39;albero alluminio e punta conica per conduzione termica. Un termistore è incorporato all&#39;interno della punta conica alluminio riporta la temperatura in tempo reale sulla centralina. Un dissipatore di calore e la ventola sono fissati al modulo termoelettrico per regolare il carico del effetto Peltier calore (Qc) e quindi l&#39;intervallo di temperatura desiderato (22-0 ° C) può essere realizzato (vedi Unità di controllo termico, Table of Materials). Lo stimolo nocivo freddo della punta della sonda freddo viene applicato a mano alla linea mediana dorsale, a segmento (s) equidistante dalle estremità anteriori e posteriori (circa segmento A4, vedere Figura 1A) della larva. In risposta a stimoli freddi, larve generalmente producono uno dei tre comportamenti evocati freddo a 10 s cut-off: un corpo pienocontrazione (CT), un aumento di 45-90º segmento anteriore e posteriore in una forma ad U (USA), oppure un aumento dei segmenti posteriori (PR) (descritto in Risultati). Nessuno di questi comportamenti vengono eseguite durante la normale locomozione peristaltica o comportamento di foraggiamento. Questi comportamenti sono anche distinti da risposte tocco delicato e la risposta di laminazione avversione ad alte temperature o nocivi stimoli meccanici.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Cold Probe</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Pro-Dev Engineering</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Custom-built on demand</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Part numbers and construction details can be provided on request</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Thermal Control Unit</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">TE Technology</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Custom Built enclosure</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Part numbers and construction details can be provided on request</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Zeiss Stemi 2000 microscope</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NT55-605</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Fiber-Lite MI-150 High Intensity Illuminator</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Dolan-Jenner Industries.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A20500</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Schott Dual Gooseneck 23 inch Fiber Optic Light Guide</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Schott North America, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Schott A08575</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="147">
			<td height="147" style="height:147px;width:216px;">Forceps</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">FST</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FS-1670</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to sort and handle larvae. Be sure to smooth and blunt forceps tips slightly to lower the risk of accidently puncturing or injuring the larvae</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Paintbrush</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Dick Blick Art Materials</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">06762-1002</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to sort and handle larvae. It is helpful if the paintbrush is damp during use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">35 X 10 mm Polystyrene Petri Dish</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:71px;">Falcon</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:119px;">351008</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">60 X 10 mm Polystyrene Petri Dish</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:71px;">Falcon</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:119px;">351007</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Piece of black vinyl (at least 2 x 2 inches)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to provide contrast and orient larvae to the cold probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Fisherbrand Scoopula Spatula</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">14-357Q</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to move food</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Kimtech Science Kimwipes</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">06-666A</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to dry the larvae and cold probe if there is excess moisture</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

novel assay for cold nociception in drosophila larvae

Come gli organismi di percepire e reagire a temperature nocivi è ancora poco conosciuta. Inoltre, i meccanismi sottostanti sensibilizzazione della macchina sensoriale, come nei pazienti con neuropatia periferica o sensibilizzazione lesioni indotte, non sono ben caratterizzati. Il modello Drosophila geneticamente trattabili è stato utilizzato per studiare le cellule e geni necessari per il rilevamento calore nocive, che ha dato più geni conservati di interesse. Poco si sa tuttavia sulle cellule e recettori importanti per il rilevamento freddo nocivi. Anche se, Drosophila non sopravvive l&#39;esposizione prolungata a temperature fredde (≤10 ° C), ed eviterà fresco, preferendo le temperature più calde in saggi preferenze comportamentali, come essi percepiscono e possibilmente evitare stimoli freddi nocivi è stato recentemente indagato solo. Qui si descrive e caratterizzare i primi freddi nocive (≤10 ° C) del test comportamentaleDrosophila. Con questo strumento e il dosaggio, mostriamo un investigatore come valutare qualitativamente e quantitativamente i comportamenti nocicettivi freddi. Questo può essere fatto in condizioni di coltura normali / sane, o presumibilmente nel contesto della malattia, infortunio o sensibilizzazione. Inoltre, questo test può essere applicato a larve selezionato per genotipi desiderati, che potrebbero avere un impatto thermosensation, dolore, o sensibilizzazione nocicettiva. Dato che il dolore è un processo altamente conservato, da questo test per studiare ulteriormente nocicezione termica sarà probabilmente raccogliere importanti comprensione dei processi di dolore in altre specie, tra cui vertebrati.

