Name: minimizing hypoxia in hippocampal slices from adult and aging mice
Uploaded: 2020-07-02T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Minimizing Hypoxia in Hippocampal Slices from Adult and Aging Mice at JoVE.com

I thank Dr. Carla J. Shatz for advice and support, and Dr. Barbara K. Brott and Michelle K. Drews for critically reading the manuscript. The work is supported by NIH EY02858 and the Mathers Charitable Foundation grants to CJS.

The protocol is carried out in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals of the National Institutes of Health and approved by the Stanford University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. Methods are also in accordance with the Policies of the Society for Neuroscience on the Use of Animals and Humans in Neuroscience Research.
NOTE: All mice were maintained in a pathogen-free environment. Wild-type mice on mixed C57Bl/ 6 x SV/ 129J genetic background were used ...

<ol>
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The protocol described here demonstrates that hippocampal slices obtained from adult and aging mice can remain healthy and viable for many hours after cutting. The slices prepared using this protocol are&#160;appropriate for patch-clamp recordings, as well as long-lasting field-recordings in the CA1 regions.
There are two critical steps in this protocol. First step is the transcardial perfusion step with an ice-cold solution. Fast clearance of blood is signaled by rapid change of liver color. ...

The advent of mammalian acute brain slice preparations facilitated experiments at the cellular and synaptic level that were previously possible only in invertebrate preparations like Aplysia1. Development of acute hippocampal slices was of particular significance, as it is a structure responsible for working memory and context formation, and has a specialized tri-synaptic circuitry that is amenable to easy physiological manipulation. However, the vast majority of acute brain slices are still prepared from relatively young mice and rats, as it is easier to preserve healthy neurons and circuits, and the slices remain viable for longer periods of time2,3,4. Here, we introduce modifications to standard slicing protocols that result in increased viability of acute hippocampal slices from adult and aging mice.
The major impediment to the long-term ex vivo viability of mammalian brain parenchyma is the initial hypoxic damage that occurs rapidly once blood flow to the brain stops following decapitation. Loss of oxygen results in fast metabolic consumption of major energy resources in the brain with the loss of phospho-creatine (P-creatine) being the most rapid, followed by glucose, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and glycogen4. Preservation of ATP is of particular importance for the long-term health of brain slices, as ATP is needed to maintain the membrane potential via the Na-K ATPase, and consequently the neural activity5,6. The ATP level in the adult rodent brain is ~2.5 mM, and it drops precipitously within 20 s of decapitation to reach a basal steady state (~0.5 mM) at around 1 min post-decapitation4,7,8. In young animals, it takes longer to observe the same drop in ATP (~2 min); with phenobarbital anesthesia it is further slowed to 4 min4. These considerations show that preventing loss of ATP and other energy resources is a necessary strategy to prevent hypoxic damage to the brain and in turn to maintain the health of brain slices over longer periods of time, especially in adult animals.
Low temperatures slow down the metabolism. Consequently, it has been demonstrated that modest hypothermia protects brain energy reserves: in young animals, lowering body temperature by six degrees, from 37 &#176;C to 31 &#176;C, preserves ATP levels to around 80% of normal levels over 4 h of controlled hypoxia9. P-creatine levels are similarly preserved, as well as the overall phosphorylation potential9. This suggests that lowering body temperature prior to decapitation could be neuroprotective, as near-normal levels of ATP could be maintained through the slice cutting and slice recovery periods.
To the degree that an ATP drop cannot be completely prevented upon decapitation, a partially impaired function of the Na-K ATPase is expected, followed by depolarization via passive sodium influx. As the passive sodium influx is followed by water entry into cells, it causes cytotoxic edema and eventually pyknosis. In adult rats, replacing Na+ ions with sucrose in slice-cutting solutions has been a successful strategy to alleviate the burden of cytotoxic edema10,11. More recently, methylated organic cations that decrease sodium channel permeability12 have shown to offer more effective protection than sucrose, especially in slices from adult mice, with N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG) being most widely applicable across different ages and brain regions13,14,15,16.
Numerous brain-slicing protocols involve using cold temperatures only during the slice-cutting step, sometimes in combination with Na+ ion replacement strategy16,17. In young animals, these protocols appear to offer sufficient neuroprotection since the brains can be extracted quickly after decapitation because the skull is still thin and easy to remove3. However, this strategy does not produce healthy slices from adult animals. Over time, a number of laboratories studying adult rodents have introduced transcardial perfusion with an ice-cold solution to decrease the animal&#8217;s body temperature, and therefore hypoxic damage to the brain, prior to decapitation. This procedure was successfully applied to produce cerebellar slices18, midbrain slices19, neocortical slices11,20, perirhinal cortex21, rat hippocampus10,22,23, olfactory bulb24, ventral striatum25, visual cortex26.
