Name: monitoring extracellular ph in cross-kingdom biofilms using confocal microscopy
Uploaded: 2020-01-30T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Extracellular pH in Cross-Kingdom Biofilms using Confocal Microscopy at JoVE.com

Anette Aakj&#230;r Thomsen and Javier E. Garcia are acknowledged for excellent technical support. The authors thank Rubens Spin-Neto for fruitful discussions on image analysis.

The protocol for saliva collection was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Aarhus County (M-20100032).
1. Cultivation of Cross-kingdom Biofilms
<ol>
	<li>Grow S. mutans DSM 20523 and C. albicans NCPF 3179 on blood agar plates at 37 &#176;C under aerobic conditions.</li>
	<li>Transfer single colonies of each organism to test tubes filled with 5 mL of brain heart infusion (BHI). Grow for 18 h under aerobic conditions at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the overni...

<ol>
	<li>Siqueira, J. F., Sen, B. 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Is there any relationship.</a> Revista Iberoamericana De Micologia. 35 (3), 134-139 (2018).</li><li>Xu, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptococcal+co-infection+augments+Candida+pathogenicity+by+amplifying+the+mucosal+inflammatory+response.">Streptococcal co-infection augments Candida pathogenicity by amplifying the mucosal inflammatory response.</a> Cellular Microbiology. 16 (2), 214-231 (2014).</li><li>Xu, H., Sobue, T., Bertolini, M., Thompson, A., Dongari-Bagtzoglou, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptococcus+oralis+and+Candida+albicans+Synergistically+Activate+&#956;-Calpain+to+Degrade+E-cadherin+From+Oral+Epithelial+Junctions.">Streptococcus oralis and Candida albicans Synergistically Activate &#956;-Calpain to Degrade E-cadherin From Oral Epithelial Junctions.</a> The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 214 (6), 925-934 (2016).</li><li>Dongari-Bagtzoglou, A., Kashleva, H., Dwivedi, P., Diaz, P., Vasilakos, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+mucosal+Candida+albicans+biofilms.">Characterization of mucosal Candida albicans biofilms.</a> PloS One. 4 (11), 7967 (2009).</li><li>Diaz, P. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synergistic+interaction+between+Candida+albicans+and+commensal+oral+streptococci+in+a+novel+in+vitro+mucosal+model.">Synergistic interaction between Candida albicans and commensal oral streptococci in a novel in vitro mucosal model.</a> Infection and Immunity. 80 (2), 620-632 (2012).</li><li>Xiao, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Candida+albicans+and+Early+Childhood+Caries:+A+Systematic+Review+and+Meta-Analysis.">Candida albicans and Early Childhood Caries: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.</a> Caries Research. 52 (1-2), 102-112 (2018).</li><li>Falsetta, M. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Symbiotic+relationship+between+Streptococcus+mutans+and+Candida+albicans+synergizes+virulence+of+plaque+biofilms+in+vivo.">Symbiotic relationship between Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans synergizes virulence of plaque biofilms in vivo.</a> Infection and Immunity. 82 (5), 1968-1981 (2014).</li><li>Hwang, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Candida+albicans+mannans+mediate+Streptococcus+mutans+exoenzyme+GtfB+binding+to+modulate+cross-kingdom+biofilm+development+in+vivo.">Candida albicans mannans mediate Streptococcus mutans exoenzyme GtfB binding to modulate cross-kingdom biofilm development in vivo.</a> PLoS Pathogens. 13 (6), 1006407 (2017).</li><li>Koo, H., Falsetta, M. L., Klein, M. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+exopolysaccharide+matrix:+a+virulence+determinant+of+cariogenic+biofilm.">The exopolysaccharide matrix: a virulence determinant of cariogenic biofilm.</a> Journal of Dental Research. 92 (12), 1065-1073 (2013).</li><li>Schlafer, S., Dige, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ratiometric+Imaging+of+Extracellular+pH+in+Dental+Biofilms.">Ratiometric Imaging of Extracellular pH in Dental Biofilms.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (109), 53622 (2016).</li><li>Schlafer, S., Kamp, A., Garcia, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+confocal+microscopy-based+method+to+monitor+extracellular+pH+in+fungal+biofilms.">A confocal microscopy-based method to monitor extracellular pH in fungal biofilms.</a> FEMS Yeast Research. 18 (5), (2018).</li><li>Schlafer, S., B&#230;lum, V., Dige, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+pH-ratiometry+for+the+three-dimensional+mapping+of+pH+microenvironments+in+biofilms+under+flow+conditions.">Improved pH-ratiometry for the three-dimensional mapping of pH microenvironments in biofilms under flow conditions.</a> Journal of Microbiological Methods. 152, 194-200 (2018).</li><li>Hidalgo, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+tomographic+fluorescence+imaging+of+pH+microenvironments+in+microbial+biofilms+by+use+of+silica+nanoparticle+sensors.">Functional tomographic fluorescence imaging of pH microenvironments in microbial biofilms by use of silica nanoparticle sensors.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 75 (23), 7426-7435 (2009).</li><li>Vroom, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Depth+Penetration+and+Detection+of+pH+Gradients+in+Biofilms+by+Two-Photon+Excitation+Microscopy.">Depth Penetration and Detection of pH Gradients in Biofilms by Two-Photon Excitation Microscopy.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 65, 3502-3511 (1999).