Name: sustained administration of &#946;-cell mitogens to intact mouse islets ex vivo using biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres
Uploaded: 2016-11-05T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Sustained Administration of Î²-cell Mitogens to Intact Mouse Islets Ex Vivo Using Biodegradable Polylactic-co-glycolic acid Microspheres at JoVE.com

The authors would like to thank Bethany Carboneau (Vanderbilt University) for critical reading of this manuscript. We also thank Anastasia Coldren (Vanderbilt University Medical Center Islet Procurement and Analysis Core) for islet isolations, and Dr. Alvin C. Powers (Vanderbilt University Medical Center) and Dr. David Jacobson (Vanderbilt University) for use of their centrifuge and tissue culture facility. This research involved use of the Islet Procurement and Analysis Core of the Vanderbilt Diabetes Research and Training Center supported by NIH grant DK20593. This work was supported by an American Heart Association Postdoctoral Fellowship (14POST20380262) to R.C.P., and grants from the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation (1-2011-592), and Department of Veterans Affairs (1BX00090-01A1) to M.A.G.

All procedures were approved and performed in accordance with the Vanderbilt Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Labeling COI with Fluorophore (Optional)
<ol>
	<li>Choose a fluorescent dye that will react with a free primary amine (e.g., on a protein), such as succinimidyl esters or fluorescein derivatives, to visualize microsphere cargo. Dissolve 8x molar excess (relative to moles of COI) of fluorophore into 200 &#181;l of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).</li>
	<li>Resuspend ...

<ol>
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The study of &#946;-cell proliferation in culture is typically hampered by several difficulties. First, immortalized &#946;-cell lines are characterized by higher degrees of proliferation than what is found in endogenous &#946;-cells in live islets. Additionally, these immortalized cell lines lack the normal architecture critical for normal &#946;-cell function. These two facts make it difficult to determine if results obtained using immortalized &#946;-cell lines will hold true when tested in vivo or in whole i...

