Name: optogenetic activation of afferent pathways in brain slices and modulation of responses by volatile anesthetics
Uploaded: 2020-07-23T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics at JoVE.com

The authors thank Bryan Krause for technical support and guidance on this project.
This work was supported by the International Anesthesia Research Society (IMRA to AR), National Institutes of Health (R01 GM109086 to MIB), and the Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.

All procedures involving animals described in this protocol were approved by the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Breeding mice to express fluorescent reporter protein in interneuron subpopulations
<ol>
	<li>Pair homozyogous, Cre-dependent tdTomato male mouse with either homozygous SOM-Cre female or homozygous PV-Cre female mouse. 
	NOTE: Other specific neuronal populations may be targeted by using the appropriate Cre...

<ol>
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In this manuscript, a protocol for evaluating intra- and extracellular responses to selectively activated afferent pathways in ex vivo brain slices is described.
The use of optogenetic tools and parallel recording schemes allows investigators to probe responses of local populations to afferent inputs from distant brain regions, while recording simultaneously from targeted populations of interneurons. The use of optogenetic technology allows for axon terminals of afferent projections to be pres...

Volatile anesthetics have been used ubiquitously in a variety of clinical and academic settings for more than a century. Distinct classes of anesthetics have unique, often non-overlapping molecular targets1,2,3, yet nearly all of them produce unconsciousness. While their behavioral effects are quite predictable, the mechanisms by which anesthetics induce loss of consciousness are largely unknown. Anesthetics may ultimately influence both the level and contents of consciousness via actions on corticothalamic circuits, disrupting integration of information throughout the cortical hierarchy4,5,6,7,8,9. More broadly, modulation of corticothalamic circuits may play a role in experimentally10 or pharmacologically11 altered states of consciousness, and may also be implicated in sleep12 and in pathophysiological disorders of consciousness13,14.
The elusiveness of the mechanisms underlying loss and return of consciousness during anesthesia may be attributed partially to non-linear, synergistic actions of anesthetics at the cellular, network, and systems levels15. Isoflurane, for example, suppresses activity within the selected brain regions16,17,18, impairs connectivity between distant brain regions19,20,21,22,23, and diminishes synaptic responses in a pathway-specific manner24,25. Which effects of anesthetics, from the molecular to the systems level, are necessary or sufficient to effect loss of consciousness remains unclear. In addition to substantive clinical investigations of consciousness using non-invasive techniques19,20,26, it is important that experimentalists seek to disentangle the distinct cellular and network interactions that subserve the conscious experience.
By simplifying the complex interactions found in the intact brain, ex vivo brain slices allow the study of isolated components of the brain&#8217;s dynamic systems9. A reduced slice preparation combines the benefits of relatively intact anatomical structures of local neural circuits with the versatility of in vitro manipulations. However, until recently, methodological constraints have precluded the study of synaptic and circuit properties of long-range inputs in brain slices27,28; the tortuous path of corticothalamic fiber tracts made activation of independent afferent pathways all but impossible by electrical stimulation.
Investigating the effects of anesthetic agents on the brain slice preparations presents additional challenges. Absent an intact respiratory and circulatory system, anesthetic agents must be bath-applied, and concentrations carefully matched to estimated effect site concentrations. For many intravenous anesthetic agents, the slow rate of equilibration in the tissue renders traditional pharmacological investigations laborious29,30. Investigating the effects volatile gas anesthetics in ex vivo preparations is more tractable, but also presents challenges. These include converting inhaled partial pressure doses to aqueous concentrations, and the need for a modified delivery system of the drug to the tissue via artificial cerebral spinal fluid31.
Here, methods are described by which investigators may capitalize on the well-documented physicochemical properties of the volatile anesthetic isoflurane for drug delivery to ex vivo brain slices, activate pathway- and layer-specific inputs to a cortical area of interest with high spatiotemporal resolution, and conduct simultaneous laminar recordings and targeted patch clamp recordings from select populations of neurons. Combined, these procedures allow investigators to measure volatile anesthetic-induced changes in several observable electrophysiological response properties, from the synaptic to local network level.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2.5x broadfield objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>MPLFLN2.5X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>40x water immersion objective lens</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>LUMPLFLN40XW</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% O2/5% CO2 mixture</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>Z02OX95R2003045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>A16 probe</td>
			<td>NeuroNexus</td>
			<td>A16x1-2mm-100-177-A16</td>
			<td>16-channel probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AAV2-hSyn-hChR2(H134R)-EYFP</td>
			<td>Karl Deisseroth Lab, UNC Vector Core</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anesthetic gas monitor (POET II)</td>
			<td>Criticare</td>
			<td>602-3A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ATP, Magnesium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A9187</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6.Cg-Gt(ROSA)26Sortm14(CAG-tdTomato)Hze/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>007914</td>
			<td>Cre-dependent tdTomato mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>B6;129P2-Pvalbtm1(cre)Arbr/J</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>008069</td>
			<td>PV-Cre mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Belly Dancer Shaker</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>1210H86-TS</td>
			<td>for equilibration of sealed gas bags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Betadine solution</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bleach</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for silver chloriding patch clamp electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bupivicaine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSC20010</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass (patch clamp recordings)</td>
			<td>King Precision Glass, Inc.</td>
			<td>KG-33</td>
			<td>Borosilicate, ID: 1.1mm, OD: 1.7mm, Length: 90.0mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary glass (viral injections)</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>3-000-203-G/X</td>
			<td>3.5&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control of junior micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>SM8</td>
			<td>for control of junior micromanipulator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Control of manipulators and shifting table</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>SM7</td>
			<td>for control of multichannel electrode and shifting table</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digidata 1440A + Clampex 10</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>1440A</td>