</li><li>Lawrence, J. R., Swerhone, G. D. W., Kuhlicke, U., Neu, T. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+evidence+for+metabolic+and+chemical+microdomains+in+the+structured+polymer+matrix+of+bacterial+microcolonies.">In situ evidence for metabolic and chemical microdomains in the structured polymer matrix of bacterial microcolonies.</a> FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 92 (11), (2016).</li><li>Franks, A. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+strategy+for+three-dimensional+real-time+imaging+of+microbial+fuel+cell+communities:+monitoring+the+inhibitory+effects+of+proton+accumulation+within+the+anode+biofilm.">Novel strategy for three-dimensional real-time imaging of microbial fuel cell communities: monitoring the inhibitory effects of proton accumulation within the anode biofilm.</a> Energy Environmental Science. 2 (1), 113-119 (2009).</li><li>de Jong, M. H., van der Hoeven, J. S., van OS, J. H., Olijve, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Growth+of+oral+Streptococcus+species+and+Actinomyces+viscosus+in+human+saliva.">Growth of oral Streptococcus species and Actinomyces viscosus in human saliva.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 47 (5), 901-904 (1984).</li><li>Schneider, C. A., Rasband, W. S., Eliceiri, K. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NIH+Image+to+ImageJ:+25+years+of+image+analysis.">NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis.</a> Nature Methods. 9 (7), 671-675 (2012).</li><li>Daims, H., L&#252;cker, S., Wagner, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Daime,+a+novel+image+analysis+program+for+microbial+ecology+and+biofilm+research.">Daime, a novel image analysis program for microbial ecology and biofilm research.</a> Environmental Microbiology. 8 (2), 200-213 (2006).</li><li>Barbosa, J. O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Streptococcus+mutans+Can+Modulate+Biofilm+Formation+and+Attenuate+the+Virulence+of+Candida+albicans.">Streptococcus mutans Can Modulate Biofilm Formation and Attenuate the Virulence of Candida albicans.</a> PloS One. 11 (3), 0150457 (2016).</li><li>Thein, Z. M., Samaranayake, Y. H., Samaranayake, L. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+oral+bacteria+on+growth+and+survival+of+Candida+albicans+biofilms.">Effect of oral bacteria on growth and survival of Candida albicans biofilms.</a> Archives of Oral Biology. 51 (8), 672-680 (2006).</li><li>Krzy&#347;ciak, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+a+Lactobacillus+Salivarius+Probiotic+on+a+Double-Species+Streptococcus+Mutans+and+Candida+Albicans+Caries+Biofilm.">Effect of a Lactobacillus Salivarius Probiotic on a Double-Species Streptococcus Mutans and Candida Albicans Caries Biofilm.</a> Nutrients. 9 (11), 1242 (2017).</li><li>Liu, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nicotine+Enhances+Interspecies+Relationship+between+Streptococcus+mutans+and+Candida+albicans.">Nicotine Enhances Interspecies Relationship between Streptococcus mutans and Candida albicans.</a> BioMed Research International. 2017, 7953920 (2017).</li><li>Schlafer, S., Meyer, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Confocal+microscopy+imaging+of+the+biofilm+matrix.">Confocal microscopy imaging of the biofilm matrix.</a> Journal of Microbiological Methods. 138, 50-59 (2017).</li><li>Schlafer, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ratiometric+imaging+of+extracellular+pH+in+bacterial+biofilms+with+C-SNARF-4.">Ratiometric imaging of extracellular pH in bacterial biofilms with C-SNARF-4.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 81 (4), 1267-1273 (2015).</li><li>Ohle, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+microsensor+measurement+of+local+metabolic+activities+in+ex+vivo+dental+biofilms+exposed+to+sucrose+and+treated+with+chlorhexidine.">Real-time microsensor measurement of local metabolic activities in ex vivo dental biofilms exposed to sucrose and treated with chlorhexidine.</a> Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 76 (7), 2326-2334 (2010).</li><li>Schlafer, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=pH+landscapes+in+a+novel+five-species+model+of+early+dental+biofilm.">pH landscapes in a novel five-species model of early dental biofilm.</a> PloS One. 6 (9), 25299 (2011).</li><li>Divaris, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Supragingival+Biofilm+in+Early+Childhood+Caries:+Clinical+and+Laboratory+Protocols+and+Bioinformatics+Pipelines+Supporting+Metagenomics,+Metatranscriptomics,+and+Metabolomics+Studies+of+the+Oral+Microbiome.">The Supragingival Biofilm in Early Childhood Caries: Clinical and Laboratory Protocols and Bioinformatics Pipelines Supporting Metagenomics, Metatranscriptomics, and Metabolomics Studies of the Oral Microbiome.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1922, 525-548 (2019).</li><li>Stewart, P. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mini+review:+convection+around+biofilms.">Mini review: convection around biofilms.</a> Biofouling. 28 (2), 187-198 (2012).</li><li>Stoodley, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biofilms:+Flow+disrupts+communication.">Biofilms: Flow disrupts communication.</a> Nature Microbiology. 1, 15012 (2016).</li></ol>

Different protocols for the cultivation of cross-kingdom biofilms involving C. albicans and Streptococcus spp. have been described previously9,22,23,24,25. However, the present setup focuses on simple growth conditions, a time schedule compatible with regular working days, a balanced species composition, and the development of a volu...