Pancreatic &#946;-cells are the only insulin-producing cells in the body and are critical to maintain blood glucose homeostasis. While healthy individuals have sufficient &#946;-cell mass and function to properly regulate blood glucose, individuals with diabetes are characterized by insufficient &#946;-cell mass and/or function1,2. It has been proposed that inducing &#946;-cell proliferation can ultimately increase &#946;-cell mass and restore glucose homeostasis in individuals with diabetes3. However, evaluation and validation of potential &#946;-cell proliferative compounds in intact islets is necessary before effective therapies can be developed. Transplantation of cadaveric human islets into individuals with diabetes restores blood glucose homeostasis for some time, but the availability and success of this experimental procedure is hindered by a shortage of human islets available for transplant and by &#946;-cell death in the islets after transplant4. Even with the discovery of factors that induce multiplication of insulin-producing cells, a major challenge still exists in delivering these factors to relevant sites in vivo. One strategy for sustained local delivery of &#946;-cell proliferative compounds is poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA). PLGA has a history of use in FDA approved drug delivery products owing to its high safety, biodegradability, and extended release kinetics5. Specifically, PLGA is a copolymer of lactide and glycolide that degrades via hydrolysis with water either in vivo or in culture into lactic acid and glycolic acid, which are naturally occurring metabolites in the body. The encapsulated drug compound can be released in the surrounding environment by both diffusion and/or degradation-controlled release mechanisms. Encapsulation of COI provides protection against enzymatic degradation, improving the bioavailability of the reagent compared to unencapsulated COI5. We suggest that PLGA microspheres can be used to administer candidate compounds to intact islets in culture, and ultimately in vivo. Testing the efficacy of PLGA to administer &#946;-cell mitogens to islets ex vivo is critical before transplantation protocols are explored.
Currently, there is no technique to measure &#946;-cell proliferation in live animals. Experiments to assess effectiveness of potential proliferative compounds in vivo therefore require administration of these compounds to live animals, with subsequent dissection and processing of pancreata for immunolabeling. Such protocols are expensive and laborious, and require the compound to be administered systemically, without any guarantee that they will reach the islets. Conversely, several immortalized &#946;-cell lines are available for the study of insulin-producing cells in culture, but these cell lines lack the islet architecture and environment found in living organisms6. Immortalized &#946;-cell lines are also characterized as having a much higher degree of replication than endogenous &#946;-cells in vivo, thus complicating analysis of compounds that induce proliferation. In this study, we describe a protocol that uses intact islets isolated from adult mice. Unlike &#946;-cell lines, intact islets retain normal islet architecture. Likewise, in contrast to experiments conducted in vivo, administering proliferative compounds directly to cultured intact islets significantly reduces the quantity of reagents that is necessary to accurately measure &#946;-cell proliferation.
The current study utilizes PLGA to administer a COI, in this example, recombinant human Connective Tissue Growth Factor (rhCTGF). The method described here confers a significant advantage over the administration of raw compound to cultured islets as it allows for a continual release of compound into the media. Notably, this assay can be modified to administer a wide variety of proteins and antibodies of interest to intact islets. Effects on other endocrine cell types, including &#945;-cells, may also be analyzed.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="819">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Oregon Green 488 Carboxylic Acid, Succinimidyl Ester, 6-isomer</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">O6149</td>
			<td style="width:307px;">For labeling COI with fluorophore</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">DMSO Dimethyl Sulfoxide</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher BioReagents</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP231-1</td>
			<td>For dissolving fluorophore in step 1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Disposable PD-10 Desalting Columns</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">17-0851-01</td>
			<td>Desalting column used in step 1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Resomer RG 505, Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide), ester terminated, molecular weight 54,000-69,000</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">739960</td>
			<td>Used in generation of microspheres in step 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Poly(vinyl alcohol) molecular weight 89,000-98,000</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">341584</td>
			<td>Used in generation of microspheres in step 2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">RPMI 1640</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11879-020</td>
			<td>For culturing islets</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Dextrose Anhydrous</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher BioReagents</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">200-075-1</td>
			<td>Supplement for islet media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P4333</td>
			<td>Antibiotics for islet media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Normal horse serum</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">008-000-121</td>
			<td>Supplement for islet media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">96-well tissue culture plate</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Corning</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">3603</td>
			<td>For culturing islets</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Ethylene glyco-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N&#39;,N&#39;-tetraacetic acid</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E4378</td>
			<td>Supplement for pre-assay islet media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Cytospin 4 Cytocentrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A78300003</td>
			<td>For spinning cells onto microscope slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">EZ Single Cytofunnel</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A78710020</td>
			<td>For spinning cells onto microscope slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher BioReagents</td>
			<td>BP118-500</td>
			<td>Used in dissociating islets</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P6148</td>
			<td>For fixing cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Triton&#160; X-100</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Fisher BioReagents</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP151</td>
			<td>For permeabilizing cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Normal donkey serum</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">017-000-121</td>
			<td>Blocking reagents for immunofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Anti-Ki67 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">abcam</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ab15580</td>
			<td>For Ki67 immunofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Polyclonal Guinea Pig Anti-Insulin</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Dako</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A0564</td>
			<td>For insulin immunofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Cy3 AffiniPure Donkey Anti-Rabbit</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">711-165-152</td>
			<td>For Ki67 immunofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Cy5 AffiniPure Donkey Anti-Guinea Pig</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">706-175-148</td>
			<td>For insulin immunofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">DAPI (4&#39;,6-Diamidino-2-Phenylindole, Dihydrochloride)</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">D1306</td>
			<td>For nuclei visualization in immunofluorescence</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Aqua-Mount</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Lerner Laboratories</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">13800</td>
			<td>Fast drying mounting media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">FreeZone -105&#176;C 4.5 Liter Cascade Benchtop Freeze Dry System</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Labconco</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">7382020</td>
			<td>For lyophilization of microspheres</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

sustained administration of &#946;-cell mitogens to intact mouse islets ex vivo using biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres

The development of biomaterials has significantly increased the potential for targeted drug delivery to a variety of cell and tissue types, including the pancreatic &#946;-cells. In addition, biomaterial particles, hydrogels, and scaffolds also provide a unique opportunity to administer sustained, controllable drug delivery to &#946;-cells in culture and in transplanted tissue models. These technologies allow the study of candidate &#946;-cell proliferation factors using intact islets and a translationally relevant system. Moreover, determining the effectiveness and feasibility of candidate factors for stimulating &#946;-cell proliferation in a culture system is critical before moving forward to in vivo models. Herein, we describe a method to co-culture intact mouse islets with biodegradable compound of interest (COI)-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres for the purpose of assessing the effects of sustained in situ release of mitogenic factors on &#946;-cell proliferation. This technique describes in detail how to generate PLGA microspheres containing a desired cargo using commercially available reagents. While the described technique uses recombinant human Connective tissue growth factor (rhCTGF) as an example, a wide variety of COI could readily be used. Additionally, this method utilizes 96-well plates to minimize the amount of reagents necessary to assess &#946;-cell proliferation. This protocol can be readily adapted to use alternative biomaterials and other endocrine cell characteristics such as cell survival and differentiation status.

