저자는이 프로젝트에 대한 기술 지원 및 지침에 대해 Bryan Krause에게 감사드립니다.
이 연구는 국제 마취 연구 학회 (IMRA에서 AR), 국립 보건원 (R01 GM109086에서 MIB) 및 미국 위스콘신 주 매디슨에있는 위스콘신 대학교 의과 대학 마취학과의 지원을 받았습니다.

<ol>
	<li>Baumgart, J. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isoflurane+inhibits+synaptic+vesicle+exocytosis+through+reduced+Ca2++influx,+not+Ca2+-exocytosis+coupling.">Isoflurane inhibits synaptic vesicle exocytosis through reduced Ca2+ influx, not Ca2+-exocytosis coupling.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A. 112 (38), 11959-11964 (2015).</li><li>Herring, B. E., Xie, Z., Marks, J., Fox, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isoflurane+inhibits+the+neurotransmitter+release+machinery.">Isoflurane inhibits the neurotransmitter release machinery.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 102 (2), 1265-1273 (2009).</li><li>Xie, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interaction+of+anesthetics+with+neurotransmitter+release+machinery+proteins.">Interaction of anesthetics with neurotransmitter release machinery proteins.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 109 (3), 758-767 (2013).</li><li>Crick, F., Koch, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+framework+for+consciousness.">A framework for consciousness.</a> Nature Neurosciences. 6 (2), 119-126 (2003).</li><li>Koch, C., Massimini, M., Boly, M., Tononi, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+correlates+of+consciousness:+progress+and+problems.">Neural correlates of consciousness: progress and problems.</a> Nature Reviews Neurosciences. 17 (5), 307-321 (2016).</li><li>Dehaene, S., Changeux, J. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+and+theoretical+approaches+to+conscious+processing.">Experimental and theoretical approaches to conscious processing.</a> Neuron. 70 (2), 200-227 (2011).</li><li>Friston, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+theory+of+cortical+responses.">A theory of cortical responses.</a> Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences. 360 (1456), 815-836 (2005).</li><li>Mashour, G. A., Hudetz, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bottom-Up+and+Top-Down+Mechanisms+of+General+Anesthetics+Modulate+Different+Dimensions+of+Consciousness.">Bottom-Up and Top-Down Mechanisms of General Anesthetics Modulate Different Dimensions of Consciousness.</a> Frontiers in Neural Circuits. 11, 44 (2017).</li><li>Voss, L. J., Garcia, P. S., Hentschke, H., Banks, M. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+the+Effects+of+General+Anesthetics+on+Cortical+Network+Activity+Using+Ex+Vivo+Preparations.">Understanding the Effects of General Anesthetics on Cortical Network Activity Using Ex Vivo Preparations.</a> Anesthesiology. 130 (6), 1049-1063 (2019).</li><li>Redinbaugh, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thalamus+Modulates+Consciousness+Via+Layer-Specific+Control+of+Cortex.">Thalamus Modulates Consciousness Via Layer-Specific Control of Cortex.</a> Neuron. 105 (4), 0896 (2020).</li><li>Carhart-Harris, R. L., Friston, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=REBUS+and+the+Anarchic+Brain:+Toward+a+Unified+Model+of+the+Brain+Action+of+Psychedelics.">REBUS and the Anarchic Brain: Toward a Unified Model of the Brain Action of Psychedelics.</a> Pharmacological Reviews. 71 (3), 316-344 (2019).</li><li>Mak-McCully, R. 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D., Maze, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noradrenergic+trespass+in+anesthetic+and+sedative+states.">Noradrenergic trespass in anesthetic and sedative states.</a> Anesthesiology. 117 (5), 945-947 (2012).</li><li>Hemmings, H. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+a+Comprehensive+Understanding+of+Anesthetic+Mechanisms+of+Action:+A+Decade+of+Discovery.">Towards a Comprehensive Understanding of Anesthetic Mechanisms of Action: A Decade of Discovery.</a> Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 40 (7), 464-481 (2019).</li><li>Nourski, K. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+Predictive+Coding+across+Awareness+States+under+Anesthesia:+An+Intracranial+Electrophysiology+Study.">Auditory Predictive Coding across Awareness States under Anesthesia: An Intracranial Electrophysiology Study.</a> Journal of Neurosciences. 38 (39), 8441-8452 (2018).</li><li>Liu, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Propofol+disrupts+functional+interactions+between+sensory+and+high-order+processing+of+auditory+verbal+memory.">Propofol disrupts functional interactions between sensory and high-order processing of auditory verbal memory.</a> Human Brain Mapping. 33 (10), 2487-2498 (2012).</li><li>Hentschke, H., Raz, A., Krause, B. M., Murphy, C. A., Banks, M. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disruption+of+cortical+network+activity+by+the+general+anesthetic+isoflurane.">Disruption of cortical network activity by the general anesthetic isoflurane.</a> British Journal of Anaesthesiology. 119 (4), 685-696 (2017).</li><li>Lee, U., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disruption+of+frontal-parietal+communication+by+ketamine,+propofol,+and+sevoflurane.">Disruption of frontal-parietal communication by ketamine, propofol, and sevoflurane.</a> Anesthesiology. 118 (6), 1264-1275 (2013).</li><li>Ferrarelli, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Breakdown+in+cortical+effective+connectivity+during+midazolam-induced+loss+of+consciousness.">Breakdown in cortical effective connectivity during midazolam-induced loss of consciousness.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Science U.S.A. 107 (6), 2681-2686 (2010).</li><li>Ku, S. W., Lee, U., Noh, G. J., Jun, I. G., Mashour, G. 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M., Svoboda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+subcellular+organization+of+neocortical+excitatory+connections.">The subcellular organization of neocortical excitatory connections.</a> Nature. 457 (7233), 1142-1145 (2009).</li><li>Cruikshank, S. J., Urabe, H., Nurmikko, A. V., Connors, B. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathway-Specific+Feedforward+Circuits+between+Thalamus+and+Neocortex+Revealed+by+Selective+Optical+Stimulation+of+Axons.">Pathway-Specific Feedforward Circuits between Thalamus and Neocortex Revealed by Selective Optical Stimulation of Axons.</a> Neuron. 65 (2), 230-245 (2010).</li><li>Gredell, J. A., Turnquist, P. A., MacIver, M. B., Pearce, R. 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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Partition+coefficients+of+volatile+anesthetics+in+aqueous+electrolyte+solutions+at+various+temperatures.">Partition coefficients of volatile anesthetics in aqueous electrolyte solutions at various temperatures.</a> Anesthesiology. 89 (4), 1032-1035 (1998).</li><li>Au - Segev, A., Au - Garcia-Oscos, F., Au - Kourrich, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole-cell+Patch-clamp+Recordings+in+Brain+Slices.">Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings in Brain Slices.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. (112), e54024 (2016).</li><li>Lin, J. Y., Lin, M. Z., Steinbach, P., Tsien, R. 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저자는 공개 할 것이 없습니다.