			<td>Digitizer and software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E-3603 tubing</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14171208</td>
			<td>for delivery of 95% O2/5% CO2 gas mixture to incubation chamber + application of pressure during patch clamping</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSE57060</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ERP-27 EEG Reference/Patch Panel</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filling needle</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>50821912</td>
			<td>for filling patch clamp pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter cube for imaging EYFP</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>U-MRFPHQ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>09801E</td>
			<td>lay over slice template during preparation of tissue block</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flaming/Brown micropipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-1000</td>
			<td>2.5x2.5 Box filament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gas dispersion tube</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>CLS3953312C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass syringe (100 mL)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z314390</td>
			<td>for filling gas-sealed bags</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gluconic Acid, Potassium Salt (K-gluconate)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSG37020</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSG32040</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GTP, Sodium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8877</td>
			<td>intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Headstage-probe adaptor</td>
			<td>NeuroNexus</td>
			<td>A16-OM16</td>
			<td>adaptor to connect 16-channel probe to headstage input</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostatic Forceps</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>76192-096</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSH75030</td>
			<td>ACSF,intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HS-16 Headstage</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>Patterson Veterinary</td>
			<td>07-893-1389</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl alcohol (70%)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>101223-746</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Junior micromanipulator</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>210-100 000 0090-R</td>
			<td>for manipulation of patch clamp electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LED Light Source Control Module</td>
			<td>Mightex</td>
			<td>BLS-PL02_US</td>
			<td>optogenetic light source control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lidocaine</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lynx-8 Amplifier</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lynx-8 Power Supply</td>
			<td>Neuralynx</td>
			<td>Retired</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSM24300</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>mCherry, Texas Red filter cube</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>49008</td>
			<td>for imaging tdTomato fluorescent reporter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Meloxicam</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette holder</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC9044962</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsyringe pump</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>UMP3-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mineral oil</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MultiClamp 700A</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices/Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>700A</td>
			<td>Amplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nitrogen (for air table)</td>
			<td>Airgas</td>
			<td>NI200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon mesh</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>501460083</td>
			<td>stretched over horseshoe of flattened platinum wire, slice rest on top of this during recordings</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon, cut from pantyhose</td>
			<td>Generic brand</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>small piece to create slice platform in incubation chamber, single fibers to create platinum harp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic ointment</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC1697520</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>307</td>
			<td>For transferring tissue to rig</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Platinum wire</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>BT124000</td>
			<td>2 cm, flattened, to make platinum harp</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polygon400</td>
			<td>Mightex</td>
			<td>DSI-E-0470-0617-000</td>
			<td>optogenetic light delivery system, comes with PolyScan2 software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSP41000</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Phosphate (KH2PO4)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSP41200</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Razor blade</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-640</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sapphire blade (for vibratome)</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>100492-502</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scalpel blade</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.</td>
			<td>sc-361445</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sealed gas bag</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>109236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Shifting table for microscope</td>
			<td>Luigs and Neumann</td>
			<td>380FMU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate (HCO3-)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSS22060</td>
			<td>ACSF</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Dot Scientific</td>
			<td>DSS23020</td>
			<td>ACSF, intracellular solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ssttm2.1(cre)Zjh/J (SOM-IRES-Cre)</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>013044</td>
			<td>SOM-Cre mouse</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic instrument</td>
			<td>Kopf</td>
			<td>Model 902</td>
			<td>Dual Small Animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Super glue</td>
			<td>Staples</td>
			<td>886833</td>
			<td>to fix tissue block to specimen stage during slice preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical drill</td>
			<td>RAM Products Inc.</td>
			<td>DIGITALMICROTORQUE</td>
			<td>Microtorque II</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe (1 mL) with LuerLock tip</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>309628</td>
			<td>for application of pressure during patch clamping</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe (1 mL) with slip tip</td>
			<td>WW Grainger, Inc.</td>
			<td>19G384</td>
			<td>for filling patch clamp pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe Filters</td>
			<td>VWR International</td>
			<td>66064-414</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Upright microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX51</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vibrating microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>VT1000S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wypall towels</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>19-042-427</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optogenetic activation of afferent pathways in brain slices and modulation of responses by volatile anesthetics