In spite of the advantages offered by transcardial perfusion and Na+ ion replacement in preparing slices from rat and in some brain regions in mice, mouse hippocampus remains one of the most challenging areas to protect from hypoxia13,20. To date, one of the most common approaches to slicing hippocampus from aging mice and mouse models of neurodegeneration involves the classical fast slicing of the isolated hippocampi27. In the protocol described here, we minimize the loss of ATP in the adult brain by introducing hypothermia prior to decapitation by transcardially perfusing the animal with ice-cold Na+- free NMDG-based artificial cerebrospinal fluid (NMDG-aCSF). Slices are then cut in ice-cold Na+-free NMDG-aCSF. With this enhanced protocol we obtain acute hippocampal slices from adult and aging mice that are healthy for up to 10 h after slicing and are appropriate for long-term field-recordings and patch-clamp studies.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#8220;60 degree&#8221; tool</td>
			<td>made in-house</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>#10 scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Bard-Parker (Aspen Surgical)</td>
			<td>371110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1M CaCl2</td>
			<td>Fluka Analytical</td>
			<td>21114</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95%O2/5%CO2</td>
			<td>Praxiar or another local supplier</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acepromazine maleate (AceproJect)</td>
			<td>Henry Schein</td>
			<td>5700850</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP1423-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beakers, measuring cylinders, reagent bottles</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brushes size 00-2</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Crafts stores are another source of soft brushes, with larger selection and better quality than Ted Pella.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD camera</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>XM10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Choline bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Pfalz &#38; Bauer</td>
			<td>C21240</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyanoacrilate glue</td>
			<td>Krazy glue</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Singles</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Decapitation scissors</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14130-17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Feather blades</td>
			<td>Feather</td>
			<td>FA-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper #2</td>
			<td>Whatman</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Either rounds or pieces cut from a bigger sheet work well.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>A. Dumont &#38; Fils</td>
			<td>Inox 3c</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass bubblers (Robu glass borosillicate microfilter candles) - porosity 3</td>
			<td>Robuglas.com</td>
			<td>18103 or 18113</td>
			<td>Glass bubblers are more expensive than bubbling stones used in aquaria. However, they are easy to clean and sterilize, and can last a long time.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>A144SI-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice buckets</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P4504</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine HCl (KetaVed)</td>
			<td>VEDCO</td>
			<td>NDC 50989-996-06</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>KH2PO4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0662</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica Tissue slicer VT1000S</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>The cutting settings are 1 mm horizontal blade amplitude, frequency dial at 9, and speed setting at 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic stirrers and stir bars</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mg2SO4 x 7H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>230391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M9272</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MilliQ water machine</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Source for 18 Mohm water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na-ascorbate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A4035</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na-pyruvate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8574</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S3014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaHCO3</td>
			<td>EMD</td>
			<td>SX0320-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle 27G1/2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NMDG</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paper tape</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peristaltic pump</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>#7553-70</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peristaltic pump head</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>Masterflex #7518-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Personna blades</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Personna double edge</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH meter</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recovery chamber</td>
			<td>in-house made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel blade handle size 3</td>
			<td>Bard-Parker (Aspen Surgical)</td>
			<td>371030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors angled blade</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14081-09</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Single edge industrial razor blade #9</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>55411</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spatulas</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transfer pipettes</td>
			<td>Samco Scientific</td>
			<td>225</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Upright microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus BX51WI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine HCl (XylaMed)</td>
			<td>VetOne</td>
			<td>510650</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