이 원고에서는 생체 외 뇌 절편에서 선택적으로 활성화 된 구 심성 경로에 대한 세포 내 및 세포 외 반응을 평가하기위한 프로토콜이 설명됩니다.
광유전학적 도구와 병렬 기록 체계를 사용하면 조사관이 먼 뇌 영역의 구심성 입력에 대한 지역 인구의 반응을 조사하는 동시에 표적 인터뉴런 개체군에서 동시에 기록할 수 있습니다. 광유전학 기술을 사용하면 구심성 돌출부의 ...

휘발성 마취제는 한 세기 이상 동안 다양한 임상 및 학술 환경에서 유비쿼터스하게 사용되어 왔습니다. 뚜렷한 종류의 마취제는 독특하고 종종 겹치지 않는 분자 표적 1,2,3을 가지고 있지만 거의 모두 무의식을 생성합니다. 그들의 행동 효과는 상당히 예측 가능하지만 마취제가 의식 상실을 유도하는 메커니즘은 거의 알려져 있지 않습니다. 마취제는 궁극적으로 피질 시상 회로에 대한 작용을 통해 의식의 수준과 내용 모두에 영향을 미쳐 피질 계층구조 4,5,6,7,8,9 전반에 걸친 정보 통합을 방해 할 수 있습니다. 보다 광범위하게는, 피질 시상 회로의 조절은 실험적으로10 또는 약리학적으로11 변화된 의식 상태에서 역할을 할 수 있으며, 또한 수면12 및 의식의 병태생리학적 장애(13,14)에 연루될 수 있다.
마취 중 의식 상실 및 복귀의 기저에 있는 메커니즘의 파악하기 어려운 것은 부분적으로 세포, 네트워크 및 시스템 수준15에서 마취제의 비선형적이고 시너지 효과가 있는 작용에 기인할 수 있습니다. 예를 들어, 이소플루란은 선택된 뇌 영역 내의 활동을 억제하고(16,17,18), 먼 뇌 영역(19,20,21,22,23) 사이의 연결을 손상시키며, 경로 특이적 방식으로 시냅스 반응을 감소시킨다(24,25) . 분자에서 시스템 수준에 이르기까지 마취제의 어떤 효과가 의식 상실에 영향을 미치기에 필요하거나 충분한지는 불분명하다. 비 침습적 기술 19,20,26을 사용한 의식에 대한 실질적인 임상 조사 외에도 실험자는 의식 경험을 서브 서브 한 뚜렷한 세포 및 네트워크 상호 작용을 풀려고 노력하는 것이 중요합니다.
손상되지 않은 뇌에서 발견되는 복잡한 상호 작용을 단순화함으로써 생체 외 뇌 조각은 뇌의 동적 시스템의 고립 된 구성 요소를 연구 할 수있게합니다9. 감소된 슬라이스 준비는 국소 신경 회로의 비교적 손상되지 않은 해부학적 구조의 이점과 체외 조작의 다양성을 결합합니다. 그러나 최근까지 방법 론적 제약으로 인해 뇌 조각에서 장거리 입력의 시냅스 및 회로 특성에 대한 연구가 배제되었습니다27,28; 코르티코시상 섬유 관의 구불구불한 경로는 전기 자극에 의해 독립적인 구심성 경로의 활성화를 거의 불가능하게 만들었습니다.
뇌 슬라이스 준비에 대한 마취제의 효과를 조사하는 것은 추가적인 과제를 제시합니다. 온전한 호흡기 및 순환계가 없으면 마취제를 목욕에 적용해야 하며 농도는 추정된 효과 부위 농도와 신중하게 일치해야 합니다. 많은 정맥 마취제의 경우 조직의 느린 평형 속도로 인해 전통적인 약리학 적 조사가 힘들어집니다29,30. 생체 외 제제에서 휘발성 가스 마취제의 효과를 조사하는 것은 더 다루기 쉽지만 도전 과제도 제시합니다. 이들은 흡입된 분압 선량을 수성 농도로 전환시키는 것, 및 인공 뇌 척수액(31)을 통해 조직으로의 약물의 변형된 전달 시스템의 필요성을 포함한다.
여기에서는 연구자가 생체 외 뇌 절편으로의 약물 전달을 위해 휘발성 마취 이소플루란의 잘 문서화된 물리화학적 특성을 활용하고, 높은 시공간 해상도로 관심 피질 영역에 대한 경로 및 층별 입력을 활성화하고, 선택된 뉴런 집단에서 동시 층류 기록 및 표적 패치 클램프 기록을 수행할 수 있는 방법이 설명됩니다. 이러한 절차를 결합하여 조사자는 시냅스에서 로컬 네트워크 수준에 이르기까지 여러 관찰 가능한 전기 생리 학적 반응 특성에서 휘발성 마취제로 인한 변화를 측정 할 수 있습니다.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2.5x broadfield objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>MPLFLN2.5X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40x water immersion objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>LUMPLFLN40XW</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% O2/5% CO2 mixture</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>Z02OX95R2003045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A16 probe</td>
			<td>NeuroNexus</td>
			<td>A16x1-2mm-100-177-A16</td>
			<td>16-channel probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AAV2-hSyn-hChR2(H134R)-EYFP</td>
			<td>Karl Deisseroth Lab, UNC Vector Core</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthetic gas monitor (POET II)</td>
			<td>Criticare</td>
			<td>602-3A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ATP, Magnesium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9187</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6.Cg-Gt(ROSA)26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato)Hze/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>007914</td>
			<td>Cre-dependent tdTomato mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6;129P2-Pvalbtm1(cre)Arbr/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>008069</td>
			<td>PV-Cre mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Belly Dancer Shaker</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1210H86-TS</td>
			<td>for equilibration of sealed gas bags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Betadine solution</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bleach</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for silver chloriding patch clamp electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bupivicaine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSC20010</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass (patch clamp recordings)</td>
			<td>King Precision Glass, Inc.</td>
			<td>KG-33</td>
			<td>Borosilicate, ID: 1.1mm, OD: 1.7mm, Length: 90.0mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass (viral injections)</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-000-203-G/X</td>
			<td>3.5&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control of junior micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>SM8</td>
			<td>for control of junior micromanipulator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control of manipulators and shifting table</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>SM7</td>
			<td>for control of multichannel electrode and shifting table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digidata 1440A + Clampex 10</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>1440A</td>
			<td>Digitizer and software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-3603 tubing</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14171208</td>
			<td>for delivery of 95% O2/5% CO2 gas mixture to incubation chamber + application of pressure during patch clamping</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSE57060</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ERP-27 EEG Reference/Patch Panel</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filling needle</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>50821912</td>
			<td>for filling patch clamp pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter cube for imaging EYFP</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>U-MRFPHQ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>09801E</td>
			<td>lay over slice template during preparation of tissue block</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flaming/Brown micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-1000</td>
			<td>2.5x2.5 Box filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gas dispersion tube</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>CLS3953312C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe (100 mL)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z314390</td>