Anesthetics influence consciousness in part via their actions on thalamocortical circuits. However, the extent to which volatile anesthetics affect distinct cellular and network components of these circuits remains unclear. Ex vivo brain slices provide a means by which investigators may probe discrete components of complex networks and disentangle potential mechanisms underlying the effects of volatile anesthetics on evoked responses. To isolate potential cell type- and pathway-specific drug effects in brain slices, investigators must be able to independently activate afferent fiber pathways, identify non-overlapping populations of cells, and apply volatile anesthetics to the tissue in aqueous solution. In this protocol, methods to measure optogenetically-evoked responses to two independent afferent pathways to neocortex in ex vivo brain slices are described. Extracellular responses are recorded to assay network activity and targeted whole-cell patch clamp recordings are conducted in somatostatin- and parvalbumin-positive interneurons. Delivery of physiologically relevant concentrations of isoflurane via artificial cerebral spinal fluid to modulate cellular and network responses is described.

A timeline of steps described in the protocol is shown in Figure 1. Cortical inputs arriving from higher order cortical areas or from non-primary thalamic nuclei have partially overlapping terminal fields in layer 1 of non-primary visual cortex24. To isolate independent thalamocortical or corticocortical afferent pathways, a viral vector containing ChR2 and an eYFP fluorescent reporter into either Po or Cg was injected. Cells within the injection radius take up the vi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics at JoVE.com

Optogenetic Activation of Afferent Pathways in Brain Slices and Modulation of Responses by Volatile Anesthetics

Ex vivo brain slices can be used to study the effects of volatile anesthetics on evoked responses to afferent inputs. Optogenetics are employed to independently activate thalamocortical and corticocortical afferents to non-primary neocortex, and synaptic and network responses are modulated with isoflurane.

Anesthetics influence consciousness in part via their actions on thalamocortical circuits. However, the extent to which volatile anesthetics affect ...