Drosophila larve movimento con un movimento peristaltico che comprende pause occasionali, curve testa, e cambiamenti di direzione 22. In risposta alla domanda focale di uno stimolo nocivo freddo tuttavia, larve presentano un insieme di comportamenti unici, a differenza del rullo laterale aversive di calore nocive e stimoli meccanici. Questi comportamenti sono anche diversi dalle risposte al tocco delicato 8, <sup class="...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae at JoVE.com

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Qui mostriamo un nuovo metodo di analisi per studiare nocicezione freddo in Drosophila larve. Questo dosaggio utilizza una sonda custom-built Peltier in grado di applicare una focale stimolo freddo nociva e si traduce in comportamenti specifici a freddo quantificabili. Questa tecnica consentirà un&#39;ulteriore dissezione cellulari e molecolari della nocicezione freddo.

Nuovo metodo di analisi per Cold nocicezione in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Le larve

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory ...

novel-assay-for-cold-nociception-in-drosophila-larvae

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

7.6K Views.  UT MD Anderson Cancer Center.  Qui mostriamo un nuovo metodo di analisi per studiare nocicezione freddo in Drosophila larve. Questo dosaggio utilizza una sonda custom-built Peltier in grado di applicare una focale stimolo freddo nociva e si traduce in comportamenti specifici a freddo quantificabili. Questa tecnica consentirà un'ulteriore dissezione cellulari e molecolari della nocicezione freddo. 

Video: Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of thermal nociceptors1,2 while the second involves a wholesale (global) activation of most or all such neurons3. Together, these techniques allow visualization and quantification of the behavioral functions of Drosophila nociceptive sensory neurons.
The Drosophila larva is an established model system to study thermal nociception, a sensory response to potentially harmful temperatures that is evolutionarily conserved across species1,2. The advantages of Drosophila for such studies are the relative simplicity of its nervous system and the sophistication of the genetic techniques that can be used to dissect the molecular basis of the underlying biology4-6 In Drosophila, as in all metazoans, the response to noxious thermal stimuli generally involves a "nocifensive" aversive withdrawal to the presented stimulus7. Such stimuli are detected through free nerve endings or nociceptors and the amplitude of the organismal response depends on the number of nociceptors receiving the noxious stimulus8. In Drosophila, it is the class IV dendritic arborization sensory neurons that detect noxious thermal and mechanical stimuli9 in addition to their recently discovered role as photoreceptors10. These neurons, which have been very well studied at the developmental level, arborize over the barrier epidermal sheet and make contacts with nearly all epidermal cells11,12. The single axon of each class IV neuron projects into the ventral nerve cord of the central nervous system11 where they may connect to second-order neurons that project to the brain.
Under baseline conditions, nociceptive sensory neurons will not fire until a relatively high threshold is reached. The assays described here allow the investigator to quantify baseline behavioral responses or, presumably, the sensitization that ensues following tissue damage. Each assay provokes distinct but related locomotory behavioral responses to noxious thermal stimuli and permits the researcher to visualize and quantify various aspects of thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. The assays can be applied to larvae of desired genotypes or to larvae raised under different environmental conditions that might impact nociception. Since thermal nociception is conserved across species, the findings gleaned from genetic dissection in Drosophila will likely inform our understanding of thermal nociception in other species, including vertebrates.

Local and Global Methods of Assessing Thermal Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of thermal nociceptors1,2 while the second involves a wholesale (global) activation of most or all such neurons3. Together, these techniques allow visualization and quantification of the behavioral functions of Drosophila nociceptive sensory neurons.

Metodi locale e globale valutazione nocicezione termica in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Le larve

In this article, we demonstrate assays to study thermal nociception in Drosophila larvae. One assay involves spatially-restricted (local) stimulation of ...