			<td>for filling gas-sealed bags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gluconic Acid, Potassium Salt (K-gluconate)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSG37020</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSG32040</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GTP, Sodium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8877</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headstage-probe adaptor</td>
			<td>NeuroNexus</td>
			<td>A16-OM16</td>
			<td>adaptor to connect 16-channel probe to headstage input</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic Forceps</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>76192-096</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSH75030</td>
			<td>ACSF,intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HS-16 Headstage</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-893-1389</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol (70%)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>101223-746</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Junior micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>210-100 000 0090-R</td>
			<td>for manipulation of patch clamp electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED Light Source Control Module</td>
			<td>Mightex</td>
			<td>BLS-PL02_US</td>
			<td>optogenetic light source control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lidocaine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lynx-8 Amplifier</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lynx-8 Power Supply</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSM24300</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mCherry, Texas Red filter cube</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>49008</td>
			<td>for imaging tdTomato fluorescent reporter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Meloxicam</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette holder</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC9044962</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsyringe pump</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>UMP3-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mineral oil</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MultiClamp 700A</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices/Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>700A</td>
			<td>Amplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrogen (for air table)</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>NI200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon mesh</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>501460083</td>
			<td>stretched over horseshoe of flattened platinum wire, slice rest on top of this during recordings</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon, cut from pantyhose</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>small piece to create slice platform in incubation chamber, single fibers to create platinum harp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic ointment</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC1697520</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>307</td>
			<td>For transferring tissue to rig</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum wire</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>BT124000</td>
			<td>2 cm, flattened, to make platinum harp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polygon400</td>
			<td>Mightex</td>
			<td>DSI-E-0470-0617-000</td>
			<td>optogenetic light delivery system, comes with PolyScan2 software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSP41000</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Phosphate (KH2PO4)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSP41200</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blade</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-640</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sapphire blade (for vibratome)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>100492-502</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.</td>
			<td>sc-361445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sealed gas bag</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>109236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shifting table for microscope</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>380FMU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate (HCO3-)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSS22060</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSS23020</td>
			<td>ACSF, intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ssttm2.1(cre)Zjh/J (SOM-IRES-Cre)</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>013044</td>
			<td>SOM-Cre mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic instrument</td>
			<td>Kopf</td>
			<td>Model 902</td>
			<td>Dual Small Animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Super glue</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>886833</td>
			<td>to fix tissue block to specimen stage during slice preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical drill</td>
			<td>RAM Products Inc.</td>
			<td>DIGITALMICROTORQUE</td>
			<td>Microtorque II</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe (1 mL) with LuerLock tip</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>309628</td>
			<td>for application of pressure during patch clamping</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe (1 mL) with slip tip</td>
			<td>WW Grainger, Inc.</td>
			<td>19G384</td>
			<td>for filling patch clamp pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Filters</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>66064-414</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Upright microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX51</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibrating microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>VT1000S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wypall towels</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>19-042-427</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optogenetic activation of afferent pathways in brain slices and modulation of responses by volatile anesthetics