This protocol can be used to investigate whether volatile anesthetics disrupts some synopsis more than others, to determine if their effects are cell type or as pathway specific, and to determine what effects occur at the population level. The main advantage of this technique is the specificity with which we can assess the effects of volatile anesthetics. We can target specific pathways and cell types in simultaneously assay population activity.Begin by preparing the tissue block for sectioning. Gently lift the brain from the skull cavity and place it on the filter paper. Make a cut along the sagittal plane of the brain parallel to the midline and place the tissue block on this sagittal plane.Guide the filter paper over the blocking template, and align the brain with the underlying template outline. Make a parallel cut in the coronal plane as indicated by the lines on the template, adding a small drop of slicing aCSF to keep the filter paper wet if necessary. Place the tissue block in four degrees Celsius slicing aCSF and apply a small amount of glue to the ice-cold specimen stage.Lift the tissue block from the slicing aCSF and wick away excess solution with a corner of an absorbent towel. Glue the posterior coronal plane of the tissue block to the specimen stage with the dorsal surface of the brain facing the sapphire blade. Collect 500 micrometer thick coronal brain slices and place them on a nylon mesh in 34 degrees Celsius slicing aCSF.Allow the container to reach room temperature. To prepare experimental aCSF bags with dissolved isoflurane, add 600 milliliters of experimental aCSF and 600 milliliters of 95%oxygen and 5%carbon dioxide gas mixture to an empty polytetrafluoroethylene gas bag. Label this bag control.Add 300 milliliters of experimental aCSF to another polytetrafluoroethylene gas bag, and label this bag isoflurane. Proceed with preparing the isoflurane bag according to the manuscript directions. Configure the light simulation protocols by randomly assigning wave forms to each profile.Each profile with its assigned wave form corresponds to one trigger pulse from a digital TTL input or one trial. When finished, save the profile sequence. To place the multi-channel probe in the ex vivo brain tissue slide, perfuse bubbled experimental aCSF at three to six milliliters per minute, and transfer the brain slice containing the area of interest onto the mesh grid in the microscope perfusion chamber.Anchor the brain slice with a platinum harp. Rotate the mesh grid so that the line of electrode contacts on the distal end of the multi-channel probe is approximately perpendicular to the peel surface. Under broad field illumination and fine control of the micromanipulator, lower the multichannel probe toward the surface of the slice.Engage the appropriate filter cube for visualization of the fluorescent reporter protein expressed in axon terminals of cortical afferents. If necessary, rotate the slice to more precisely align the probe with the peel surface. Position the probe just above the plane of the slice 200 micrometers short of the final target position along the x-axis, leaving at least one channel outside of the area of tissue being recorded.Slowly insert the probe into the slice along its longitudinal axis. To minimize damage to the tissue, only advance the probe to the extent that the sharp tips are just visible below the tissue surface. Switch experimental aCSF source to bagged control solution and identify the fluorescently-labeled cell for targeted patch clamp recording.Restrict the aperture to the smallest diameter and engage the high power water immersion objective, taking care to avoid contact between the multichannel probe and objective lens. Bring the tissue into focus. Center the light over an area of tissue adjacent to but not overlapping the multi-channel probe.Engage the appropriate filter set to allow imaging of cells expressing the Cre-dependent fluorescent marker. Raise the objective lens to create ample space for lowering a patch pipette. Load a patch pipette with internal solution and mount it on the electrode holder.Use a one milliliter syringe to apply positive pressure corresponding to approximately 0.1 milliliter air. Lower the patch pipette into the solution bringing the tip into focus under visual guidance, and obtain whole cell recording from the targeted cell. The animals used in this protocol expressed fluorescent reporter protein tdTomato in either somatostatin or parvalbumin-positive interneurons.These interneurons were targeted for patch clamping under visual guidance with the appropriate filter cube engaged. Postsynaptic potentials were observed in interneurons in response to a train of four two millisecond pulses of light. Local field potentials were also recorded.Current source density and multi-unit activity were extracted from local field potentials. The amplitude of current sinks extracted from the current source density increased as a function of light intensity. A three parameter non-linear logistic equation was fit to the data for comparisons across pathways.Postsynaptic potential amplitude also increased with current sink amplitude. Synaptic responses to the thalamocortical and cortico-cortical inputs were measured during control, isoflurane, and recovery conditions. Post synaptic responses of somatostatin and cortico-cortical stimuli and the evoked current sinks were suppressed in isoflurane conditions.When preparing the brains slices, maintaining the health of the tissue is paramount. It's important to keep the tissue cool throughout the slicing procedure, working quickly without damaging the tissue. Multichannel extracellular recordings may be post-processed in a variety of ways.For example, high pass filtering of the wideband signal isolates population spiking activity while current source density calculations highlight synaptic activity. Together, these techniques have allowed us to explore anesthetic effects on specific isolated components of cortical circuits, providing insight into the mechanisms underlying loss of consciousness in vivo.