Cross-kingdom biofilms comprising both fungal and bacterial species are involved in several pathologic conditions in the oral cavity. Candida spp. have frequently been isolated from endodontic infections1 and from periodontal lesions2,3. In mucosal infections, streptococcal species from the mitis group have been shown to enhance fungal biofilm formation, tissue invasion, and dissemination in both in vitro and murine models4,5,6,7. Most interestingly, oral carriage of Candida spp. has been proven to be associated with the prevalence of caries in children8. As shown in rodent models, a symbiotic relationship between Streptococcus mutans and Candidas albicans increases the production of extracellular polysaccharides and leads to the formation of thicker and more cariogenic biofilms9,10.
In all of the above-mentioned conditions, early childhood caries in particular, the biofilm pH is of importance for disease progression, and the eminent role of the biofilm matrix for the development of acidogenic microenvironments11 calls for methodologies that allow studying pH changes inside cross-kingdom biofilms. Simple and accurate confocal microscopy-based approaches to monitor pH inside bacterial12 and fungal13 biofilms have been developed. With the ratiometric dye C-SNARF-4 and threshold-based image post-processing, extracellular pH can be determined in real-time in all three dimensions of a biofilm14. Compared to other published techniques for microscopy-based pH-monitoring in biofilms, pH ratiometry with C-SNARF-4 is simple and cheap, because it does not require the synthesis of particles or compounds that include a reference dye15 or the use of two-photon excitation16. The use of just one dye prevents problems with probe compartmentalization, fluorescent bleed-through, and selective bleaching16,17,18 while still allowing for a reliable differentiation between intra- and extracellular pH. Finally, incubation with the dye is performed after biofilm growth, which allows studying both laboratory and in situ-grown biofilms.
The aim of the present work is to extend the use of pH ratiometry and provide a method to study pH changes in cross-kingdom biofilms. As proof of concept, the method is used to monitor pH in dual species biofilms consisting of S. mutans and C. albicans exposed to glucose.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Blood agar plates</td>
			<td>Statens Serum Institut</td>
			<td>677</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brain heart infusion</td>
			<td>Oxoid</td>
			<td>CM1135</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Brain heart infusion + 5 % sucrose</td>
			<td>BDH laboratory supplies</td>
			<td>10274</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Candida albicans</td>
			<td>National Collection of Pathogenic Fungi</td>
			<td>NCPF 3179</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-(+)-Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>daime: digital image analysis in microbial ecology</td>
			<td>Universit&#228;t Wien</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Freeware; V2.1; <a href="https://dome.csb.univie.ac.at/daime" target="_blank">https://dome.csb.univie.ac.at/daime</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>D12345</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>Gibco Life technologies</td>
			<td>10270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GS-6R refrigerated centrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Freeware; V1.46r; <a href="https://imagej.nih.gov/ij" target="_blank">https://imagej.nih.gov/ij</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Java</td>
			<td>Oracle</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Freeware necessary to run ImageJ; V8.0; <a href="https://java.com/en/download" target="_blank">https://java.com/en/download</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#181;-Plate 96 Well Black</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>89626</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MyCurveFit</td>
			<td>MyAssays Ltd.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES) buffer</td>
			<td>Bioworld</td>
			<td>700728</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PHM210 pH-meter</td>
			<td>Radiometer Analytical</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plan-Apochromat 63x oil immersion objective</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>NA=1.4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SNARF&#174;-4F 5-(and-6)-Carboxylic Acid</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>S23920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile physiological saline</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>6404</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptococcus mutans</td>
			<td>Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen</td>
			<td>DSM 20523</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vis-spectrophotometer V-3000PC</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XL Incubator</td>
			<td>PeCON</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zeiss LSM 510 META</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

monitoring extracellular ph in cross-kingdom biofilms using confocal microscopy

Cross-kingdom biofilms consisting of both fungal and bacterial cells are involved in a variety of oral diseases, such as endodontic infections, periodontitis, mucosal infections and, most notably, early childhood caries. In all of these conditions, the pH in the biofilm matrix impacts microbe-host interactions and thus the disease progression. The present protocol describes a confocal microscopy-based method to monitor pH dynamics inside cross-kingdom biofilms comprising Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans. The pH-dependent dual-emission spectrum and the staining properties of the ratiometric probe C-SNARF-4 are exploited to determine drops in pH in extracellular areas of the biofilms. Use of pH ratiometry with the probe requires a meticulous choice of imaging parameters, a thorough calibration of the dye, and careful, threshold-based post-processing of the image data. When used correctly, the technique allows for the rapid assessment of extracellular pH in different areas of a biofilm and thus the monitoring of both horizontal and vertical pH gradients over time. While the use of confocal microscopy limits Z-profiling to thin biofilms of 75 &#181;m or less, the use of pH ratiometry is ideally suited for the noninvasive study of an important virulence factor in cross-kingdom biofilms.