마취제는 부분적으로 시상 피질 회로에 대한 행동을 통해 의식에 영향을 미칩니다. 그러나 휘발성 마취제가 이러한 회로의 별개의 세포 및 네트워크 구성 요소에 영향을 미치는 정도는 불분명합니다. 생체 외 뇌 조각은 조사자가 복잡한 네트워크의 개별 구성 요소를 조사하고 유발 된 반응에 대한 휘발성 마취제의 효과의 기저에있는 잠재적 메커니즘을 풀 수있는 수단을 제공합니다. 뇌 절편에서 잠재적인 세포 유형 및 경로 특이적 약물 효과를 분리하려면 조사자가 구심성 섬유 경로를 독립적으로 활성화하고, 겹치지 않는 세포 집단을 식별하고, 수용액의 조직에 휘발성 마취제를 적용할 수 있어야 합니다. 이 프로토콜에서는 생체 외 뇌 절편에서 신피질에 대한 두 개의 독립적 인 구 심성 경로에 대한 광유전 적으로 유발 된 반응을 측정하는 방법이 설명됩니다. 세포 외 반응은 분석 네트워크 활성에 대해 기록되고 표적화 된 전체 세포 패치 클램프 기록은 소마토스타틴 및 파브 알부민 양성 인터 뉴런에서 수행됩니다. 세포 및 네트워크 반응을 조절하기 위해 인공 뇌 척수액을 통한 생리학적으로 관련된 농도의 이소플루란의 전달이 설명된다.