optogenetic-activation-afferent-pathways-brain-slices-modulation

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Imaging Calcium Responses in GFP-tagged Neurons of Hypothalamic Mouse Brain Slices

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the precise molecular steps as well as the activity of specific neurons in multi-functional nuclei of brain areas such as the hypothalamus remain. This problem includes identification of the molecular components involved in the regulation of various neurohormone signal transduction cascades. Elevations of intracellular Ca2+ play an important role in regulating the sensitivity of neurons, both at the level of signal transduction and at synaptic sites.
New tools have emerged to help identify neurons in the myriad of brain neurons by expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of a particular promoter. To monitor both spatially and temporally stimulus-induced Ca2+ responses in GFP-tagged neurons, a non-green fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye needs to be used. In addition, confocal microscopy is a favorite method of imaging individual neurons in tissue slices due to its ability to visualize neurons in distinct planes of depth within the tissue and to limit out-of-focus fluorescence. The ratiometric Ca2+ indicator fura-2 has been used in combination with GFP-tagged neurons1. However, the dye is excited by ultraviolet (UV) light. The cost of the laser and the limited optical penetration depth of UV light hindered its use in many laboratories. Moreover, GFP fluorescence may interfere with the fura-2 signals2. Therefore, we decided to use a red fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye. The huge Stokes shift of fura-red permits multicolor analysis of the red fluorescence in combination with GFP using a single excitation wavelength. We had previously good results using fura-red in combination with GFP-tagged olfactory neurons3. The protocols for olfactory tissue slices seemed to work equally well in hypothalamic neurons4. Fura-red based Ca2+ imaging was also successfully combined with GFP-tagged pancreatic &beta;-cells and GFP-tagged receptors expressed in HEK cells5,6. A little quirk of fura-red is that its fluorescence intensity at 650 nm decreases once the indicator binds calcium7. Therefore, the fluorescence of resting neurons with low Ca2+ concentration has relatively high intensity. It should be noted, that other red Ca2+-indicator dyes exist or are currently being developed, that might give better or improved results in different neurons and brain areas.

In this protocol, we update recent progress in imaging Ca2+ signals of GFP-tagged neurons in brain tissue slices using a red fluorescent Ca2+ indicator dye.

Despite an enormous increase in our knowledge about the mechanisms underlying the encoding of information in the brain, a central question concerning the ...

Dual Electrophysiological Recordings of Synaptically-evoked Astroglial and Neuronal Responses in Acute Hippocampal Slices

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs through activation of their ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors, and process information in part through activity-dependent release of gliotransmitters. Furthermore, astrocytes constitute the main uptake system for glutamate, contribute to potassium spatial buffering, as well as to GABA clearance. These cells therefore constantly monitor synaptic activity, and are thereby sensitive indicators for alterations in synaptically-released glutamate, GABA and extracellular potassium levels. Additionally, alterations in astroglial uptake activity or buffering capacity can have severe effects on neuronal functions, and might be overlooked when characterizing physiopathological situations or knockout mice. Dual recording of neuronal and astroglial activities is therefore an important method to study alterations in synaptic strength associated to concomitant changes in astroglial uptake and buffering capacities. Here we describe how to prepare hippocampal slices, how to identify stratum radiatum astrocytes, and how to record simultaneously neuronal and astroglial electrophysiological responses. Furthermore, we describe how to isolate pharmacologically the synaptically-evoked astroglial currents.