minimizing hypoxia in hippocampal slices from adult and aging mice

Acute hippocampal slices have enabled generations of neuroscientists to explore synaptic, neuronal, and circuit properties in detail and with high fidelity. Exploration of LTP and LTD mechanisms, single neuron dendritic computation, and experience-dependent changes in circuitry, would not have been possible without this classical preparation. However, with a few exceptions, most basic research using acute hippocampal slices has been performed using slices from rodents of relatively young ages, ~P20-P40, even though synaptic and intrinsic excitability mechanisms have a long developmental tail that reaches past P60. The main appeal of using young hippocampal slices is preservation of neuronal health aided by higher tolerance to hypoxic damage. However, there is a need to understand neuronal function at more mature stages of development, further accentuated by the development of various animal models of neurodegenerative diseases that require an aging brain preparation. Here we describe a modification to an acute hippocampal slice preparation that reliably delivers healthy slices from adult and aging mouse hippocampi. The protocol&#8217;s critical steps are transcardial perfusion and cutting with ice-cold sodium-free NMDG-aSCF. Together, these steps attenuate the hypoxia-induced drop in ATP upon decapitation, as well as cytotoxic edema caused by passive sodium fluxes. We demonstrate how to cut transversal slices of hippocampus plus cortex using a vibrating microtome. Acute hippocampal slices obtained in this way are reliably healthy over many hours of recording, and are appropriate for both field-recordings and targeted patch-clamp recordings, including targeting of fluorescently labeled neurons.

We applied the above protocol to generate hippocampus slices from CamKIIa-Cre+;WT&#160;mice on a mixed genetic background C57Bl/ 6 x SV/ 129J, at P &#62; 120. Large numbers of pyramidal cells in the CA1 field (Figure 2A) and subiculum (Figure 2B) appear in low contrast when observed under infrared differential contrast microscopy (IR-DIC), a hallmark of healthy cells in a slice preparation. With this preparation, a high rate of giga-ohm seals (&#62;90%) is routi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Minimizing Hypoxia in Hippocampal Slices from Adult and Aging Mice at JoVE.com

Minimizing Hypoxia in Hippocampal Slices from Adult and Aging Mice

This is a protocol for acute slice preparation from adult and aging mouse hippocampi that takes advantage of transcardial perfusion and slice cutting with ice-cold NMDG-aCSF to reduce hypoxic damage to the tissue. The resulting slices stay healthy over many hours, and are suitable for long-term patch-clamp and field-recordings.

Acute hippocampal slices have enabled generations of neuroscientists to explore synaptic, neuronal, and circuit properties in detail and with high ...