After 24 h and 48 h, robust cross-kingdom biofilms developed in the well plates. C. albicans showed varying degrees of filamentous growth, and S. mutans formed dense clusters of up to 35 &#181;m in height. Single cells and chains of S. mutans grouped around fungal hyphae, and large intercellular spaces indicated the presence of a voluminous matrix (Figure S1).
Calibration of the ratiometric dye yields an asymmetrical sigmoidal curve...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Monitoring Extracellular pH in Cross-Kingdom Biofilms using Confocal Microscopy at JoVE.com

Monitoring Extracellular pH in Cross-Kingdom Biofilms using Confocal Microscopy

The protocol describes the cultivation of cross-kingdom biofilms consisting of Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans and presents a confocal microscopy-based method for the monitoring of extracellular pH inside these biofilms.

Cross-kingdom biofilms consisting of both fungal and bacterial cells are involved in a variety of oral diseases, such as endodontic infections, ...

The protocol presents an easy-to-perform method for the cultivation of cross-kingdom biofilms consisting of StreptococcuS. mutans and Candida albicans. Subsequent confocal microscopy-based pH ratiometry allows for accurate monitoring of pH developments inside the extracellular matrix of those biofilms.The careful choice of image acquisition parameters is of utmost importance to obtain image data with sufficient contrast for subsequent analysis. pH ratiometry is a rapid, precise, and inexpensive method to study both horizontal and vertical pH gradients in cross-kingdom biofilms in real time. pH ratiometry can also be performed in purely fungal and bacterial biofilms.The method contributes to increase our understanding of microbial metabolism in biofilms. Demonstrating the procedure for biofilm growth will be Anette Aakjaer Thomsen, a technician from my laboratory. Grow S.mutans and C.albicans on blood agar plates at 37 degrees Celsius under aerobic conditions.Then transfer single colonies of each organism to test tubes filled with five milliliters of brain heart infusion and grow them for an additional 18 hours. On the next day, centrifuge the cultures at 1, 200 times g for five minutes and discard the supernatant. Resuspend the cells in physiological saline and adjust the OD 550 to 0.5 for both C.albicans and S.mutans.Then dilute the S.mutans suspension one to 10 to achieve equivalent concentrations. Pipette 50 microliters of sterile salivary solution into the wells of an optical bottom 96-well plate for microscopy. Incubate the plate for 30 minutes at 37 degrees Celsius, then wash the plate three times with 100 microliters of sterile physiological saline and empty the wells.Add 100 microliters of C.albicans suspension to each well, incubate the plate at 37 degrees Celsius for 90 minutes, then wash the well three times with saline. Next, add 100 microliters of heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum to each well. Incubate the plate for two hours, then wash it three times with saline.Empty the wells but leave a 20 microliter reservoir to avoid excessive shear forces. Add 100 microliters of S.mutans suspension and 150 microliters of BHI with 5%sucrose to each well. Then incubate the plate at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours or longer.When cultivating older biofilms, replace the medium daily. At the end of the cross-kingdom growth phase, wash the plate five times with sterile physiological saline. For ratiometric pH imaging, use an inverted confocal laser scanning microscope with a 63X oil or water immersion lens, a 543 nanometer laser line, and a spectral imaging system.Use an incubator to warm the microscope stage to 35 degrees Celsius. Set the detector for simultaneous detection of green fluorescence from 576 to 608 nanometers and red fluorescence from 629 to 661 nanometers. Then choose an appropriate laser power and gain to avoid over and underexposure.Set the pinhole size to one air unit or an optical slice of about 0.8 micrometers. Then set the image size to 512 by 512 pixels and the scan speed to two. Choose a line average of two using the mean option.Prepare 100 microliters of sterile physiological saline with 0.4%glucose titrated to pH seven. Then make a stock solution of C-SNARF-4 and add the dye to a final concentration of 30 micromolar. Empty one of the wells with the cross-kingdom biofilm leaving a 20 microliter reservoir and add the saline with glucose and ratiometric dye.Place the plate on the microscope stage and start imaging. Prepare a series of 50 millimolar MES buffer titrated to pH four to 7.8 in the increments of 0.2 pH units at 35 degrees Celsius. Pipette 150 microliters of each buffer solution into the wells of an optical bottom 96-well plate.Add the dye to the buffer-filled wells at a concentration of 30 micromolar and let it equilibrate for five minutes. Warm the microscope stage to 35 degrees Celsius and choose the same settings as for ratiometric pH imaging previously described. Place the 96-well plate on the microscope stage and focus on the bottom of the wells.Acquire green and red channel images for all buffer solutions. At regular intervals, take images with the laser turned off to correct for detector offset. Perform the calibration experiment in triplicate and export all images as TIFF files.Store the green and red images in separate folders and rename both series of files with sequential numbers. Import the images into dedicated image analysis software such as ImageJ. In the images taken with the laser off, click analyze and histogram to determine the average fluorescence intensity.Subtract this value from the biofilm images by clicking process, math, and subtract. Then import the two image series into daime and perform a threshold-based segmentation of the red channel images by clicking segment, automatic segmentation, and custom threshold. Set the low threshold above the fluorescence intensity of the fungal cytoplasm and the high threshold below the intensity of the fungal cell walls and the bacteria.Then transfer the object layer of the segmented image series to the green channel image series by clicking segment and transfer object layer. Delete non-object pixels in the red and green channel series. Now the biofilm images are cleared from bacterial and fungal cells and can be exported as TIFF files.Import the image series back into ImageJ and divide the red image series by itself. Then multiply the result by the original image series. The resulting image series is identical to the original except all zero intensity pixels are removed.Repeat the process with the green image series. Next, use the mean filter on both image series to compensate for detector noise. Divide the green by the red image series which then yields the green-to-red ratio for all object pixels.Robust cross-kingdom biofilms developed in the well plates after 24 and 48 hours. Single cells and chains of S.mutans grouped around fungal hyphae and large intracellular spaces indicated the presence of a voluminous matrix. The pH in the extracellular space was visualized using a lookup table.The extracellular pH in the biofilms dropped quickly in the first five minutes after exposure to glucose. Thereafter, acidification slowed down typically reaching values of 5.5 to 5.8 after 15 minutes. Due to the local pH changes, fluorescence intensity in the biofilms changed over time.During image segmentation, high and low thresholds were chosen to adequately eliminate all areas covered by bacterial and fungal cells. The blue and green areas were eliminated by the low and high thresholds respectively. The careful choice of image acquisition parameters is crucial to obtain a good contrast between bacterial cells, fungal cells, and the biofilm matrix.If cross-kingdom biofilms are grown in flow cells, pH developments can be monitored under flow condition mimicking those in the oral cavity. pH ratiometry has been employed to identify local areas in dental biofilms with particularly low pH, so called acidogenic hotspots.