프로토콜에 설명된 단계의 타임라인이 그림 1에 나와 있습니다. 고차 피질 영역 또는 비일차 시상 핵으로부터 도착하는 피질 입력은 비일차 시각 피질(24)의 층 1에서 부분적으로 겹치는 말단 필드를 갖는다. 독립적인 시상피질 또는 피질피질 구심성 경로를 분리하기 위해 ChR2 및 eYFP 형광 리포터를 포함하는 바이러스 벡터를 Po 또는 Cg에 주입했습니다. 주사 ...

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Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics

생체 외 뇌 조각은 구 심성 입력에 대한 유발 반응에 대한 휘발성 마취제의 효과를 연구하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다. 광유전학은 시상피질 및 피질 피질 구심성을 비원발성 신피질에 독립적으로 활성화하는 데 사용되며 시냅스 및 네트워크 반응은 이소플루란으로 조절됩니다.

뇌 조각에서 구 심성 경로의 광유전 적 활성화 및 휘발성 마취제에 의한 반응의 조절

Anesthetics influence consciousness in part via their actions on thalamocortical circuits. However, the extent to which volatile anesthetics affect ...

optogenetic-activation-afferent-pathways-brain-slices-modulation

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

2.1K 조회수.  University of Wisconsin. 생체 외 뇌 조각은 구 심성 입력에 대한 유발 반응에 대한 휘발성 마취제의 효과를 연구하는 데 사용할 수 있습니다. 광유전학은 시상피질 및 피질 피질 구심성을 비원발성 신피질에 독립적으로 활성화하는 데 사용되며 시냅스 및 네트워크 반응은 이소플루란으로 조절됩니다.

비디오: Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics

Imaging Calcium Responses in GFP-tagged Neurons of Hypothalamic Mouse Brain Slices