The preparation of acute brain slices from isolated hippocampi, as well as the simultaneous electrophysiological recordings of astrocytes and neurons in stratum radiatum during stimulation of schaffer collaterals is described. The pharmacological isolation of astroglial potassium and glutamate transporter currents is demonstrated.

Astrocytes form together with neurons tripartite synapses, where they integrate and modulate neuronal activity. Indeed, astrocytes sense neuronal inputs ...

Optogenetic Activation of Zebrafish Somatosensory Neurons using ChEF-tdTomato

Larval zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function of simple neural circuits. Due to their external fertilization, rapid development, and translucency, zebrafish are particularly well suited for optogenetic approaches to investigate neural circuit function. In this approach, light-sensitive ion channels are expressed in specific neurons, enabling the experimenter to activate or inhibit them at will and thus assess their contribution to specific behaviors. Applying these methods in larval zebrafish is conceptually simple but requires the optimization of technical details. Here we demonstrate a procedure for expressing a channelrhodopsin variant in larval zebrafish somatosensory neurons, photo-activating single cells, and recording the resulting behaviors. By introducing a few modifications to previously established methods, this approach could be used to elicit behavioral responses from single neurons activated up to at least 4 days post-fertilization (dpf). Specifically, we created a transgene using a somatosensory neuron enhancer, CREST3, to drive the expression of the tagged channelrhodopsin variant, ChEF-tdTomato. Injecting this transgene into 1-cell stage embryos results in mosaic expression in somatosensory neurons, which can be imaged with confocal microscopy. Illuminating identified cells in these animals with light from a 473 nm DPSS laser, guided through a fiber optic cable, elicits behaviors that can be recorded with a high-speed video camera and analyzed quantitatively. This technique could be adapted to study behaviors elicited by activating any zebrafish neuron. Combining this approach with genetic or pharmacological perturbations will be a powerful way to investigate circuit formation and function.

Optogenetic techniques have made it possible to study the contribution of specific neurons to behavior. We describe a method in larval zebrafish for activating single somatosensory neurons expressing a channelrhodopsin variant (ChEF) with a diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) laser and recording the elicited behaviors with a high-speed video camera.

Larval  zebrafish are emerging as a model for describing the development and function  of simple neural circuits. Due to their  external fertilization, ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated proteins and subsequent manipulation of neural activity by light. Channelrhodopsins (ChRs) are light-gated cation-channels and when fused to a fluorescent protein their expression allows for visualization and concurrent activation of specific cell types and their axonal projections in defined areas of the brain. Via stereotactic injection of viral vectors, ChR fusion proteins can be constitutively or conditionally expressed in specific cells of a defined brain region, and their axonal projections can subsequently be studied anatomically and functionally via ex vivo optogenetic activation in brain slices. This is of particular importance when aiming to understand synaptic properties of connections that could not be addressed with conventional electrical stimulation approaches, or in identifying novel afferent and efferent connectivity that was previously poorly understood. Here, a few examples illustrate how this technique can be applied to investigate these questions to elucidating fear-related circuits in the amygdala. The amygdala is a key region for acquisition and expression of fear, and storage of fear and emotional memories. Many lines of evidence suggest that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) participates in different aspects of fear acquisition and extinction, but its precise connectivity with the amygdala is just starting to be understood. First, it is shown how ex vivo optogenetic activation can be used to study aspects of synaptic communication between mPFC afferents and target cells in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Furthermore, it is illustrated how this ex vivo optogenetic approach can be applied to assess novel connectivity patterns using a group of GABAergic neurons in the amygdala, the paracapsular intercalated cell cluster (mpITC), as an example.

