This work was carried out with the support of Cardiovascular Surgery, First Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital and the Laboratory Animal Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital.

All the experimental procedures and protocols used in this investigation were reviewed and approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of PLA General Hospital.
1. Preparing the Langendorff apparatus
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the Krebs-Henseleit (K-H) buffer. To prepare the K-H buffer, add the following to distilled water: 118.0 mM NaCl, 4.7 mM KCl, 1.2 mM MgSO4, 1.2 mM NaH2PO4, 1.8 mM CaCl2, 25.0 mM NaHCO3, 11.1 mM glucose, and 0.5 mM EDTA.</li>
	<li>Prepare the modified Langendorff perfusion system.
	<ol>
		<li>Continuously gas the flask containing K-H buffer with 95% O2 + 5% CO2 at a pressure of approximately 80 mmHg. Place one end of the perfusion tube in the K-H buffer, pass the middle of the perfusion tube through the water bath, and attach a blunt 20 G needle to the other end of the perfusion tube.</li>
		<li>Suspend the needle on a wire stand. Adjust the temperature of the water bath so that the temperature of the K-H buffer from the end of the perfusion system is 37.0 &#176;C &#177; 1.0 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Preparing the hardware and software
<ol>
	<li>Hardware
	<ol>
		<li>Use a physiological signal recorder to digitize and record all the analog signals. Use two stainless steel needle electrodes to record a bipolar electrocardiogram (ECG), and use two stainless steel needle electrodes for electrical stimulation.</li>
		<li>Connect one end of the four electrodes to the physiological signal recorder and the other end close to the area where the heart will be positioned after attachment to the apparatus.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Software
	<ol>
		<li>Use the laptop software to automatically recognize, adjust, and record the bipolar ECG and hemodynamic parameters. The parameters include the left ventricular pressure difference (LVPD), the difference between the left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), and the heart rate (HR).</li>
		<li>Set the electrical stimulator parameters to 30 Hz AC, with the low voltage group receiving 2 V and the high voltage group receiving 6 V.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Preparing the isolated heart
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the animal.
	<ol>
		<li>Anesthetize Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats with 2% isoflurane after intraperitoneal injections of 0.05 mg/kg buprenorphine and 1,000 IU/kg heparin sodium. Ensure that the rat has stopped responding to toe pinch.</li>
		<li>Transfer the rat onto a small animal surgical platform, place the rat in a supine position, and sterilize the chest with 75% ethanol.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Excise the heart.
	<ol>
		<li>With the rat connected to a ventilator after cervical dissection and tracheal intubation, lift the skin off the xiphoid process with toothed forceps, and make a 3 cm transverse incision in the skin with tissue scissors. Extend the skin and rib incisions to the axillae on both sides in a V-shape.</li>
		<li>Reflect the sternum cranially with tissue forceps to fully expose the heart and lungs.</li>
		<li>Isolate and bluntly dissect the thymus using two curved forceps. Clamp the thymic tissue, and deflect it laterally on both sides to expose the aorta and its branches.</li>
		<li>Use curved forceps to perform a blunt separation of the aorta and the pulmonary artery, facilitating the later use of ophthalmic scissors to remove the heart and suspend the heart once it has been removed. 
		NOTE: For those who are new to this procedure, step 3.2.4 can be omitted.</li>
		<li>Use blunt dissection to separate the brachiocephalic trunk from the surrounding tissue. Then, clamp the brachiocephalic trunk with curved forceps to facilitate the removal of the heart. Rapidly cut the aorta between the brachiocephalic trunk and the left common carotid artery. The rat dies as soon as the heart is removed.</li>
		<li>Cut off the redundant tissue, and immediately immerse the heart in a Petri dish with K-H buffer at 0-4 &#176;C to wash and pump out the residual blood. 
		NOTE: The transection of the aorta between the brachiocephalic trunk and the left common carotid artery is recommended because preserving the trunk allows for the identification of the aorta and the estimation of the depth of cannulation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Suspend the heart.
	<ol>
		<li>Transfer the heart to a second Petri dish. Identify the aorta. Use two ophthalmic forceps to lift the aorta, and insert the blunt needle into the Langendorff apparatus.</li>
		<li>Adjust the aortic depth to the appropriate position. Have an assistant tie a knot with a 0 suture thread. Then, turn on the perfusion flow regulator. 
		NOTE: Take care to avoid any air bubbles entering the heart throughout the procedure. Furthermore, be aware that the time from cutting the aorta to the initial perfusion should not exceed 2 min.</li>
		<li>Insert a small modified latex balloon connected to a pressure transducer into the left atrium, and push the balloon through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. Fill the balloon with distilled water to achieve an end-diastolic pressure of 5-10 mmHg.</li>