The protocol presented here diminishes excessive hypoxic damage during preparation of adult and aging mouse hippocampal slices, thus removing a major obstacle for studying function of mature and aging neural circuits. Introduction of hypothermia in sodium free solutions results in hippocampal slices that are healthy for up to 10 hours after cutting and appropriate for both the long-term field-recordings and patch-clamp studies. This method of preparing hippocampal slices could be particularly relevant for animal models in neurodegenerative diseases that by definition require an aging brain preparation.The most critical step in this protocol is introducing hypothermia via transcardial profusion with an ice-cold solution. With some practice, researchers will be able to reliably execute this step. Begin by preparing one liter of aCSF solution for the recovery chamber and subsequent recordings.Then prepare 300 milliliters of NMDG-aCSF for the transcardial profusion and cutting steps. Place the vibrating microtome cutting tray and mounting disc in a minus 20 degrees Celsius freezer. To prepare the recovery chamber, fill it to just above the slice holding mesh and start the bubbler keeping the chamber on the bench at room temperature.Chill the entire 300 milliliters of NMDG-aCSF in a freezer until ice crystals start to form on the surface and the walls of the bottle. Place the bottle with chilled and NMDG-aCSF on ice and bubble it, keeping the solution between zero and two degrees Celsius. Take the tissue mounting disc out of the freezer and wipe it dry, if needed.Cut out a block of 5%agar about the size of a mouse brain and glue it in the center of the disc using a thin layer of cyanoacrylate glue. Place the disc with glued agar on ice and cover it with paper towels until ready to use. Take the cutting tray out of the freezer, place it into the microtome, then surround it with ice and load the blade.Prepare all tools ahead of time for the brain dissection. Set up the peristaltic pump for transcardial perfusion. Insert one side of the pump tubing into the bottle with iced NMDG-aCSF and fit the other side with a 27 gauge needle.Set the pump speed to approximately 3.5 milliliters per minute. At this speed, the outflow of an NMDG-aCSF is a fast trip, not a continuous flow. Place the mouse on its back on a diaper.Before continuing, confirmed that the mouse is at a surgical plane of anesthesia by performing a toe pinch. The mouse should be unresponsive, then taped down its front and hind legs so that the chest and abdomen are exposed. Cut out a large patch of the skin on the chest, going from below the sternum to the throat.Grab the sternum with forceps, lift it gently and start cutting through the rib cage on both sides until the chest cavity is exposed. Cut through the diaphragm, leaving the flap of the rib cage attached via a thin piece of muscle. It should be possible to set it aside without having it fall back onto the exposed chest cavity.Check that the heart is still beating and ensure that most of the liver is visible. Insert the needle into the left ventricle, which looks lighter in color than the right. To stabilize the needle, drive it through the remaining ribs on the left side of the body.Locate the dark red-colored right atrium and cut through it with small scissors. The blood should start flowing out. Start the pump and observe the liver, which will change color from red to brown.Monitor the liver color and continue perfusion until the liver turns pale brown. Run the pump for a few more minutes. The body temperature of the animal should fall to 28 to 29 degrees Celsius and its nose should be cold to the touch.Decapitate the mouse with large decapitation scissors, then use a scalpel with a number 10 blade to cut open the skin on top of the skull. With small angled scissors, cut the skull at the midline. Next, use the number three forceps to pry away the right and left halves of the skull, being careful to take the dura away with it.Remove the brain, which should be an off-white color by scooping it out with a spatula and drop it into the NMDG-aCSF solution on ice. Leave it there for up to a minute. Take the brain out of the NMDG-aCSF and place it on a piece of filter paper.Cut and remove a 60 degree wedge of tissue with a 60 degree tool centered at the midline from the rostral end of the forebrain. Use the cut sides of the mounting surface as it provides the proper angle for hippocampal slices. Separate the hemispheres down the midline with the scalpel and glue them onto the mounting disc.Take the mounting disc from the ice and wipe it dry, if needed. Then glue each hemisphere in front of the agar block, cut side down. Ensure that the ventral sides of both hemispheres are touching the agar block and that the dorsal sides of both hemispheres are facing the blade.When glued on the cut side, each hemisphere should be oriented relative to the blade in a way that ensures transverse slices of the dorsal hippocampus in situ. Submerge the disc with the hemispheres into a cutting chamber containing ice-cold carbogenated NMDG-aCSF. Cut a 400 micrometer section, then use a disposable transfer pipette with a cutoff tip to transfer the slice to a recovery chamber containing carbogenated NMDG-aCSF at room temperature.Continue cutting the rest of the sections and transferring them to the recovery chamber taking no more than 10 minutes to cut a total of eight to 10 slices from the dorsal hippocampus region. Incubate the slices at room temperature for approximately two hours before recording. This protocol was used to generate hippocampal slices from adult mice.Large numbers of pyramidal cells in the CA1 field and subiculum appear in low contrast, a hallmark of healthy cells, when observed under infrared differential contrast microscopy. Patch-clamp recordings can be obtained from CA1 neurons of mice that are over six months old. In the example experiment here, the frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents was measured after NMDA-LTD was induced relative to control conditions.The frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents was lower in neurons after an NMDA-LTD induction, indicating activity dependent pruning of synopses in CA1. Changes in amplitude were not detected. During mEPSC recordings, CA1 cells were also filled biocytin and intact dendritic arbor and healthy cell habitus of the pyramidal neurons can be seen here.A robust distribution of the fluorescent dye throughout the cell allows analysis of dendrites and dendritic spines under different conditions. Long-term potentiation, or LTP, of CA3-CA1 synapses of approximately 170%was observed, suggesting that maintenance of signaling cascades needed for LTP is present in slices prepared from adult mice. A robust field excitatory postsynaptic potential signal suggests that network connectivity was also preserved.Two critical aspects of the protocol are transcardial profusion with an ice-cold solution to induce hypothermia and introduction of an NMDG as a sodium ion substitute in solutions to prevent cytotoxic edema. Using these precautions, acute slices can be prepared from any brain region. Moreover, slices prepared in this manner can be used for calcium and voltage imaging using two-photon or widefield microscopy.This protocol could serve as a basis for a standardized preparation for acute hippocampal slices from aging animals and thus facilitate comparisons across studies in the context of neurodegenerative disease mechanisms.