Ex Vivo Optogenetic Dissection of Fear Circuits in Brain Slices

Optogenetic approaches are widely used to manipulate neural activity and assess the consequences for brain function. Here, a technique is outlined that&#160;upon in vivo expression of the optical activator Channelrhodopsin, allows for ex vivo analysis of synaptic properties of specific long range and local neural connections in fear-related circuits.

Optogenetic approaches are now widely used to study the function of neural populations and circuits by combining targeted expression of light-activated ...

Evaluation of Synapse Density in Hippocampal Rodent Brain Slices

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is tightly regulated during development and neuronal maturation. Importantly, deficits in synapse number can lead to cognitive dysfunction. Therefore, the evaluation of synapse number is an integral part of neurobiology. However, as synapses are small and highly compact in the intact brain, the assessment of absolute number is challenging. This protocol describes a method to easily identify and evaluate synapses in hippocampal rodent slices using immunofluorescence microscopy. It includes a three-step procedure to evaluate synapses in high-quality confocal microscopy images by analyzing the co-localization of pre- and postsynaptic proteins in hippocampal slices. It also explains how the analysis is performed and gives representative examples from both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. This protocol provides a solid foundation for the analysis of synapses and can be applied to any research investigating the structure and function of the brain.

A protocol for accurately identifying and analyzing synapses in hippocampal slices using immunofluorescence is outlined in this article.

In the brain, synapses are specialized junctions between neurons, determining the strength and spread of neuronal signaling. The number of synapses is ...

Whole-cell Currents Induced by Puff Application of GABA in Brain Slices

Pharmacological administration is commonly used when conducting whole-cell patch-clamp recording in brain slices. One of the best methods of drug application during electrophysiological recording is the puff technique, which can be used to study the effect of pharmacological reagents on neuronal activities in brain slices. The greatest advantage of puff application is that the drug concentration around the recording site increases rapidly, thus preventing desensitization of membrane receptors. Successful use of puff application involves careful attention to the following elements: the concentration of the drug, the parameters of the puff micropipette, the distance between the tip of a puff micropipette and the neuron recorded, and the duration and pressure driving the puff (pounds per square inch, psi). This article describes a step-by-step procedure for recording whole-cell currents induced by puffing gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) onto a neuron of a prefrontal cortical slice. Notably, the same procedure can be applied with minor modifications to other brain areas such as the hippocampus and the striatum, and to different preparations, such as cell cultures.

We describe the puff technique, by which pharmacological reagents can be administered during whole-cell patch-clamp recording, and highlight various aspects of the features that are crucial for its success.

Pharmacological administration is commonly used when conducting whole-cell patch-clamp recording in brain slices. One of the best methods of drug ...

Recording and Modulation of Epileptiform Activity in Rodent Brain Slices Coupled to Microelectrode Arrays

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a promising approach when pharmacological treatment fails or neurosurgery is not recommended. Acute brain slices coupled to microelectrode arrays (MEAs) represent a valuable tool to study neuronal network interactions and their modulation by electrical stimulation. As compared to conventional extracellular recording techniques, they provide the added advantages of a greater number of observation points and a known inter-electrode distance, which allow studying the propagation path and speed of electrophysiological signals. However, tissue oxygenation may be greatly impaired during MEA recording, requiring a high perfusion rate, which comes at the cost of decreased signal-to-noise ratio and higher oscillations in the experimental temperature. Electrical stimulation further stresses the brain tissue, making it difficult to pursue prolonged recording/stimulation epochs. Moreover, electrical modulation of brain slice activity needs to target specific structures/pathways within the brain slice, requiring that electrode mapping be easily and quickly performed live during the experiment. Here, we illustrate how to perform the recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine (4AP)-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using planar MEAs. We show that the brain tissue obtained from mice outperforms rat brain tissue and is thus better suited for MEA experiments. This protocol guarantees the generation and maintenance of a stable epileptiform pattern that faithfully reproduces the electrophysiological features observed with conventional field potential recording, persists for several hours, and outlasts sustained electrical stimulation for prolonged epochs. Tissue viability throughout the experiment is achieved thanks to the use of a small-volume custom recording chamber allowing for laminar flow and quick solution exchange even at low (1 mL/min) perfusion rates. Quick MEA mapping for real-time monitoring and selection of stimulating electrodes is performed by a custom graphic user interface (GUI).