Figure 1 is a visual representation of the microspheres generated using the above protocol. The protocol described here yields rhCTGF-loaded microspheres of various sizes. The largest fraction of microspheres will be between 1 and 10 &#181;m in diameter, though some microspheres may be larger (Figure 2). If desired, microsphere size can be tuned and optimized based on fabrication parameters such as homogenization speed and time, surfactan...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Sustained Administration of Î²-cell Mitogens to Intact Mouse Islets Ex Vivo Using Biodegradable Polylactic-co-glycolic acid Microspheres at JoVE.com

Sustained Administration of &amp;#946;-cell Mitogens to Intact Mouse Islets &lt;em&gt;Ex Vivo&lt;/em&gt; Using Biodegradable Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Microspheres

Here, we present methodology to generate and administer compound of interest-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres to intact mouse islets in culture with subsequent immunofluorescence analysis of &#946;-cell proliferation. This method is suitable for determining the efficacy of candidate &#946;-cell mitogens.

Sustained Administration of &#946;-cell Mitogens to Intact Mouse Islets Ex Vivo Using Biodegradable Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) Microspheres

The development of biomaterials has significantly increased the potential for targeted drug delivery to a variety of cell and tissue types, including the ...

The overall goal of this protocol is to use Poly(lactic-co-glycolic Acid)or PLGA, microspheres, to deliver compounds of interest to cultured intact pancreatic islets to study the effects of individual compounds on adult pancreatic beta cell proliferation. This method can be used to test a variety of compounds delivered locally in a sustained release manner to intact islets. The main advantage of this method is that it can be easily adapted for alternative delivery biomaterials, compounds of interest, and endpoint assays.This method also has the potential for delivering compounds of interest in conjunction with the adopted transfer of islets in vivo. Demonstrating how to make the PLGA microshperes will be Taylor Kavanaugh, the graduate student in my laboratory. Begin by adding one milligram of the fluorescently labeled compound of interest to 100 microliters of deionized water to form the first water phase.Next, dissolve 65 milligrams of PLGA in 750 microliters of dichloromethane in a scintillation vial, and ultrasonicate the mixture for 10 to 30 seconds at 160 watts to completely dissolve the PLGA. This forms the oil phase. Add all of the first water phase to the oil phase in a dropwise manner.Then use a handheld homogenizer to emulsify the solution at 20, 000 rpm for 30 seconds, forming the first water-oil phase. Then add all of the first water-oil phase dropwise into 15 milliliters of 1%PVA solution and emulsify as just demonstrated. Next, transfer the entire volume of the emulsion into a 200 milliliter round-bottom flask and use a rotary evaporator to remove the solvent for generation of the aqueous phase at 635 millimeters of mercury vacuum for one hour.Aliquot one milliliter of the aqueous phase into each of 14 microcentrifuge tubes, and pellet the microspheres by centrifugation. At the end of the spin, use a micropipette to remove 900 microliters of aqueous solution from each tube, taking care not to disturb the pellets. Wash the microspheres in one milliliter of de-ionized water, followed by the careful removal of 900 microliters of the supernatant.Then add 900 microliters of deionized water to the remaining 100 microliters of the supernatants. Then briefly vortex and sonicate to resuspend the pellets. After isolating the islets from the experimental animals of interest, seed 40 visually size-matched islets into one well of a 96 well tissue culture plate in 200 microliters of islet culture medium.The next morning, resuspend one aliquot of microspheres in pre-assay medium, such that the final concentration of the compound of interest in the tube is 10 nanograms per microliter and sonicate the microspheres in an ice water bath for 10 minutes at 160 watts with 10 second long pulses at four degrees Celsius. Next, carefully remove 100 microliters of islet culture medium from each well without dislodging the islets, and incubate the cultures with 100 microliters of the microsphere containing assay medium. After three days, carefully discard the assay medium from all of the wells without disturbing the islets, and gently wash the islets in 200 microliters of PBS two times.Islets only loosely adhere to a 96 well plate. Therefore, it is critical that medium and PBS are gently removed from each well so that the islets are not accidentally dislodged and discarded. After the second wash, gently immerse the islets in 100 microliters of trypsin EDTA solution for three minutes at room temperature, with gentle pipetting after two minutes.Transfer the entire volume of each well into individual microcentrifuge tubes and add 400 microliters of islet culture medium to each tube to stop the dissociation. After collecting the microsphere treated islets by centrifugation, use a micropipette to gently remove the supernatants and resuspend the pellets in 200 microliters of fresh islet culture medium. Then spin the dissociated islets onto charged microscope slides on a cytocentrifuge.After air drying, draw a box around the islets with a hydrophobic marking pen and fix the cells in 75 microliters of four percent paraformaldehyde at room temperature for 10 minutes, followed by two washes with 75 microliters of PBS. After the second watch, permeabolize the cells with 75 microliters of 0.2%Triton X-100 in