monitoring-extracellular-ph-cross-kingdom-biofilms-using-confocal

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps: How to Generate and Visualize Them

Neutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant group of leukocytes in the peripheral blood. As professional phagocytes, they engulf bacteria and kill them intracellularly when their antimicrobial granules fuse with the phagosome. We found that neutrophils have an additional way of killing microorganisms: upon activation, they release granule proteins and chromatin that together form extracellular fibers that bind pathogens. These novel structures, or Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs), degrade virulence factors and kill bacteria1, fungi2 and parasites3. The structural backbone of NETs is DNA, and they are quickly degraded in the presence of DNases. Thus, bacteria expressing DNases are more virulent4. Using correlative microscopy combining TEM, SEM, immunofluorescence and live cell imaging techniques, we could show that upon stimulation, the nuclei of neutrophils lose their shape and the eu- and heterochromatin homogenize. Later, the nuclear envelope and the granule membranes disintegrate allowing the mixing of NET components. Finally, the NETs are released as the cell membrane breaks. This cell death program (NETosis) is distinct from apoptosis and necrosis and depends on the generation of Reactive Oxygen Species by NADPH oxidase5. 
Neutrophil extracellular traps are abundant at sites of acute inflammation. NETs appear to be a form of innate immune response that bind microorganisms, prevent them from spreading, and ensure a high local concentration of antimicrobial agents to degrade virulence factors and kill pathogens thus allowing neutrophils to fulfill their antimicrobial function even beyond their life span. There is increasing evidence, however, that NETs are also involved in diseases that range from auto-immune syndromes to infertility6.
We describe methods to isolate Neutrophil Granulocytes from peripheral human blood7 and stimulate them to form NETs. Also we include protocols to visualize the NETs in light and electron microscopy.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) are an important innate immune mechanism to fight pathogenic bacteria, fungi and parasites. Here we describe methods to isolate neutrophil granulocytes from human blood and to activate them to form NETs. We present preparation techniques to visualize NETs in light and electron microscopy.

Neutrophil granulocytes are the most abundant group of leukocytes in the peripheral blood. As professional phagocytes, they engulf bacteria and kill them ...

Visualizing Cell-to-cell Transfer of HIV using Fluorescent Clones of HIV and Live Confocal Microscopy

By fusing the green fluorescent protein to their favorite proteins, biologists now have the ability to study living complex cellular processes using fluorescence video microscopy. To track the movements of the human immunodeficiency virus core protein during cell-to-cell transmission of human immunodeficiency virus, we have GFP-tagged the Gag protein in the context of an infectious molecular clone of HIV, called HIV Gag-iGFP. We study this viral clone using video confocal microscopy. In the following visualized experiment, we transfect a human T cell line with HIV Gag-iGFP, and we use fluorescently labeled uninfected CD4+ T cells to serve as target cells for the virus. Using the different fluorescent labels we can readily follow viral production and transport across intercellular structures called virological synapses. Simple gas permeable imaging chambers allow us to observe synapses with live confocal microscopy from minutes to days. These approaches can be used to track viral proteins as they move in from one cell to the next.

This visualized experiment is a guide for utilizing a fluorescent molecular clone of HIV for live confocal imaging experiments.

By fusing the green fluorescent protein to their favorite proteins, biologists now have the ability to study living complex cellular processes using ...