		<li>Connect the ECG and electrical stimulation electrodes to the heart. Then, place the heart in a jacketed glass chamber to maintain an internal temperature of 37.0 &#176;C &#177; 1.0 &#176;C. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Use the following exclusion criteria: heart rate &#60;250 beats per minute; coronary flow (mL/min) &#60;10 mL/min or &#62;25 mL/min. The ECG and electrical stimulation electrode connection positions are shown in Figure 1A, and the jacketed glass chamber is shown in Figure 1B.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Perfusing and electrically stimulating the heart (Figure 2)
<ol>
	<li>Equilibrium stage (0-30 min)
	<ol>
		<li>Start the perfusion, and maintain a temperature of approximately 37 &#176;C until the heart beats spontaneously; then, allow the heart to equilibrate for 20 min.</li>
		<li>Adjust the water bath temperature to maintain the temperature within the jacketed glass chamber at approximately 30 &#176;C. 
		NOTE: The entire cooling process should last approximately 10 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Electrical stimulation stage (30-120 min)
	<ol>
		<li>After the temperature has reached the desired level, activate the electrical stimulation switch on the laptop software. 
		NOTE: The bipolar ECG and left ventricular pressure (LVP) at the beginning of electrical stimulation are shown in Figure 3A.</li>
		<li>If the animal is part of the continuously stimulated long-term VF group, allow 90 min of electrical stimulation. If the animal is in the induced spontaneous long-term VF group, allow 5 min of electrical stimulation, then turn off the electrical stimulation, and allow 90 min for spontaneous long-term VF, as shown in Figure 3B. 
		NOTE: For hearts in the spontaneous long-term VF group that do not develop spontaneous VF within 90 min after electrical stimulation, the electrical stimulation is then turned off as they do not meet the inclusion criteria.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Rewarming, defibrillation, and beating stage (120-180 min)
	<ol>
		<li>After 90 min of VF, use electrodes to give 0.1 J of direct current defibrillation, as shown in Figure 3C.</li>
		<li>Simultaneously regulate the water bath temperature to allow the temperature to rise slowly within the jacketed glass chamber to about 37 &#176;C. Continue the warming process for approximately 10 min.</li>
		<li>After defibrillation, allow the heart to beat for 60 min, and then stop the beating by slow perfusion with 10% KCl at approximately 37 &#176;C. Remove the heart for further analysis. 
		&#8203;NOTE: Hearts that do not beat after defibrillation do not meet the inclusion criteria. In addition, it is important to collect the coronary effusion before cooling (at 20 min), after defibrillation (at 120 min), and at the end of the experiment (at 180 min).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
5. Performing the creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) assay and histological analysis
<ol>
	<li>CK-MB assay
	<ol>
		<li>Use an automatic biochemistry analyzer and commercial CK-MB assay kit to determine the level of CK-MB in the collected coronary effusion fluid8.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Histological analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Fix the heart in buffered 10% formalin, dehydrate the heart, and embed it in paraffin.</li>
		<li>Use a microtome to cut the paraffin-embedded tissue into 5 &#181;m sections; then, mount the sections on glass slides, and stain with hematoxylin and eosin9.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reoperation+for+bioprosthetic+mitral+structural+failure:+risk+assessment.">Reoperation for bioprosthetic mitral structural failure: risk assessment.</a> Circulation. 108 (Suppl 1), 98 (2003).</li><li>Seeburger, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Minimally+invasive+mitral+valve+surgery+after+previous+sternotomy:+Experience+in+181+patients.">Minimally invasive mitral valve surgery after previous sternotomy: Experience in 181 patients.</a> The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 87 (3), 709-714 (2009).</li><li>Arcidi, J. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fifteen-year+experience+with+minimally+invasive+approach+for+reoperations+involving+the+mitral+valve.">Fifteen-year experience with minimally invasive approach for reoperations involving the mitral valve.</a> The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 143 (5), 1062-1068 (2012).</li><li>Cox, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+safety+of+induced+ventricular+fibrillation+during+cardiopulmonary+bypass+in+nonhypertrophied+hearts.">The safety of induced ventricular fibrillation during cardiopulmonary bypass in nonhypertrophied hearts.</a> The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. 74 (3), 423-432 (1977).</li><li>Schraut, W., Lamberti, J. J., Kampman, K., Glagov, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ventricular+fibrillation+during+cardiopulmonary+bypass:+Long-term+effects+on+myocardial+morphology+and+function.">Ventricular fibrillation during cardiopulmonary bypass: Long-term effects on myocardial morphology and function.</a> The Annals of Thoracic Surgery. 27 (3), 230-234 (1979).</li><li>Li, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pravastatin+attenuates+cardiac+dysfunction+induced+by+lysophosphatidylcholine+in+isolated+rat+hearts.">Pravastatin attenuates cardiac dysfunction induced by lysophosphatidylcholine in isolated rat hearts.</a> European Journal of Pharmacology. 640 (1-3), 139-142 (2010).</li><li>Lang, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CXCL10/IP-10+neutralization+can+ameliorate+lipopolysaccharide-induced+acute+respiratory+distress+syndrome+in+rats.">CXCL10/IP-10 neutralization can ameliorate lipopolysaccharide-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in rats.</a> PLoS One. 12 (1), e0169100 (2017).</li><li>Lubbe, W. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