PBS for 10 minutes, followed by a final wash with 75 microliters of PBS alone. To immunolabel the islets, begin by placing the slides cell side up in a humid chamber and remove the PBS.Next, block the non-specific binding with 75 microliters of normal donkey serum at room temperature. After one hour, replace the serum with 75 microliters of the primary antibody of interest for another hour at room temperature. At the end of the incubation, carefully aspirate the primary antibody solution and wash the samples with 375 microliter PBS washes.Then incubate the islets with 75 microliters of the appropriate immunofluorescent tagged secondary antibody for a one hour incubation at room temperature protected from light. At the end of the incubation, replace the secondary antibody solution with 75 microliters of Dappy for three minutes, followed by a five minute rinse in deionized water. At the end of the wash, spot a 100 microliter drop of fast-drying mounting solution containing anti-fade reagent onto a glass cover slip and invert one microscope slide, sample side down, onto the mounting solution.The largest fraction of microspheres will be between 1-10 microns in diameter, although some microspheres may be larger. Following the dispersal of the intact PLGA microsphere treated islets and their subsequent immunolabeling, it is common to observe regions of the sample devoid of any labeling between the cells, caused by intact microspheres that have not been completely removed during the wash steps. After imaging, the percentage of Ki67 insulin positive cells can be quantified using software image analysis, or by manually counting the total number of labeled cells.Treating the intact islets with recombinant human connective tissue growth factor PLGA microspheres for three days as just demonstrated results in an increased beta-cell proliferation, demonstrating that the protein does not lose any functionality during the microsphere generation. Once mastered, this technique can yield results in less than one week if it is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it is important to remember that the impact on beta-cell proliferation in your experiment will vary depending on the compound of interest and the exact release kinetics of the generated microspheres.Following this procedure, other methods, such as cotransplantation of compound-loaded microspheres with intact pancreatic islets, can be performed to address other questions such as can the compound of interest induce beta-cell proliferation in vivo. PLGA has a history of use in devices and drug delivery systems that have been approved by the FDA, thus it represents a good choice for researchers and clinicians looking to deliver therapeutic cargo to defied tissues over an extended period of time. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to generate compound-loaded PLGA microspheres and administer them to cultured intact islets.Don't forget that working with paraformaldehyde can be extremely hazardous and that precautions, such as wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment, should always be taken while performing this procedure.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic valve leaflets are composed of interstitial cells suspended within an extracellular matrix (ECM) and are lined with an endothelial cell monolayer. The valve withstands a harsh, dynamic environment and is constantly exposed to shear, flexion, tension, and compression. Research has shown calcific lesions in diseased valves occur in areas of high mechanical stress as a result of endothelial disruption or interstitial matrix damage1-3. Hence, it is not surprising that epidemiological studies have shown high blood pressure to be a leading risk factor in the onset of aortic valve disease4. 
The only treatment option currently available for valve disease is surgical replacement of the diseased valve with a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve5. Improved understanding of valve biology in response to physical stresses would help elucidate the mechanisms of valve pathogenesis. In turn, this could help in the development of non-invasive therapies such as pharmaceutical intervention or prevention. Several bioreactors have been previously developed to study the mechanobiology of native or engineered heart valves6-9. Pulsatile bioreactors have also been developed to study a range of tissues including cartilage10, bone11 and bladder12. The aim of this work was to develop a cyclic pressure system that could be used to elucidate the biological response of aortic valve leaflets to increased pressure loads. 
The system consisted of an acrylic chamber in which to place samples and produce cyclic pressure, viton diaphragm solenoid valves to control the timing of the pressure cycle, and a computer to control electrical devices. The pressure was monitored using a pressure transducer, and the signal was conditioned using a load cell conditioner. A LabVIEW program regulated the pressure using an analog device to pump compressed air into the system at the appropriate rate. The system mimicked the dynamic transvalvular pressure levels associated with the aortic valve; a saw tooth wave produced a gradual increase in pressure, typical of the transvalvular pressure gradient that is present across the valve during diastole, followed by a sharp pressure drop depicting valve opening in systole. The LabVIEW program allowed users to control the magnitude and frequency of cyclic pressure. The system was able to subject tissue samples to physiological and pathological pressure conditions. This device can be used to increase our understanding of how heart valves respond to changes in the local mechanical environment.