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the precise molecular steps as well as the activity of specific neurons in multi-functional nuclei of brain areas such as the hypothalamus remain. This problem includes identification of the molecular components involved in the regulation of various neurohormone signal transduction cascades. Elevations of intracellular Ca2+ play an important role in regulating the sensitivity of neurons, both at the level of signal transduction and at synaptic sites.
New tools have emerged to help identify neurons in the myriad of brain neurons by expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of a particular promoter. To monitor both spatially and temporally stimulus-induced Ca2+ responses in GFP-tagged neurons, a non-green fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye needs to be used. In addition, confocal microscopy is a favorite method of imaging individual neurons in tissue slices due to its ability to visualize neurons in distinct planes of depth within the tissue and to limit out-of-focus fluorescence. The ratiometric Ca2+ indicator fura-2 has been used in combination with GFP-tagged neurons1. However, the dye is excited by ultraviolet (UV) light. The cost of the laser and the limited optical penetration depth of UV light hindered its use in many laboratories. Moreover, GFP fluorescence may interfere with the fura-2 signals2. Therefore, we decided to use a red fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye. The huge Stokes shift of fura-red permits multicolor analysis of the red fluorescence in combination with GFP using a single excitation wavelength. We had previously good results using fura-red in combination with GFP-tagged olfactory neurons3. The protocols for olfactory tissue slices seemed to work equally well in hypothalamic neurons4. Fura-red based Ca2+ imaging was also successfully combined with GFP-tagged pancreatic &beta;-cells and GFP-tagged receptors expressed in HEK cells5,6. A little quirk of fura-red is that its fluorescence intensity at 650 nm decreases once the indicator binds calcium7. Therefore, the fluorescence of resting neurons with low Ca2+ concentration has relatively high intensity. It should be noted, that other red Ca2+-indicator dyes exist or are currently being developed, that might give better or improved results in different neurons and brain areas.

In this protocol, we update recent progress in imaging Ca2+ signals of GFP-tagged neurons in brain tissue slices using a red fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye.

Hypothalamic 마우스 뇌 슬라이스의 GFP 태그 뉴런의 영상 칼슘 응답

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the ...

연구

신경과학

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

급성 Hippocampal 슬라이스에 Synaptically-evoked Astroglial와 Neuronal 응답의 듀얼 Electrophysiological 레코딩

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

Optogenetic Activation of Zebrafish Somatosensory Neurons using ChEF-tdTomato

Larval zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function of simple neural circuits. Due to their external fertilization, rapid development, and translucency, zebrafish are particularly well suited for optogenetic approaches to investigate neural circuit function. In this approach, light-sensitive ion channels are expressed in specific neurons, enabling the experimenter to activate or inhibit them at will and thus assess their contribution to specific behaviors. Applying these methods in larval zebrafish is conceptually simple but requires the optimization of technical details. Here we demonstrate a procedure for expressing a channelrhodopsin variant in larval zebrafish somatosensory neurons, photo-activating single cells, and recording the resulting behaviors. By introducing a few modifications to previously established methods, this approach could be used to elicit behavioral responses from single neurons activated up to at least 4 days post-fertilization (dpf). Specifically, we created a transgene using a somatosensory neuron enhancer, CREST3, to drive the expression of the tagged channelrhodopsin variant, ChEF-tdTomato. Injecting this transgene into 1-cell stage embryos results in mosaic expression in somatosensory neurons, which can be imaged with confocal microscopy. Illuminating identified cells in these animals with light from a 473 nm DPSS laser, guided through a fiber optic cable, elicits behaviors that can be recorded with a high-speed video camera and analyzed quantitatively. This technique could be adapted to study behaviors elicited by activating any zebrafish neuron. Combining this approach with genetic or pharmacological perturbations will be a powerful way to investigate circuit formation and function.

Optogenetic techniques have made it possible to study the contribution of specific neurons to behavior. We describe a method in larval zebrafish for activating single somatosensory neurons expressing a channelrhodopsin variant (ChEF) with a diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) laser and recording the elicited behaviors with a high-speed video camera.

요리사 tdTomato를 사용하여 Zebrafish Somatosensory의 뉴런의 Optogenetic 활성화

Larval  zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function  of simple neural circuits. Due to their  external fertilization, ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