This protocol establishes an animal model of long-term VF in isolated rat hearts that has not been previously reported. Additionally, different electrical stimulation conditions were compared in this study. This study provides a model for studies related to ventricular fibrillation arrest during cardiac surgery.
The success rate of the model is a very important indicator that is related to personnel, time, and economic costs. In VF models, the success rate includes whether VF can be induced in...

Cardiac surgery is usually performed via thoracotomy, with blocking of the aorta and perfusion with a cardioplegic solution to arrest the heart. Repeat cardiac surgery can be more challenging than the initial surgery, with higher complication and mortality rates1,2,3. Furthermore, the conventional median sternotomy approach may cause damage to the bridge vessels behind the sternum, the ascending aorta, the right ventricle, and other important structures. Extensive bleeding due to the separation of connective tissue, sternal wound infection, and sternal osteomyelitis due to sternotomy are all possible complications. Extensive dissection increases the risk of lesions and hemorrhage in vital cardiac structures.
With the development of minimally invasive cardiac surgery, incisions have become smaller, and cardiac arrest is sometimes difficult to achieve. Repeat cardiac surgery under ventricular fibrillation (VF)4,5 is safe, feasible, and may provide better myocardial protection. Therefore, this protocol introduces the method of VF cardiac arrest in surgery with minimally invasive extracorporeal circulation. The heart loses effective contraction during VF, and, thus, there is no need to suture and block the ascending aorta during surgery, which simplifies the procedure. However, even if the heart is continuously perfused, long-term VF may still be harmful to the heart.
As this method becomes more widely used, the question of how to protect the heart during VF becomes increasingly relevant. This will require extensive and in-depth studies using animal models of long-term VF. In the past, research in this field has mostly used large animals6,7 and has required cooperation between surgeons, anesthesiologists, perfusionists, and other researchers. These studies took too long, the sample sizes were often small, and the studies generally focused on cardiac function and less on mechanistic and molecular assessments. To date, no study has reported a detailed protocol to establish a long-term VF model.
This protocol, thus, provides the details needed to develop a long-term VF rat model using Langendorff apparatus. The protocol is simple, economical, repeatable, and stable.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>0 Non-absorbable suture</td>
			<td>Ethicon, Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>95% O2 + 5% CO2</td>
			<td>Beijing BeiYang United Gas Co., Ltd.&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AcqKnowledge software</td>
			<td>BIOPAC Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>Version 4.2.1</td>
			<td>Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Automatic biochemistry analyzer</td>
			<td>Rayto Life and Analytical Sciences Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>Chemray 800</td>
			<td>CK-MB assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BIOPAC research systems</td>
			<td>BIOPAC Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>MP150</td>
			<td>Hardware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blunt needle (20 G, TWLB)</td>
			<td>Tianjin Hanaco MEDICAL Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>H-113AP-S</td>
			<td>Modified Langendorff perfusion system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium chloride</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>10005861</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CK-MB assay kits&#160;</td>
			<td>Changchun Huili Biotech Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>C060</td>
			<td>CK-MB assay</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Curved forcep</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>10009717</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electrical stimulator</td>
			<td>BIOPAC Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>STEMISOC</td>
			<td>Hardware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter</td>
			<td>Tianjin Hanaco MEDICAL Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>H-113AP-S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>63005518</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heparin sodium</td>
			<td>Tianjin Biochem Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>H120200505</td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isoflurane</td>
			<td>RWD Life Science Co.,LTD</td>
			<td>21082201</td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium sulfate</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>20025118</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle electrodes</td>
			<td>BIOPAC Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>EL452</td>
			<td>Hardware</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic clamp</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic forceps</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ophthalmic scissors</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Perfusion tube</td>
			<td>Tianjin Hanaco MEDICAL Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>H-113AP-S</td>
			<td>Modified Langendorff perfusion system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>10016318</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>10018960</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>10019318</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dihydrogen phosphate dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>20040718</td>
			<td>K-H buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats</td>
			<td>SPF (Beijing) biotechnology Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>Male, 300-350g</td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermometer</td>
			<td>Jiangsu Jingchuang Electronics Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>GSP-6</td>
			<td>Modified Langendorff perfusion system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissueforceps</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue scissors</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Toothed forceps</td>
			<td>Shanghai Medical Instrument (Group) Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ventilator</td>
			<td>Chengdu Instrument Factory</td>
			<td>DKX-150</td>
			<td>Preparation of the isolated heart</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath1</td>
			<td>Ningbo Scientz Biotechnology Co.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>SC-15</td>
			<td>Modified Langendorff perfusion system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath2</td>
			<td>Shanghai Yiheng Technology Instrument Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>DK-8D</td>
			<td>Modified Langendorff perfusion system</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a model of long-term ventricular fibrillation in isolated rat hearts

Ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a fatal arrhythmia with a high incidence in cardiac patients, but VF arrest under perfusion is a neglected method of intraoperative arrest in the field of cardiac surgery. With recent advances in cardiac surgery, the demand for prolonged VF studies under perfusion has increased. However, the field lacks simple, reliable, and reproducible animal models of chronic ventricular fibrillation. This protocol induces long-term VF through alternating current (AC) electrical stimulation of the epicardium. Different conditions were used to induce VF, including continuous stimulation with a low or high voltage to induce long-term VF and stimulation for 5 min with a low or high voltage to induce spontaneous long-term VF. The success rates of the different conditions, as well as the rates of myocardial injury and recovery of cardiac function, were compared. The results showed that continuous low-voltage stimulation induced long-term VF and that 5 min of low-voltage stimulation induced spontaneous long-term VF with mild myocardial injury and a high rate of recovery of cardiac function. However, the low-voltage, continuously stimulated long-term VF model had a higher success rate. High-voltage stimulation provided a higher rate of VF induction but showed a low defibrillation success rate, poor recovery of cardiac function, and severe myocardial injury. On the basis of these results, continuous low-voltage epicardial AC stimulation is recommended for its high success rate, stability, reliability, reproducibility, low impact on cardiac function, and mild myocardial injury.

A total of 57 rats were used in the experiments, of which 30 fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The included animals were divided into five groups, with six animals in each group: the control group (Group C), the low-voltage continuously stimulated long-term VF group (Group LC), the high-voltage continuously stimulated long-term VF group (Group HC), the low voltage-induced spontaneous long-term VF group (Group LI), and the high voltage-induced spontaneous long-term VF group (Group HI). The experimental process for each gr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Model of Long-Term Ventricular Fibrillation in Isolated Rat Hearts at JoVE.com

A Model of Long-Term Ventricular Fibrillation in Isolated Rat Hearts

This protocol presents a model of long-term ventricular fibrillation in rat hearts induced by continuous stimulation with low-voltage alternating current. This model has a high success rate, is stable, reliable, and reproducible, has a low impact on cardiac function, and causes only mild myocardial injury.

Ventricular fibrillation (VF) is a fatal arrhythmia with a high incidence in cardiac patients, but VF arrest under perfusion is a neglected method of ...