A 96 Well Microtiter Plate-based Method for Monitoring Formation and Antifungal Susceptibility Testing of Candida albicans Biofilms

Candida albicans remains the most frequent cause of fungal infections in an expanding population of compromised patients and candidiasis is now the third most common infection in US hospitals. Different manifestations of candidiasis are associated with biofilm formation, both on host tissues and/or medical devices (i.e. catheters). Biofilm formation carries negative clinical implications, as cells within the biofilms are protected from host immune responses and from the action of antifungals. We have developed a simple, fast and robust in vitro model for the formation of C. albicans biofilms using 96 well microtiter-plates, which can also be used for biofilm antifungal susceptibility testing. The readout of this assay is colorimetric, based on the reduction of XTT (a tetrazolium salt) by metabolically active fungal biofilm cells. A typical experiment takes approximately 24 h for biofilm formation, with an additional 24 h for antifungal susceptibility testing. Because of its simplicity and the use of commonly available laboratory materials and equipment, this technique democratizes biofilm research and represents an important step towards the standardization of antifungal susceptibility testing of fungal biofilms.

A 96 Well Microtiter Plate-based Method for Monitoring Formation and Antifungal Susceptibility Testing of Candida albicans Biofilms

We describe a simple, rapid and robust method for the formation of Candida albicans biofilms using 96 well microtiter plates and its utility in antifungal susceptibility testing of cells within biofilms.

Candida albicans remains the most frequent cause of fungal infections in an expanding population of compromised patients and candidiasis is now the third ...

Intravital Microscopy of the Spleen: Quantitative Analysis of Parasite Mobility and Blood Flow

The advent of intravital microscopy in experimental rodent malaria models has allowed major advances to the knowledge of parasite-host interactions 1,2. Thus, in vivo imaging of malaria parasites during pre-erythrocytic stages have revealed the active entrance of parasites into skin lymph nodes 3, the complete development of the parasite in the skin 4, and the formation of a hepatocyte-derived merosome to assure migration and release of merozoites into the blood stream 5. Moreover, the development of individual parasites in erythrocytes has been recently documented using 4D imaging and challenged our current view on protein export in malaria 6. Thus, intravital imaging has radically changed our view on key events in Plasmodium development. Unfortunately, studies of the dynamic passage of malaria parasites through the spleen, a major lymphoid organ exquisitely adapted to clear infected red blood cells are lacking due to technical constraints.
Using the murine model of malaria Plasmodium yoelii in Balb/c mice, we have implemented intravital imaging of the spleen and reported a differential remodeling of it and adherence of parasitized red blood cells (pRBCs) to barrier cells of fibroblastic origin in the red pulp during infection with the non-lethal parasite line P.yoelii 17X as opposed to infections with the P.yoelii 17XL lethal parasite line 7. To reach these conclusions, a specific methodology using ImageJ free software was developed to enable characterization of the fast three-dimensional movement of single-pRBCs. Results obtained with this protocol allow determining velocity, directionality and residence time of parasites in the spleen, all parameters addressing adherence in vivo. In addition, we report the methodology for blood flow quantification using intravital microscopy and the use of different colouring agents to gain insight into the complex microcirculatory structure of the spleen. 
Ethics statement
All the animal studies were performed at the animal facilities of University of Barcelona in accordance with guidelines and protocols approved by the Ethics Committee for Animal Experimentation of the University of Barcelona CEEA-UB (Protocol No DMAH: 5429). Female Balb/c mice of 6-8 weeks of age were obtained from Charles River Laboratories.

We show the method for performing intravital microscopy of the spleen using GFP transgenic malaria parasites and the quantification of parasite mobility and blood flow within this organ.

The advent of intravital microscopy in experimental rodent malaria models has allowed major advances to the knowledge of parasite-host interactions 1,2. ...

Single-cell Analysis of Bacillus subtilis Biofilms Using Fluorescence Microscopy and Flow Cytometry

Biofilm formation is a general attribute to almost all bacteria 1-6. When bacteria form biofilms, cells are encased in extracellular matrix that is mostly constituted by proteins and exopolysaccharides, among other factors 7-10. The microbial community encased within the biofilm often shows the differentiation of distinct subpopulation of specialized cells 11-17. These subpopulations coexist and often show spatial and temporal organization within the biofilm 18-21.
Biofilm formation in the model organism Bacillus subtilis requires the differentiation of distinct subpopulations of specialized cells. Among them, the subpopulation of matrix producers, responsible to produce and secrete the extracellular matrix of the biofilm is essential for biofilm formation 11,19. Hence, differentiation of matrix producers is a hallmark of biofilm formation in B. subtilis.
We have used fluorescent reporters to visualize and quantify the subpopulation of matrix producers in biofilms of B. subtilis 15,19,22-24. Concretely, we have observed that the subpopulation of matrix producers differentiates in response to the presence of self-produced extracellular signal surfactin 25. Interestingly, surfactin is produced by a subpopulation of specialized cells different from the subpopulation of matrix producers 15.
We have detailed in this report the technical approach necessary to visualize and quantify the subpopulation of matrix producers and surfactin producers within the biofilms of B. subtilis. To do this, fluorescent reporters of genes required for matrix production and surfactin production are inserted into the chromosome of B. subtilis. Reporters are expressed only in a subpopulation of specialized cells. Then, the subpopulations can be monitored using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry (See Fig 1).
The fact that different subpopulations of specialized cells coexist within multicellular communities of bacteria gives us a different perspective about the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes. This protocol addresses this phenomenon experimentally and it can be easily adapted to any other working model, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying phenotypic heterogeneity within a microbial community.