설치류 중추 신경계의 생체 Optogenetic 자극

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated proteins and subsequent manipulation of neural activity by light. Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are light-gated cation-channels and when fused to a fluorescent protein their expression allows for visualization and concurrent activation of specific cell types and their axonal projections in defined areas of the brain. Via stereotactic injection of viral vectors, ChR fusion proteins can be constitutively or conditionally expressed in specific cells of a defined brain region, and their axonal projections can subsequently be studied anatomically and functionally via ex vivo optogenetic activation in brain slices. This is of particular importance when aiming to understand synaptic properties of connections that could not be addressed with conventional electrical stimulation approaches, or in identifying novel afferent and efferent connectivity that was previously poorly understood. Here, a few examples illustrate how this technique can be applied to investigate these questions to elucidating fear-related circuits in the amygdala. The amygdala is a key region for acquisition and expression of fear, and storage of fear and emotional memories. Many lines of evidence suggest that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) participates in different aspects of fear acquisition and extinction, but its precise connectivity with the amygdala is just starting to be understood. First, it is shown how ex vivo optogenetic activation can be used to study aspects of synaptic communication between mPFC afferents and target cells in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Furthermore, it is illustrated how this ex vivo optogenetic approach can be applied to assess novel connectivity patterns using a group of GABAergic neurons in the amygdala, the paracapsular intercalated cell cluster (mpITC), as an example.

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are widely used to manipulate neural activity and assess the consequences for brain function. Here, a technique is outlined that&#160;upon in vivo expression of the optical activator Channelrhodopsin, allows for ex vivo analysis of synaptic properties of specific long range and local neural connections in fear-related circuits.

뇌 조각의 공포 회로의 예 생체 Optogenetic 해부

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated ...

Evaluation of Synapse Density in Hippocampal Rodent Brain Slices

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is tightly regulated during development and neuronal maturation. Importantly, deficits in synapse number can lead to cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, the evaluation of synapse number is an integral part of neurobiology. However, as synapses are small and highly compact in the intact brain, the assessment of absolute number is challenging. This protocol describes a method to easily identify and evaluate synapses in hippocampal rodent slices using immunofluorescence microscopy. It includes a three-step procedure to evaluate synapses in high-quality confocal microscopy images by analyzing the co-localization of pre- and postsynaptic proteins in hippocampal slices. It also explains how the analysis is performed and gives representative examples from both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. This protocol provides a solid foundation for the analysis of synapses and can be applied to any research investigating the structure and function of the brain.

A protocol for accurately identifying and analyzing synapses in hippocampal slices using immunofluorescence is outlined in this article.

시 냅 스 밀도 Hippocampal 설치류 두뇌 분할 영역에서의 평가

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is ...

Whole-cell Currents Induced by Puff Application of GABA in Brain Slices

Pharmacological administration is commonly used when conducting whole-cell patch-clamp recording in brain slices. One of the best methods of drug application during electrophysiological recording is the puff technique, which can be used to study the effect of pharmacological reagents on neuronal activities in brain slices. The greatest advantage of puff application is that the drug concentration around the recording site increases rapidly, thus preventing desensitization of membrane receptors. Successful use of puff application involves careful attention to the following elements: the concentration of the drug, the parameters of the puff micropipette, the distance between the tip of a puff micropipette and the neuron recorded, and the duration and pressure driving the puff (pounds per square inch, psi). This article describes a step-by-step procedure for recording whole-cell currents induced by puffing gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) onto a neuron of a prefrontal cortical slice. Notably, the same procedure can be applied with minor modifications to other brain areas such as the hippocampus and the striatum, and to different preparations, such as cell cultures.

We describe the puff technique, by which pharmacological reagents can be administered during whole-cell patch-clamp recording, and highlight various aspects of the features that are crucial for its success.

전체 셀 전류 두뇌 분할 영역에서 GABA의 퍼프 응용 프로그램에 의해 유도 된

Pharmacological administration is commonly used when conducting whole-cell patch-clamp recording in brain slices. One of the best methods of drug ...

Recording and Modulation of Epileptiform Activity in Rodent Brain Slices Coupled to Microelectrode Arrays

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising approach when pharmacological treatment fails or neurosurgery is not recommended. Acute brain slices coupled to microelectrode arrays (MEAs) represent a valuable tool to study neuronal network interactions and their modulation by electrical stimulation. As compared to conventional extracellular recording techniques, they provide the added advantages of a greater number of observation points and a known inter-electrode distance, which allow studying the propagation path and speed of electrophysiological signals. However, tissue oxygenation may be greatly impaired during MEA recording, requiring a high perfusion rate, which comes at the cost of decreased signal-to-noise ratio and higher oscillations in the experimental temperature. Electrical stimulation further stresses the brain tissue, making it difficult to pursue prolonged recording/stimulation epochs. Moreover, electrical modulation of brain slice activity needs to target specific structures/pathways within the brain slice, requiring that electrode mapping be easily and quickly performed live during the experiment. Here, we illustrate how to perform the recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine (4AP)-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using planar MEAs. We show that the brain tissue obtained from mice outperforms rat brain tissue and is thus better suited for MEA experiments. This protocol guarantees the generation and maintenance of a stable epileptiform pattern that faithfully reproduces the electrophysiological features observed with conventional field potential recording, persists for several hours, and outlasts sustained electrical stimulation for prolonged epochs. Tissue viability throughout the experiment is achieved thanks to the use of a small-volume custom recording chamber allowing for laminar flow and quick solution exchange even at low (1 mL/min) perfusion rates. Quick MEA mapping for real-time monitoring and selection of stimulating electrodes is performed by a custom graphic user interface (GUI).