We illustrate how to perform recording and electrical modulation of 4-aminopyridine-induced epileptiform activity in rodent brain slices using microelectrode arrays. A custom recording chamber maintains tissue viability throughout prolonged experimental sessions. Live electrode mapping and selection of stimulating pairs are performed by a custom graphical user interface.

Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common partial complex epileptic syndrome and the least responsive to medications. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) ...

Real-time In Vitro Monitoring of Odorant Receptor Activation by an Odorant in the Vapor Phase

Olfactory perception begins with the interaction of odorants with odorant receptors (OR) expressed by olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). Odor recognition follows a combinatorial coding scheme, where one OR can be activated by a set of odorants and one odorant can activate a combination of ORs. Through such combinatorial coding, organisms can detect and discriminate between a myriad of volatile odor molecules. Thus, an odor at a given concentration can be described by an activation pattern of ORs, which is specific to each odor. In that sense, cracking the mechanisms that the brain uses to perceive odor requires the understanding odorant-OR interactions. This is why the olfaction community is committed to &#34;de-orphanize&#34;&#160;these receptors. Conventional in vitro systems used to identify odorant-OR interactions have utilized incubating cell media with odorant, which is distinct from the natural detection of odors via vapor odorants dissolution into nasal mucosa before interacting with ORs. Here, we describe a new method that allows for real-time monitoring of OR activation via vapor-phase odorants. Our method relies on measuring cAMP release by luminescence using the Glosensor assay. It bridges current gaps between in vivo and in vitro approaches and provides a basis for a biomimetic volatile chemical sensor.

Physiologically, odorant receptors are activated by odorant molecules inhaled in the vapor phase. However, most in vitro systems utilize liquid phase odorant stimulation. Here, we present a method that allows real-time in vitro monitoring of odorant receptor activation upon odorant stimulation in vapor phase.

Olfactory perception begins with the interaction of odorants with odorant receptors (OR) expressed by olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). Odor recognition ...

In Vivo Intracerebral Stereotaxic Injections for Optogenetic Stimulation of Long-Range Inputs in Mouse Brain Slices

Knowledge of cell-type specific synaptic connectivity is a crucial prerequisite for understanding brain-wide neuronal circuits. The functional investigation of long-range connections requires targeted recordings of single neurons combined with the specific stimulation of identified distant inputs. This is often difficult to achieve with conventional and electrical stimulation techniques, because axons from converging upstream brain areas may intermingle in the target region. The stereotaxic targeting of a specific brain region for virus-mediated expression of light-sensitive ion channels allows selective stimulation of axons originating from that region with light. Intracerebral stereotaxic injections can be used in well-delimited structures, such as the anterior thalamic nuclei, in addition to other subcortical or cortical areas throughout the brain.
Described here is a set of techniques for precise stereotaxic injection of viral vectors expressing channelrhodopsin in the mouse brain, followed by photostimulation of axon terminals in the brain slice preparation. These protocols are simple and widely applicable. In combination with whole-cell patch clamp recording from a postsynaptically connected neuron, photostimulation of axons allows the detection of functional synaptic connections, pharmacological characterization, and evaluation of their strength. In addition, biocytin filling of the recorded neuron can be used for post-hoc morphological identification of the postsynaptic neuron.

This protocol describes a set of methods to identify the cell-type specific functional connectivity of long-range inputs from distant brain regions using optogenetic stimulations in ex vivo brain slices.