Single-cell Analysis of Bacillus subtilis Biofilms Using Fluorescence Microscopy and Flow Cytometry

Microbial biofilms are generally constituted by distinct subpopulations of specialized cells. Single-cell analysis of these subpopulations requires the use of fluorescent reporters. Here we describe a protocol to visualize and monitor several subpopulationswithin B. subtilis biofilms using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry.

Biofilm formation is a general attribute to almost all bacteria 1-6. When bacteria form biofilms, cells are encased in extracellular matrix that is mostly ...

Concurrent Quantification of Cellular and Extracellular Components of Biofilms

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is a powerful tool for investigation of biofilms. Very few investigations have successfully quantified concurrent distribution of more than two components within biofilms because: 1)&#160;selection of fluorescent dyes having minimal spectral overlap is complicated, and 2)&#160;quantification of multiple fluorochromes poses a multifactorial problem. Objectives: Report a methodology to quantify and compare concurrent 3-dimensional distributions of three cellular/extracellular components of biofilms grown on relevant substrates. Methods: The method consists of distinct, interconnected steps involving biofilm growth, staining, CLSM imaging, biofilm structural analysis and visualization, and statistical analysis of structural parameters. Biofilms of Streptococcus mutans (strain UA159) were grown for 48 hr on sterile specimens of Point 4 and TPH3 resin composites. Specimens were subsequently immersed for 60 sec in either Biot&#232;ne PBF (BIO) or Listerine Total Care (LTO) mouthwashes, or water (control group; n=5/group). Biofilms were stained with fluorochromes for extracellular polymeric substances, proteins and nucleic acids before imaging with CLSM. Biofilm structural parameters calculated using ISA3D image analysis software were biovolume and mean biofilm thickness. Mixed models statistical analyses compared structural parameters between mouthwash and control groups (SAS software; &#945;=0.05). Volocity software permitted visualization of 3D distributions of overlaid biofilm components (fluorochromes). Results: Mouthwash BIO produced biofilm structures that differed significantly from the control (p&#60;0.05) on both resin composites, whereas LTO did not produce differences (p&#62;0.05) on either product. Conclusions: This methodology efficiently and successfully quantified and compared concurrent 3D distributions of three major components within S. mutans biofilms on relevant substrates, thus overcoming two challenges to simultaneous assessment of biofilm components. This method can also be used to determine the efficacy of antibacterial/antifouling agents against multiple biofilm components, as shown using mouthwashes. Furthermore, this method has broad application because it facilitates comparison of 3D structures/architecture of biofilms in a variety of disciplines.

A protocol for the concurrent quantification and comparison of three cellular and extracellular components within biofilms is presented. The methodology involves the use of confocal laser scanning microscopy, biofilm structural analysis and visualization software, and statistical analysis software.

Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) is a powerful tool for investigation of biofilms. Very few investigations have successfully quantified ...

Measuring Phagosome pH by Ratiometric Fluorescence Microscopy

Phagocytosis is a fundamental process through which innate immune cells engulf bacteria, apoptotic cells or other foreign particles in order to kill or neutralize the ingested material, or to present it as antigens and initiate adaptive immune responses. The pH of phagosomes is a critical parameter regulating fission or fusion with endomembranes and activation of proteolytic enzymes, events that allow the phagocytic vacuole to mature into a degradative organelle. In addition, translocation of H+ is required for the production of high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are essential for efficient killing and signaling to other host tissues. Many intracellular pathogens subvert phagocytic killing by limiting phagosomal acidification, highlighting the importance of pH in phagosome biology. Here we describe a ratiometric method for measuring phagosomal pH in neutrophils using fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled zymosan as phagocytic targets, and live-cell imaging. The assay is based on the fluorescence properties of FITC, which is quenched by acidic pH when excited at 490 nm but not when excited at 440 nm, allowing quantification of a pH-dependent ratio, rather than absolute fluorescence, of a single dye. A detailed protocol for performing in situ dye calibration and conversion of ratio to real pH values is also provided. Single-dye ratiometric methods are generally considered superior to single wavelength or dual-dye pseudo-ratiometric protocols, as they are less sensitive to perturbations such as bleaching, focus changes, laser variations, and uneven labeling, which distort the measured signal. This method can be easily modified to measure pH in other phagocytic cell types, and zymosan can be replaced by any other amine-containing particle, from inert beads to living microorganisms. Finally, this method can be adapted to make use of other fluorescent probes sensitive to different pH ranges or other phagosomal activities, making it a generalized protocol for the functional imaging of phagosomes.