Ricerca

Neuroscienze

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

Visualizzazione dei Propriorecettori in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larve e pupe

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

In the following we describe the methodological details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with genetic interference, provides a handle to analyze the neuronal and molecular fundamentals of specifically associative learning in a simple larval brain.
Organisms can use past experience to adjust present behavior. Such acquisition of behavioral potential can be defined as learning, and the physical bases of these potentials as memory traces1-4. Neuroscientists try to understand how these processes are organized in terms of molecular and neuronal changes in the brain by using a variety of methods in model organisms ranging from insects to vertebrates5,6. For such endeavors it is helpful to use model systems that are simple and experimentally accessible. The Drosophila larva has turned out to satisfy these demands based on the availability of robust behavioral assays, the existence of a variety of transgenic techniques and the elementary organization of the nervous system comprising only about 10,000 neurons (albeit with some concessions: cognitive limitations, few behavioral options, and richness of experience questionable)7-10.
Drosophila larvae can form associations between odors and appetitive gustatory reinforcement like sugar11-14. In a standard assay, established in the lab of B. Gerber, animals receive a two-odor reciprocal training: A first group of larvae is exposed to an odor A together with a gustatory reinforcer (sugar reward) and is subsequently exposed to an odor B without reinforcement 9. Meanwhile a second group of larvae receives reciprocal training while experiencing odor A without reinforcement and subsequently being exposed to odor B with reinforcement (sugar reward). In the following both groups are tested for their preference between the two odors. Relatively higher preferences for the rewarded odor reflect associative learning - presented as a performance index (PI). The conclusion regarding the associative nature of the performance index is compelling, because apart from the contingency between odors and tastants, other parameters, such as odor and reward exposure, passage of time and handling do not differ between the two groups9.

Appetitive Associative Olfactory Learning in Drosophila Larvae

Drosophila larvae are able to associate odor stimuli with gustatory reward. Here we describe a simple behavioral paradigm that allows the analysis of appetitive associative olfactory learning.

Appetitivo apprendimento associativo olfattiva in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Le larve

In the following we describe the methodological  details of appetitive associative olfactory learning in Drosophila larvae. The setup, in combination with ...

Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Light acts as environmental signal to control animal behavior at various levels. The Drosophila larval nervous system is used as a unique model to answer basic questions on how light information is processed and shared between rapid and circadian behaviors. Drosophila larvae display a stereotypical avoidance behavior when exposed to light. To investigate light dependent behaviors comparably simple light-dark preference tests can be applied. In vertebrates and arthropods the neural pathways involved in sensing and processing visual inputs partially overlap with those processing photic circadian information. The fascinating question of how the light sensing system and the circadian system interact to keep behavioral outputs coordinated remains largely unexplored. Drosophila is an impacting biological model to approach these questions, due to a small number of neurons in the brain and the availability of genetic tools for neuronal manipulation. The presented light-dark preference assay allows the investigation of a range of visual behaviors including circadian control of phototaxis.

Light Preference Assay to Study Innate and Circadian Regulated Photobehavior in Drosophila Larvae

Here we describe a light-dark preference test for Drosophila larva. This assay provides information about innate and circadian regulation of light sensing and processing photobehavior.

Luce Preferenza Assay per studiare Innata e circadiano Photobehavior Regolamentato<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larve

Light acts as environmental signal to control animal behavior at various levels. The Drosophila larval nervous system is used as a unique model to answer ...

A Single-fly Assay for Foraging Behavior in Drosophila

For many animals, hunger promotes changes in the olfactory system in a manner that facilitates the search for appropriate food sources. In this video article, we describe an automated assay to measure the effect of hunger or satiety on olfactory dependent food search behavior in the adult fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In a light-tight box illuminated by red light that is invisible to fruit flies, a camera linked to custom data acquisition software monitors the position of six flies simultaneously. Each fly is confined to walk in individual arenas containing a food odor at the center. The testing arenas rest on a porous floor that functions to prevent odor accumulation. Latency to locate the odor source, a metric that reflects olfactory sensitivity under different physiological states, is determined by software analysis. Here, we discuss the critical mechanics of running this behavioral paradigm and cover specific issues regarding fly loading, odor contamination, assay temperature, data quality, and statistical analysis.