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

A cyclic pressure bioreactor capable of subjecting heart valve tissue to physiological and pathological pressure conditions has been designed. A LabVIEW program allows users to control pressure magnitude, amplitude and frequency. This device can be used to study the mechanobiology of heart valve tissue or isolated cells.

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic ...

Ex vivo Mimicry of Normal and Abnormal Human Hematopoiesis

Hematopoietic stem cells require a unique microenvironment in order to sustain blood cell formation1; the bone marrow (BM) is a complex three-dimensional (3D) tissue wherein hematopoiesis is regulated by spatially organized cellular microenvironments termed niches2-4. The organization of the BM niches is critical for the function or dysfunction of normal or malignant BM5. Therefore a better understanding of the in vivo microenvironment using an ex vivo mimicry would help us elucidate the molecular, cellular and microenvironmental determinants of leukemogenesis6.
Currently, hematopoietic cells are cultured in vitro in two-dimensional (2D) tissue culture flasks/well-plates7 requiring either co-culture with allogenic or xenogenic stromal cells or addition of exogenous cytokines8. These conditions are artificial and differ from the in vivo microenvironment in that they lack the 3D cellular niches and expose the cells to abnormally high cytokine concentrations which can result in differentiation and loss of pluripotency9,10.
Herein, we present a novel 3D bone marrow culture system that simulates the in vivo 3D growth environment and supports multilineage hematopoiesis in the absence of exogenous growth factors. The highly porous scaffold used in this system made of polyurethane (PU), facilitates high-density cell growth across a higher specific surface area than the conventional monolayer culture in 2D11. Our work has indicated that this model supported the growth of human cord blood (CB) mononuclear cells (MNC)12 and primary leukemic cells in the absence of exogenous cytokines. This novel 3D mimicry provides a viable platform for the development of a human experimental model to study hematopoiesis and to explore novel treatments for leukemia.

Ex vivo Mimicry of Normal and Abnormal Human Hematopoiesis

A 3D culture system for hematopoiesis is described using human cord blood and leukemic bone marrow cells. The method is based on the use of a porous synthetic polyurethane scaffold coated with extracellular matrix proteins. This scaffold is adaptable to accommodate a wide range of cells.

Hematopoietic stem cells require a unique microenvironment in order to sustain blood cell formation1; the bone marrow (BM) is a complex three-dimensional ...

Optical Frequency Domain Imaging of Ex vivo Pulmonary Resection Specimens: Obtaining One to One Image to Histopathology Correlation