Phagosomal pH influences phagosome maturation, oxidant production, phagosomal killing as well as antigen presentation. Here we describe a ratiometric method for measuring time-course and endpoint pH changes in individual phagosomes in living phagocytes using fluorescence microscopy.

Phagocytosis is a fundamental process through which innate immune cells engulf bacteria, apoptotic cells or other foreign particles in order to kill or ...

Ratiometric Imaging of Extracellular pH in Dental Biofilms

The pH in bacterial biofilms on teeth is of central importance for dental caries, a disease with a high worldwide prevalence. Nutrients and metabolites are not distributed evenly in dental biofilms. A complex interplay of sorption to and reaction with organic matter in the biofilm reduces the diffusion paths of solutes and creates steep gradients of reactive molecules, including organic acids, across the biofilm. Quantitative fluorescent microscopic methods, such as fluorescence life time imaging or pH ratiometry, can be employed to visualize pH in different microenvironments of dental biofilms. pH ratiometry exploits a pH-dependent shift in the fluorescent emission of pH-sensitive dyes. Calculation of the emission ratio at two different wavelengths allows determining local pH in microscopic images, irrespective of the concentration of the dye. Contrary to microelectrodes the technique allows monitoring both vertical and horizontal pH gradients in real-time without mechanically disturbing the biofilm. However, care must be taken to differentiate accurately between extra- and intracellular compartments of the biofilm. Here, the ratiometric dye, seminaphthorhodafluor-4F 5-(and-6) carboxylic acid (C-SNARF-4) is employed to monitor extracellular pH in in vivo grown dental biofilms of unknown species composition. Upon exposure to glucose the dye is up-concentrated inside all bacterial cells in the biofilms; it is thus used both as a universal bacterial stain and as a marker of extracellular pH. After confocal microscopic image acquisition, the bacterial biomass is removed from all pictures using digital image analysis software, which permits to exclusively calculate extracellular pH. pH ratiometry with the ratiometric dye is well-suited to study extracellular pH in thin biofilms of up to 75 &#181;m thickness, but is limited to the pH range between 4.5 and 7.0.

A pH-sensitive ratiometric dye is used in combination with confocal laser scanning microscopy and digital image analysis to monitor extracellular pH in dental biofilms in real-time.

The pH in bacterial biofilms on teeth is of central importance for dental caries, a disease with a high worldwide prevalence. Nutrients and metabolites ...

Methodologies for Studying B. subtilis Biofilms as a Model for Characterizing Small Molecule Biofilm Inhibitors

This work assesses different methodologies to study the impact of small molecule biofilm inhibitors, such as D-amino acids, on the development and resilience of Bacillus subtilis biofilms. First, methods are presented that select for small molecule inhibitors with biofilm-specific targets in order to separate the effect of the small molecule inhibitors on planktonic growth from their effect on biofilm formation. Next, we focus on how inoculation conditions affect the sensitivity of multicellular, floating B. subtilis cultures to small molecule inhibitors. The results suggest that discrepancies in the reported effects of such inhibitors such as D-amino acids are due to inconsistent pre-culture conditions. Furthermore, a recently developed protocol is described for evaluating the contribution of small molecule treatments towards biofilm resistance to antibacterial substances. Lastly, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) techniques are presented to analyze the three-dimensional spatial arrangement of cells and their surrounding extracellular matrix in a B. subtilis biofilm. SEM facilitates insight into the three-dimensional biofilm architecture and the matrix texture. A combination of the methods described here can greatly assist the study of biofilm development in the presence and absence of biofilm inhibitors, and shed light on the mechanism of action of these inhibitors.

Methodologies for Studying B. subtilis Biofilms as a Model for Characterizing Small Molecule Biofilm Inhibitors

This study presents the development of reproducible methodologies to study biofilm inhibitors and their effects on Bacillus subtilis multicellularity.

This work assesses different methodologies to study the impact of small molecule biofilm inhibitors, such as D-amino acids, on the development and ...

A New Method for Qualitative Multi-scale Analysis of Bacterial Biofilms on Filamentous Fungal Colonies Using Confocal and Electron Microscopy

Bacterial biofilms frequently form on fungal surfaces and can be involved in numerous bacterial-fungal interaction processes, such as metabolic cooperation, competition, or predation. The study of biofilms is important in many biological fields, including environmental science, food production, and medicine. However, few studies have focused on such bacterial biofilms, partially due to the difficulty of investigating them. Most of the methods for qualitative and quantitative biofilm analyses described in the literature are only suitable for biofilms forming on abiotic surfaces or on homogeneous and thin biotic surfaces, such as a monolayer of epithelial cells.
While laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM) is often used to analyze in situ and in vivo biofilms, this technology becomes very challenging when applied to bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae, due to the thickness and the three dimensions of the hyphal networks. To overcome this shortcoming, we developed a protocol combining microscopy with a method to limit the accumulation of hyphal layers in fungal colonies. Using this method, we were able to investigate the development of bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae at multiple scales using both LSCM and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This report describes the protocol, including microorganism cultures, bacterial biofilm formation conditions, biofilm staining, and LSCM and SEM visualizations.

This protocol describes a new method to grow and qualitatively analyze bacterial biofilms on fungal hyphae by confocal and electron microscopy.