A Single-fly Assay for Foraging Behavior in Drosophila

In this video article, we describe an automated assay to measure the effect of hunger or satiety on olfactory dependent food search behavior in the adult fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.

A Single-fly saggio per comportamento alimentare in<em&gt; Drosophila</em

For many animals, hunger promotes changes in the olfactory system in a manner that facilitates the search for appropriate food sources. In this video ...

Straightforward Assay for Quantification of Social Avoidance in Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is an emerging model to study different aspects of social interactions. For example, flies avoid areas previously occupied by stressed conspecifics due to an odorant released during stress known as the Drosophila stress odorant (dSO). Through the use of the T-maze apparatus, one can quantify the avoidance of the dSO by responder flies in a very affordable and robust assay. Conditions necessary to obtain a strong performance are presented here. A stressful experience is necessary for the flies to emit dSO, as well as enough emitter flies to cause a robust avoidance response to the presence of dSO. Genetic background, but not their group size, strongly altered the avoidance of the dSO by the responder flies. Canton-S and Elwood display a higher performance in avoiding the dSO than Oregon and Samarkand strains. This behavioral assay will allow identification of mechanisms underlying this social behavior, and the assessment of the influence of genes and environmental conditions on both emission and avoidance of the dSO. Such an assay can be included in batteries of simple diagnostic tests used to identify social deficiencies of mutants or environmental conditions of interest.

Straightforward Assay for Quantification of Social Avoidance in Drosophila melanogaster

Here, we present a protocol to quantify the avoidance of stressed individuals. This paradigm is powerful yet user-friendly and can be used to assess the influence of genes and environment on one kind of social interaction in Drosophila melanogaster.

Assay Semplice per la quantificazione della Social Prevenzione in<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

Drosophila melanogaster is an emerging model to study different aspects of social interactions. For example, flies avoid areas previously occupied by ...

A Simple and Inexpensive Method for Determining Cold Sensitivity and Adaptation in Mice

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life. The cold plantar assay allows the objective and inexpensive assessment of cold sensitivity in mice, and can quantify both analgesia and hypersensitivity. Mice are acclimated on a glass plate, and a compressed dry ice pellet is held against the glass surface underneath the hindpaw. The latency to withdrawal from the cooling glass is used as a measure of cold sensitivity.
Cold sensation is also important for survival in regions with seasonal temperature shifts, and in order to maintain sensitivity animals must be able to adjust their thermal response thresholds to match the ambient temperature. The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) also allows the study of adaptation to changes in ambient temperature by testing the cold sensitivity of mice at temperatures ranging from 30 &#176;C to 5 &#176;C. Mice are acclimated as described above, but the glass plate is cooled to the desired starting temperature using aluminum boxes (or aluminum foil packets) filled with hot water, wet ice, or dry ice. The temperature of the plate is measured at the center using a filament T-type thermocouple probe. Once the plate has reached the desired starting temperature, the animals are tested as described above.
This assay allows testing of mice at temperatures ranging from innocuous to noxious. The CPA yields unambiguous and consistent behavioral responses in uninjured mice and can be used to quantify both hypersensitivity and analgesia. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

The Cold Plantar Assay (CPA) measures cold responsiveness between 30 &#176;C and 5 &#176;C, and can also measure cold adaptation. This protocol describes how to use the CPA to measure cold hypersensitivity, analgesia, and adaptation in mice.

Un metodo semplice e poco costoso per la determinazione fredda sensibilità e adattamento nei topi

Cold hypersensitivity is a serious clinical problem, affecting a broad subset of patients and causing significant decreases in quality of life.  The cold ...