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths1. Squamous cell and small cell cancers typically arise in association with the conducting airways, whereas adenocarcinomas are typically more peripheral in location. Lung malignancy detection early in the disease process may be difficult due to several limitations: radiological resolution, bronchoscopic limitations in evaluating tissue underlying the airway mucosa and identifying early pathologic changes, and small sample size and/or incomplete sampling in histology biopsies. High resolution imaging modalities, such as optical frequency domain imaging (OFDI), provide non-destructive, large area 3-dimensional views of tissue microstructure to depths approaching 2 mm in real time (Figure 1)2-6. OFDI has been utilized in a variety of applications, including evaluation of coronary artery atherosclerosis6,7 and esophageal intestinal metaplasia and dysplasia6,8-10.
Bronchoscopic OCT/OFDI has been demonstrated as a safe in vivo imaging tool for evaluating the pulmonary airways11-23 (Animation). OCT has been assessed in pulmonary airways16,23 and parenchyma17,22 of animal models and in vivo human airway14,15. OCT imaging of normal airway has demonstrated visualization of airway layering and alveolar attachments, and evaluation of dysplastic lesions has been found useful in distinguishing grades of dysplasia in the bronchial mucosa11,12,20,21. OFDI imaging of bronchial mucosa has been demonstrated in a short bronchial segment (0.8 cm)18. Additionally, volumetric OFDI spanning multiple airway generations in swine and human pulmonary airways in vivo has been described19. Endobronchial OCT/OFDI is typically performed using thin, flexible catheters, which are compatible with standard bronchoscopic access ports. Additionally, OCT and OFDI needle-based probes have recently been developed, which may be used to image regions of the lung beyond the airway wall or pleural surface17.
While OCT/OFDI has been utilized and demonstrated as feasible for in vivo pulmonary imaging, no studies with precisely matched one-to-one OFDI:histology have been performed. Therefore, specific imaging criteria for various pulmonary pathologies have yet to be developed. Histopathological counterparts obtained in vivo consist of only small biopsy fragments, which are difficult to correlate with large OFDI datasets. Additionally, they do not provide the comprehensive histology needed for registration with large volume OFDI. As a result, specific imaging features of pulmonary pathology cannot be developed in the in vivo setting. Precisely matched, one-to-one OFDI and histology correlation is vital to accurately evaluate features seen in OFDI against histology as a gold standard in order to derive specific image interpretation criteria for pulmonary neoplasms and other pulmonary pathologies. Once specific imaging criteria have been developed and validated ex vivo with matched one-to-one histology, the criteria may then be applied to in vivo imaging studies. Here, we present a method for precise, one to one correlation between high resolution optical imaging and histology in ex vivo lung resection specimens. Throughout this manuscript, we describe the techniques used to match OFDI images to histology. However, this method is not specific to OFDI and can be used to obtain histology-registered images for any optical imaging technique. We performed airway centered OFDI with a specialized custom built bronchoscopic 2.4 French (0.8 mm diameter) catheter. Tissue samples were marked with tissue dye, visible in both OFDI and histology. Careful orientation procedures were used to precisely correlate imaging and histological sampling locations. The techniques outlined in this manuscript were used to conduct the first demonstration of volumetric OFDI with precise correlation to tissue-based diagnosis for evaluating pulmonary pathology24. This straightforward, effective technique may be extended to other tissue types to provide precise imaging to histology correlation needed to determine fine imaging features of both normal and diseased tissues.

Optical Frequency Domain Imaging of Ex vivo Pulmonary Resection Specimens: Obtaining One to One Image to Histopathology Correlation

A method to image ex vivo pulmonary resection specimens with optical frequency domain imaging (OFDI) and obtain precise correlation to histology is described, which is essential to developing specific OFDI interpretation criteria for pulmonary pathology. This method is applicable to other tissue types and imaging techniques to obtain precise imaging to histology correlation for accurate image interpretation and assessment. Imaging criteria established with this technique would then be applicable to image assessment in future in vivo studies.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths1. Squamous cell and small cell cancers typically arise in association with the conducting ...

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Programming Stem Cells for Therapeutic Angiogenesis Using Biodegradable Polymeric Nanoparticles

Controlled vascular growth is critical for successful tissue regeneration and wound healing, as well as for treating ischemic diseases such as stroke, heart attack or peripheral arterial diseases. Direct delivery of angiogenic growth factors has the potential to stimulate new blood vessel growth, but is often associated with limitations such as lack of targeting and short half-life in vivo. Gene therapy offers an alternative approach by delivering genes encoding angiogenic factors, but often requires using virus, and is limited by safety concerns. Here we describe a recently developed strategy for stimulating vascular growth by programming stem cells to overexpress angiogenic factors in situ using biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles. Specifically our strategy utilized stem cells as delivery vehicles by taking advantage of their ability to migrate toward ischemic tissues in vivo. Using the optimized polymeric vectors, adipose-derived stem cells were modified to overexpress an angiogenic gene encoding vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). We described the processes for polymer synthesis, nanoparticle formation, transfecting stem cells in vitro, as well as methods for validating the efficacy of VEGF-expressing stem cells for promoting angiogenesis in a murine hindlimb ischemia model.

We describe the method of programming stem cells to overexpress therapeutic factors for angiogenesis using biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles. Processes described include polymer synthesis, transfecting adipose-derived stem cells in vitro, and validating the efficacy of programmed stem cells to promote angiogenesis in a murine hindlimb ischemia model.