minimizing-hypoxia-in-hippocampal-slices-from-adult-and-aging-mice

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Preparation of Oligomeric &beta;-amyloid1-42 and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity Impairment on Hippocampal Slices

Impairment of synaptic connections is likely to underlie the subtle amnesic changes occurring at the early stages of Alzheimer s Disease (AD). &beta;-amyloid (A&beta;), a peptide produced in high amounts in AD, is known to reduce Long-Term Potentiation (LTP), a cellular correlate of learning and memory. Indeed, LTP impairment caused by A&beta; is a useful experimental paradigm for studying synaptic dysfunctions in AD models and for screening drugs capable of mitigating or reverting such synaptic impairments. Studies have shown that A&beta; produces the LTP disruption preferentially via its oligomeric form. Here we provide a detailed protocol for impairing LTP by perfusion of oligomerized synthetic A&beta;1-42 peptide onto acute hippocampal slices. In this video, we outline a step-by-step procedure for the preparation of oligomeric A&beta;1-42. Then, we follow an individual experiment in which LTP is reduced in hippocampal slices exposed to oligomerized A&beta;1-42 compared to slices in a control experiment where no A&beta;1-42 exposure had occurred.

Preparation of Oligomeric &amp;#946;-amyloid1-42 and Induction of Synaptic Plasticity Impairment on Hippocampal Slices

One feature of Alzheimer's Disease is the elevation of A&beta;1-42 peptide. Here we provide a protocol for preparing synthetic A&beta;1-42 oligomers, which impairs hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation, a cellular correlate of memory. This procedure is useful for investigating mechanisms of A&beta;-induced pathology and drug screening.

Impairment of synaptic connections is likely to underlie the subtle amnesic changes occurring at the early stages of Alzheimer s Disease (AD). ...

Preparation of Acute Hippocampal Slices from Rats and Transgenic Mice for the Study of Synaptic Alterations during Aging and Amyloid Pathology

The rodent hippocampal slice preparation is perhaps the most broadly used tool for investigating mammalian synaptic function and plasticity. The hippocampus can be extracted quickly and easily from rats and mice and slices remain viable for hours in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid. Moreover, basic electrophysisologic techniques are easily applied to the investigation of synaptic function in hippocampal slices and have provided some of the best biomarkers for cognitive impairments. The hippocampal slice is especially popular for the study of synaptic plasticity mechanisms involved in learning and memory. Changes in the induction of long-term potentiation and depression (LTP and LTD) of synaptic efficacy in hippocampal slices (or lack thereof) are frequently used to describe the neurologic phenotype of cognitively-impaired animals and/or to evaluate the mechanism of action of nootropic compounds. This article outlines the procedures we use for preparing hippocampal slices from rats and transgenic mice for the study of synaptic alterations associated with brain aging and Alzheimer's disease (AD)1-3. Use of aged rats and AD model mice can present a unique set of challenges to researchers accustomed to using younger rats and/or mice in their research. Aged rats have thicker skulls and tougher connective tissue than younger rats and mice, which can delay brain extraction and/or dissection and consequently negate or exaggerate real age-differences in synaptic function and plasticity. Aging and amyloid pathology may also exacerbate hippocampal damage sustained during the dissection procedure, again complicating any inferences drawn from physiologic assessment. Here, we discuss the steps taken during the dissection procedure to minimize these problems. Examples of synaptic responses acquired in "healthy" and "unhealthy" slices from rats and mice are provided, as well as representative synaptic plasticity experiments. The possible impact of other methodological factors on synaptic function in these animal models (e.g. recording solution components, stimulation parameters) are also discussed. While the focus of this article is on the use of aged rats and transgenic mice, novices to slice physiology should find enough detail here to get started on their own studies, using a variety of rodent models.