Foraging Path-length Protocol for Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

The Drosophila melanogaster larval path-length phenotype is an established measure used to study the genetic and environmental contributions to behavioral variation. The larval path-length assay was developed to measure individual differences in foraging behavior that were later linked to the foraging gene. Larval path-length is an easily scored trait that facilitates the collection of large sample sizes, at minimal cost, for genetic screens. Here we provide a detailed description of the current protocol for the larval path-length assay first used by Sokolowski. The protocol details how to reproducibly handle test animals, perform the behavioral assay and analyze the data. An example of how the assay can be used to measure behavioral plasticity in response to environmental change, by manipulating feeding environment prior to performing the assay, is also provided. Finally, appropriate test design as well as environmental factors that can modify larval path-length such as food quality, developmental age and day effects are discussed.

Foraging Path-length Protocol for Drosophila melanogaster Larvae

We provide a detailed protocol for a Drosophila melanogaster foraging path-length assay. We discuss the preparation and handling of test animals, how to perform the assay and analyze the data.

Foraggiamento protocollo percorso di lunghezza per<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em&gt; Le larve

The Drosophila melanogaster larval path-length phenotype is an established measure used to study the genetic and environmental contributions to behavioral ...

Taste Preference Assay for Adult Drosophila

Olfactory and gustatory perception of the environment is vital for animal survival. The most obvious application of these chemosenses is to be able to distinguish good food sources from potentially dangerous food sources. Gustation requires physical contact with a chemical compound which is able to signal through taste receptors that are expressed on the surface of neurons. In insects, these gustatory neurons can be located across the animal's body allowing taste to play an important role in many different behaviors. Insects typically prefer compounds containing sugars, while compounds that are considered bitter tasting are avoided. Given the basic biological importance of taste, there is intense interest in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying this sensory modality. We describe an adult Drosophila taste assay which reflects the preference of the animals for a given tastant compound. This assay may be applied to animals of any genetic background to examine the taste preference for a desired soluble compound.

Taste Preference Assay for Adult Drosophila

Taste is an important sensory process which facilitates attraction to beneficial substances and avoidance of toxic substances. This protocol describes a simple ingestion assay for determining Drosophila gustatory preference for a given chemical compound.

Gusto Preferenza Assay per adulti<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Olfactory and gustatory perception of the environment is vital for animal survival.  The most obvious application of these chemosenses is to be able to ...

High-throughput Analysis of Locomotor Behavior in the Drosophila Island Assay

Advances in next-generation sequencing technologies contribute to the identification of (candidate) disease genes for movement disorders and other neurological diseases at an increasing speed. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that underlie these disorders. The genetic, molecular, and behavioral toolbox of Drosophila melanogaster makes this model organism particularly useful to characterize new disease genes and mechanisms in a high-throughput manner. Nevertheless, high-throughput screens require efficient and reliable assays that, ideally, are cost-effective and allow for the automatized quantification of traits relevant to these disorders. The island assay is a cost-effective and easily set-up method to evaluate Drosophila locomotor behavior. In this assay, flies are thrown onto a platform from a fixed height. This induces an innate motor response that enables the flies to escape from the platform within seconds. At present, quantitative analyses of filmed island assays are done manually, which is a laborious undertaking, particularly when performing large screens.
This manuscript describes the &#34;Drosophila Island Assay&#34; and &#34;Island Assay Analysis&#34; algorithms for&#160;high-throughput, automated data processing and quantification of island assay data. In the setup, a simple webcam connected to a laptop collects an image series of the platform while the assay is performed. The &#34;Drosophila Island Assay&#34; algorithm developed for the open-source software Fiji processes these image series and quantifies, for each experimental condition, the number of flies on the platform over time. The &#34;Island Assay Analysis&#34; script, compatible with the free software R, was developed to automatically process the obtained data and to calculate whether treatments/genotypes are statistically different. This greatly improves the efficiency of the island assay and makes it a powerful readout for basic locomotion and flight behavior. It can thus be applied to large screens investigating fly locomotor ability, Drosophila models of movement disorders, and drug efficacy.

High-throughput Analysis of Locomotor Behavior in the Drosophila Island Assay

The island assay is a relatively new, cost-effective assay that can be used to evaluate the basic locomotor behavior of Drosophila melanogaster. This manuscript describes algorithms for automatic data processing and objective quantification of island assay data, making this assay a sensitive, high-throughput readout for large genetic or pharmacological screens.