Controlled vascular growth is critical for successful tissue regeneration and wound healing, as well as for treating ischemic diseases such as stroke, ...

Intra-lymph Node Injection of Biodegradable Polymer Particles

Generation of adaptive immune response relies on efficient drainage or trafficking of antigen to lymph nodes for processing and presentation of these foreign molecules to T and B lymphocytes. Lymph nodes have thus become critical targets for new vaccines and immunotherapies. A recent strategy for targeting these tissues is direct lymph node injection of soluble vaccine components, and clinical trials involving this technique have been promising. Several biomaterial strategies have also been investigated to improve lymph node targeting, for example, tuning particle size for optimal drainage of biomaterial vaccine particles. In this paper we present a new method that combines direct lymph node injection with biodegradable polymer particles that can be laden with antigen, adjuvant, or other vaccine components. In this method polymeric microparticles or nanoparticles are synthesized by a modified double emulsion protocol incorporating lipid stabilizers. Particle properties (e.g.&#160;size, cargo loading) are confirmed by laser diffraction and fluorescent microscopy, respectively. Mouse lymph nodes are then identified by peripheral injection of a nontoxic tracer dye that allows visualization of the target injection site and subsequent deposition of polymer particles in lymph nodes. This technique allows direct control over the doses and combinations of biomaterials and vaccine components delivered to lymph nodes and could be harnessed in the development of new biomaterial-based vaccines.

Lymph nodes are the immunological tissues that orchestrate immune response and are a critical target for vaccines. Biomaterials have been employed to better target lymph nodes and to control delivery of antigens or adjuvants. This paper describes a technique combining these ideas to inject biocompatible polymer particles into lymph nodes.

Generation of adaptive immune response relies on efficient drainage or trafficking of antigen to lymph nodes for processing and presentation of these ...

The Use of the Ex Vivo Chandler Loop Apparatus to Assess the Biocompatibility of Modified Polymeric Blood Conduits

The foreign body reaction occurs when a synthetic surface is introduced to the body. It is characterized by adsorption of blood proteins and the subsequent attachment and activation of platelets, monocyte/macrophage adhesion, and inflammatory cell signaling events, leading to post-procedural complications. The Chandler Loop Apparatus is an experimental system that allows researchers to study the molecular and cellular interactions that occur when large volumes of blood are perfused over polymeric conduits. To that end, this apparatus has been used as an ex vivo model allowing the assessment of the anti-inflammatory properties of various polymer surface modifications. Our laboratory has shown that blood conduits, covalently modified via photoactivation chemistry with recombinant CD47, can confer biocompatibility to polymeric surfaces. Appending CD47 to polymeric surfaces could be an effective means to promote the efficacy of polymeric blood conduits. Herein is the methodology detailing the photoactivation chemistry used to append recombinant CD47 to clinically relevant polymeric blood conduits and the use of the Chandler Loop as an ex vivo experimental model to examine blood interactions with the CD47 modified and control conduits.

The Use of the Ex Vivo Chandler Loop Apparatus to Assess the Biocompatibility of Modified Polymeric Blood Conduits

Blood exposure to polymeric blood conduits initiates the foreign body reaction that has been implicated in clinical complications. Here, the Chandler Loop Apparatus, an experimental tool mimicking blood perfusion through these conduits, is described. Appendage of recombinant CD47 results in decreased evidence of the foreign body reaction on these conduits.

The foreign body reaction occurs when a synthetic surface is introduced to the body. It is characterized by adsorption of blood proteins and the ...

Preparation, Administration, and Assessment of In Vivo Tissue-Specific Cellular Uptake of Fluorescent Dye-Labeled Liposomes

There is a growing interest in using liposomes to deliver compounds in vivo particularly for targeted treatment approaches. Depending on the liposome formulation, liposomes may be preferentially taken up by different cell types in the body. This may influence the efficacy of the therapeutic particle as progression of different diseases is tissue- and cell-type-specific. In this protocol, we present one method for synthesizing and fluorescently labeling liposomes using DSPC, cholesterol, and PEG-2000 DSPE and the lipid dye DiD as a fluorescent label. This protocol also presents an approach for delivering liposomes in vivo and assessing cell-specific uptake of liposomes using flow cytometry. This approach can be used to determine the types of cells that take up liposomes and quantify the distribution and proportion of liposome-uptake across cell types and tissues. While not mentioned in this protocol, additional assays such as immunofluorescence and single-cell fluorescence imaging on a cytometer will strengthen any findings or conclusions made as they permit assessment of intracellular staining. Protocols may also need to be adapted depending on the tissue(s) of interest.