This article outlines procedures for preparing hippocampal slices from rats and transgenic mice for the study of synaptic alterations associated with brain aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer&#x2019;s disease.

The rodent hippocampal slice preparation is perhaps the most broadly used tool for investigating mammalian synaptic function and plasticity. The ...

Isolation and Culture of Hippocampal Neurons from Prenatal Mice

Primary cultures of rat and murine hippocampal neurons are widely used to reveal cellular mechanisms in neurobiology. By isolating and growing individual neurons, researchers are able to analyze properties related to cellular trafficking, cellular structure and individual protein localization using a variety of biochemical techniques. Results from such experiments are critical for testing theories addressing the neural basis of memory and learning. However, unambiguous results from these forms of experiments are predicated on the ability to grow neuronal cultures with minimum contamination by other brain cell types. In this protocol, we use specific media designed for neuron growth and careful dissection of embryonic hippocampal tissue to optimize growth of healthy neurons while minimizing contaminating cell types (i.e. astrocytes). Embryonic mouse hippocampal tissue can be more difficult to isolate than similar rodent tissue due to the size of the sample for dissection. We show detailed dissection techniques of hippocampus from embryonic day 19 (E19) mouse pups. Once hippocampal tissue is isolated, gentle dissociation of neuronal cells is achieved with a dilute concentration of trypsin and mechanical disruption designed to separate cells from connective tissue while providing minimum damage to individual cells. A detailed description of how to prepare pipettes to be used in the disruption is included. Optimal plating densities are provided for immuno-fluorescence protocols to maximize successful cell culture. The protocol provides a fast (approximately 2 hr) and efficient technique for the culture of neuronal cells from mouse hippocampal tissue.

We provide a protocol for the culture of highly purified hippocampal neurons from prenatal mouse brains without the use of a feeder glial cell layer.

Primary cultures of rat and murine hippocampal neurons are widely used to reveal cellular mechanisms in neurobiology. By isolating and growing individual ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

Paired Whole Cell Recordings in Organotypic Hippocampal Slices

Pair recordings involve simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling not only direct electrophysiological characterization of the synaptic connections between individual neurons, but also pharmacological manipulation of either the presynaptic or the postsynaptic neuron. When carried out in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures, the probability that two neurons are synaptically connected is significantly increased. This preparation readily enables identification of cell types, and the neurons maintain their morphology and properties of synaptic function similar to that in native brain tissue. A major advantage of paired whole cell recordings is the highly precise information it can provide on the properties of synaptic transmission and plasticity that are not possible with other more crude techniques utilizing extracellular axonal stimulation. Paired whole cell recordings are often perceived as too challenging to perform. While there are challenging aspects to this technique, paired recordings can be performed by anyone trained in whole cell patch clamping provided specific hardware and methodological criteria are followed. The probability of attaining synaptically connected paired recordings significantly increases with healthy organotypic slices and stable micromanipulation allowing independent attainment of pre- and postsynaptic whole cell recordings. While CA3-CA3 pyramidal cell pairs are most widely used in the organotypic slice hippocampal preparation, this technique has also been successful in CA3-CA1 pairs and can be adapted to any neurons that are synaptically connected in the same slice preparation. In this manuscript we provide the detailed methodology and requirements for establishing this technique in any laboratory equipped for electrophysiology.