We illustrate how to perform recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using microelectrode arrays. A custom recording chamber maintains tissue viability throughout prolonged experimental sessions. Live electrode mapping and selection of stimulating pairs are performed by a custom graphical user interface.

녹음 및 Microelectrode 배열에 결합 하는 설치류 뇌 조각에 Epileptiform 활동의 변조

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) ...

Real-time In Vitro Monitoring of Odorant Receptor Activation by an Odorant in the Vapor Phase

Olfactory perception begins with the interaction of odorants with odorant receptors (OR) expressed by olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). Odor recognition follows a combinatorial coding scheme, where one OR can be activated by a set of odorants and one odorant can activate a combination of ORs. Through such combinatorial coding, organisms can detect and discriminate between a myriad of volatile odor molecules. Thus, an odor at a given concentration can be described by an activation pattern of ORs, which is specific to each odor. In that sense, cracking the mechanisms that the brain uses to perceive odor requires the understanding odorant-OR interactions. This is why the olfaction community is committed to &#34;de-orphanize&#34;&#160;these receptors. Conventional in vitro systems used to identify odorant-OR interactions have utilized incubating cell media with odorant, which is distinct from the natural detection of odors via vapor odorants dissolution into nasal mucosa before interacting with ORs. Here, we describe a new method that allows for real-time monitoring of OR activation via vapor-phase odorants. Our method relies on measuring cAMP release by luminescence using the Glosensor assay. It bridges current gaps between in vivo and in vitro approaches and provides a basis for a biomimetic volatile chemical sensor.

Physiologically, odorant receptors are activated by odorant molecules inhaled in the vapor phase. However, most in vitro systems utilize liquid phase odorant stimulation. Here, we present a method that allows real-time in vitro monitoring of odorant receptor activation upon odorant stimulation in vapor phase.

실시간 체 외 Odorant 수용 체 활성화는 Odorant 수증기 단계에서의 모니터링

Olfactory perception begins with the interaction of odorants with odorant receptors (OR) expressed by olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). Odor recognition ...

In Vivo Intracerebral Stereotaxic Injections for Optogenetic Stimulation of Long-Range Inputs in Mouse Brain Slices

Knowledge of cell-type specific synaptic connectivity is a crucial prerequisite for understanding brain-wide neuronal circuits. The functional investigation of long-range connections requires targeted recordings of single neurons combined with the specific stimulation of identified distant inputs. This is often difficult to achieve with conventional and electrical stimulation techniques, because axons from converging upstream brain areas may intermingle in the target region. The stereotaxic targeting of a specific brain region for virus-mediated expression of light-sensitive ion channels allows selective stimulation of axons originating from that region with light. Intracerebral stereotaxic injections can be used in well-delimited structures, such as the anterior thalamic nuclei, in addition to other subcortical or cortical areas throughout the brain.
Described here is a set of techniques for precise stereotaxic injection of viral vectors expressing channelrhodopsin in the mouse brain, followed by photostimulation of axon terminals in the brain slice preparation. These protocols are simple and widely applicable. In combination with whole-cell patch clamp recording from a postsynaptically connected neuron, photostimulation of axons allows the detection of functional synaptic connections, pharmacological characterization, and evaluation of their strength. In addition, biocytin filling of the recorded neuron can be used for post-hoc morphological identification of the postsynaptic neuron.

This protocol describes a set of methods to identify the cell-type specific functional connectivity of long-range inputs from distant brain regions using optogenetic stimulations in ex vivo brain slices.