The goal of this protocol is to synthesize fluorescently-labeled liposomes and use flow cytometry to identify in vivo localization of liposomes at a cellular level.

There is a growing interest in using liposomes to deliver compounds in vivo particularly for targeted treatment approaches. Depending on the liposome ...

Procurement and Decellularization of Rat Hindlimbs Using an Ex Vivo Perfusion-Based Bioreactor for Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation

Patients with severe traumatic injuries and tissue loss require complex surgical reconstruction. Vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) is an evolving reconstructive avenue for transferring multiple tissues as a composite subunit. Despite the promising nature of VCA, the long-term immunosuppressive requirements are a significant limitation due to the increased risk of malignancies, end-organ toxicity, and opportunistic infections. Tissue engineering of acellular composite scaffolds is a potential alternative in reducing the need for immunosuppression. Herein, the procurement of a rat hindlimb and its subsequent decellularization using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is described. The procurement strategy presented is based upon the common femoral artery. A machine perfusion-based bioreactor system was constructed and used for ex vivo decellularization of the hindlimb. Successful perfusion decellularization was performed, resulting in a white translucent-like appearance of the hindlimb. An intact, perfusable, vascular network throughout the hindlimb was observed. Histological analyses showed the removal of nuclear contents and the preservation of tissue architecture across all tissue compartments.

Procurement and Decellularization of Rat Hindlimbs Using an Ex Vivo Perfusion-Based Bioreactor for Vascularized Composite Allotransplantation

We describe the surgical technique and decellularization process for composite rat hindlimbs. Decellularization is conducted using low-concentration sodium dodecyl sulfate through an ex vivo machine perfusion system.

Patients with severe traumatic injuries and tissue loss require complex surgical reconstruction. Vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) is an ...

&quot;Avatar&quot;- Optimized Ex Vivo Work Loop Experiment to Emulate In Vivo Muscle Force

"Avatar", a Modified Ex vivo Work Loop Experiments Using In vivo Strain and Activation

Movement behaviors are emergent features of dynamic systems that result from muscle force production and work output. The interplay between neural and mechanical systems occurs at all levels of biological organization concurrently, from the tuning of leg muscle properties while running to the dynamics of the limbs interacting with the ground. Understanding the conditions under which animals shift their neural control strategies toward intrinsic muscle mechanics (&#39;preflexes&#39;) in the control hierarchy would allow muscle models to predict in vivo muscle force and work more accurately. To understand in vivo muscle mechanics, ex vivo investigation of muscle force and work under dynamically varying strain and loading conditions similar to in vivo locomotion is required. In vivo strain trajectories typically exhibit abrupt changes (i.e., strain and velocity transients) that arise from interactions among neural activation, musculoskeletal kinematics, and loads applied by the environment. The principal goal of our &#34;avatar&#34; technique is to investigate how muscles function during abrupt changes in strain rate and loading when the contribution of intrinsic mechanical properties to muscle force production may be highest. In the &#34;avatar&#34; technique, the traditional work-loop approach is modified using measured in vivo strain trajectories and electromyographic (EMG) signals from animals during dynamic movements to drive ex vivo muscles through multiple stretch-shortening cycles. This approach is similar to the work-loop technique, except that in vivo strain trajectories are scaled appropriately and imposed on ex vivo mouse muscles attached to a servo motor. This technique allows one to: (1) emulate in vivo strain, activation, stride frequency, and work-loop patterns; (2) vary these patterns to match in vivo force responses most accurately; and (3) vary specific features of strain and/or activation in controlled combinations to test mechanistic hypotheses.

Author Spotlight: Bridging the Gap Between In Vivo and Ex Vivo Studies with the &quot;Avatar&quot; Technique to Advance Muscle Mechanics Research 

This article details the methodology for emulating in vivo muscle force production during ex vivo work loop experiments using an "avatar" muscle from a laboratory rodent to assess the contributions of strain transients and activation to the muscle force response.

Movement behaviors are emergent features of dynamic systems that result from muscle force production and work output. The interplay between neural and ...