Pair recordings are simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling precise electrophysiological and pharmacological characterization of the synapses between individual neurons. Here we describe the detailed methodology and requirements for establishing this technique in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures in any laboratory equipped for electrophysiology.

Pair recordings involve simultaneous whole cell patch clamp recordings from two synaptically connected neurons, enabling not only direct ...

Investigation of Synaptic Tagging/Capture and Cross-capture using Acute Hippocampal Slices from Rodents

Synaptic tagging and capture (STC) and cross-tagging are two important mechanisms at cellular level that explain how synapse-specificity and associativity is achieved in neurons within a specific time frame. These long-term plasticity-related processes are the leading candidate models to study the basis of memory formation and persistence at the cellular level. Both STC and cross-tagging involve two serial processes: (1) setting of the synaptic tag as triggered by a specific pattern of stimulation, and (2) synaptic capture, whereby the synaptic tag interacts with newly synthesized plasticity-related proteins (PRPs). Much of the understanding about the concepts of STC and cross-tagging arises from the studies done in CA1 region of the hippocampus and because of the technical complexity many of the laboratories are still unable to study these processes. Experimental conditions for the preparation of hippocampal slices and the recording of stable late-LTP/LTD are extremely important to study synaptic tagging/cross-tagging. This video article describes the experimental procedures to study long-term plasticity processes such as STC and cross-tagging in the CA1 pyramidal neurons using stable, long-term field-potential recordings from acute hippocampal slices of rats.

This video article describes experimental procedures to study long-term plasticity and its associative processes such as synaptic tagging, capture and cross-tagging in the CA1 pyramidal neurons using acute hippocampal slices from rodents.

Synaptic tagging and capture (STC) and cross-tagging are two important mechanisms at cellular level that explain how synapse-specificity and associativity ...

Evaluation of Synapse Density in Hippocampal Rodent Brain Slices

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is tightly regulated during development and neuronal maturation. Importantly, deficits in synapse number can lead to cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, the evaluation of synapse number is an integral part of neurobiology. However, as synapses are small and highly compact in the intact brain, the assessment of absolute number is challenging. This protocol describes a method to easily identify and evaluate synapses in hippocampal rodent slices using immunofluorescence microscopy. It includes a three-step procedure to evaluate synapses in high-quality confocal microscopy images by analyzing the co-localization of pre- and postsynaptic proteins in hippocampal slices. It also explains how the analysis is performed and gives representative examples from both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. This protocol provides a solid foundation for the analysis of synapses and can be applied to any research investigating the structure and function of the brain.

A protocol for accurately identifying and analyzing synapses in hippocampal slices using immunofluorescence is outlined in this article.

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is ...

Preparing Fresh Retinal Slices from Adult Zebrafish for Ex Vivo Imaging Experiments

The retina is a complex tissue that initiates and integrates the first steps of vision. Dysfunction of retinal cells is a hallmark of many blinding diseases, and future therapies hinge on fundamental understandings about how different retinal cells function normally. Gaining such information with biochemical methods has proven difficult because contributions of particular cell types are diminished in the retinal cell milieu. Live retinal imaging can provide a view of numerous biological processes on a subcellular level, thanks to a growing number of genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors. However, this technique has thus far been limited to tadpoles and zebrafish larvae, the outermost retinal layers of isolated retinas, or lower resolution imaging of retinas in live animals. Here we present a method for generating live ex vivo retinal slices from adult zebrafish for live imaging via confocal microscopy. This preparation yields transverse slices with all retinal layers and most cell types visible for performing confocal imaging experiments using perfusion. Transgenic zebrafish expressing fluorescent proteins or biosensors in specific retinal cell types or organelles are used to extract single-cell information from an intact retina. Additionally, retinal slices can be loaded with fluorescent indicator dyes, adding to the method&#39;s versatility. This protocol was developed for imaging Ca2+ within zebrafish cone photoreceptors, but with proper markers it could be adapted to measure Ca2+ or metabolites in M&#252;ller cells, bipolar and horizontal cells, microglia, amacrine cells, or retinal ganglion cells. The retinal pigment epithelium is removed from slices so this method is not suitable for studying that cell type. With practice, it is possible to generate serial slices from one animal for multiple experiments. This adaptable technique provides a powerful tool for answering many questions about retinal cell biology, Ca2+, and energy homeostasis.

Preparing Fresh Retinal Slices from Adult Zebrafish for Ex Vivo Imaging Experiments

Imaging retinal tissue can provide single-cell information that cannot be gathered from traditional biochemical methods. This protocol describes preparation of retinal slices from zebrafish for confocal imaging. Fluorescent genetically encoded sensors or indicator dyes allow visualization of numerous biological processes in distinct retinal cell types.

The retina is a complex tissue that initiates and integrates the first steps of vision. Dysfunction of retinal cells is a hallmark of many blinding ...

Optogenetic Entrainment of Hippocampal Theta Oscillations in Behaving Mice

Extensive data on relationships of neural network oscillations to behavior and organization of neuronal discharge across brain regions call for new tools to selectively manipulate brain rhythms. Here we describe an approach combining projection-specific optogenetics with extracellular electrophysiology for high-fidelity control of hippocampal theta oscillations (5-10 Hz) in behaving mice. The specificity of the optogenetic entrainment is achieved by targeting channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) to the GABAergic population of medial septal cells, crucially involved in the generation of hippocampal theta oscillations, and a local synchronized activation of a subset of inhibitory septal afferents in the hippocampus. The efficacy of the optogenetic rhythm control is verified by a simultaneous monitoring of the local field potential (LFP) across lamina of the CA1 area and/or of neuronal discharge. Using this readily implementable preparation we show efficacy of various optogenetic stimulation protocols for induction of theta oscillations and for the manipulation of their frequency and regularity. Finally, a combination of the theta rhythm control with projection-specific inhibition addresses the readout of particular aspects of the hippocampal synchronization by efferent regions.

We describe the use of optogenetics and electrophysiological recordings for selective manipulations of hippocampal theta oscillations (5-10 Hz) in behaving mice. The efficacy of the rhythm entrainment is monitored using local field potential. A combination of opto- and pharmacogenetic inhibition addresses the efferent readout of hippocampal synchronization.

Extensive data on relationships of neural network oscillations to behavior and organization of neuronal discharge across brain regions call for new tools ...

Preparation of Acute Human Hippocampal Slices for Electrophysiological Recordings

Epilepsy affects about 1% of the world population and leads to a severe decrease in quality of life due to ongoing seizures as well as high risk for sudden death. Despite an abundance of available treatment options, about 30% of patients are drug-resistant. Several novel therapeutics have been developed using animal models, though the rate of drug-resistant patients remains unaltered. One of probable reasons is the lack of translation between rodent models and humans, such as a weak representation of human pharmacoresistance in animal models. Resected human brain tissue as a preclinical evaluation tool has the advantage to bridge this translational gap. Described here is a method for high quality preparation of human hippocampal brain slices and subsequent stable induction of epileptiform activity. The protocol describes the induction of burst activity during application of 8 mM KCl and 4-aminopyridin. This activity is sensitive to established AED lacosamide or novel antiepileptic candidates, such as dimethylethanolamine (DMEA). In addition, the method describes induction of seizure-like events in CA1 of human hippocampal brain slices by reduction of extracellular Mg2+ and application of bicuculline, a GABAA receptor blocker. The experimental set-up can be used to screen potential antiepileptic substances for their effects on epileptiform activity. Furthermore, mechanisms of action postulated for specific compounds can be validated using this approach in human tissue (e.g., using patch-clamp recordings). To conclude, investigation of vital human brain tissue ex vivo (here, resected hippocampus from patients suffering from temporal lobe epilepsy) will improve the current knowledge of physiological and pathological mechanisms in the human brain.

The presented protocol describes the transport and preparation of resected human hippocampal tissue with the ultimate goal to use vital brain slices as a preclinical evaluation tool for potential antiepileptic substances.

Epilepsy affects about 1% of the world population and leads to a severe decrease in quality of life due to ongoing seizures as well as high risk for ...