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830 Views.  Chinese PLA General Hospital. This protocol presents a model of long-term ventricular fibrillation in rat hearts induced by continuous stimulation with low-voltage alternating current. This model has a high success rate, is stable, reliable, and reproducible, has a low impact on cardiac function, and causes only mild myocardial injury.

Video: A Model of Long-Term Ventricular Fibrillation in Isolated Rat Hearts

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Energetics in Isolated Mouse Hearts Using 31P NMR Spectroscopy

Bioengineered mouse models have become powerful research tools in determining causal relationships between molecular alterations and models of cardiovascular disease. Although molecular biology is necessary in identifying key changes in the signaling pathway, it is not a surrogate for functional significance. While physiology can provide answers to the question of function, combining physiology with biochemical assessment of metabolites in the intact, beating heart allows for a complete picture of cardiac function and energetics. For years, our laboratory has utilized isolated heart perfusions combined with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to accomplish this task. Left ventricular function is assessed by Langendorff-mode isolated heart perfusions while cardiac energetics is measured by performing 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the perfused hearts. With these techniques, indices of cardiac function in combination with levels of phosphocreatine and ATP can be measured simultaneously in beating hearts. Furthermore, these parameters can be monitored while physiologic or pathologic stressors are instituted. For example, ischemia/reperfusion or high workload challenge protocols can be adopted. The use of aortic banding or other models of cardiac pathology are apt as well. Regardless of the variants within the protocol, the functional and energetic significance of molecular modifications of transgenic mouse models can be adequately described, leading to new insights into the associated enzymatic and metabolic pathways. Therefore, 31P NMR spectroscopy in the isolated perfused heart is a valuable research technique in animal models of cardiovascular disease.

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Energetics in Isolated Mouse Hearts Using 31P NMR Spectroscopy

Langendorff-mode isolated heart perfusion, in conjunction with 31P NMR spectroscopy, combines the fields of biochemistry and physiology into one experiment. The protocol allows for the dynamic measurement of high energy phosphate content and turnover in the heart while concurrently monitoring physiologic function. When performed correctly, this is a valuable technique in the assessment of cardiac energetics.

Bioengineered mouse models have become powerful research tools in determining causal relationships between molecular alterations and models of ...

NADH Fluorescence Imaging of Isolated Biventricular Working Rabbit Hearts

Since its inception by Langendorff1, the isolated perfused heart remains a prominent tool for studying cardiac physiology2. However, it is not well-suited for studies of cardiac metabolism, which require the heart to perform work within the context of physiologic preload and afterload pressures. Neely introduced modifications to the Langendorff technique to establish appropriate left ventricular (LV) preload and afterload pressures3. The model is known as the isolated LV working heart model and has been used extensively to study LV performance and metabolism4-6. This model, however, does not provide a properly loaded right ventricle (RV). Demmy et al. first reported a biventricular model as a modification of the LV working heart model7, 8. They found that stroke volume, cardiac output, and pressure development improved in hearts converted from working LV mode to biventricular working mode8. A properly loaded RV also diminishes abnormal pressure gradients across the septum to improve septal function. Biventricular working hearts have been shown to maintain aortic output, pulmonary flow, mean aortic pressure, heart rate, and myocardial ATP levels for up to 3 hours8.
When studying the metabolic effects of myocardial injury, such as ischemia, it is often necessary to identify the location of the affected tissue. This can be done by imaging the fluorescence of NADH (the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)9-11, a coenzyme found in large quantities in the mitochondria. NADH fluorescence (fNADH) displays a near linearly inverse relationship with local oxygen concentration12 and provides a measure of mitochondrial redox state13. fNADH imaging during hypoxic and ischemic conditions has been used as a dye-free method to identify hypoxic regions14, 15 and to monitor the progression of hypoxic conditions over time10.
The objective of the method is to monitor the mitochondrial redox state of biventricular working hearts during protocols that alter the rate of myocyte metabolism or induce hypoxia or create a combination of the two. Hearts from New Zealand white rabbits were connected to a biventricular working heart system (Hugo Sachs Elektronik) and perfused with modified Krebs-Henseleit solution16 at 37 &deg;C. Aortic, LV, pulmonary artery, and left &amp; right atrial pressures were recorded. Electrical activity was measured using a monophasic action potential electrode. To image fNADH, light from a mercury lamp was filtered (350&plusmn;25 nm) and used to illuminate the epicardium. Emitted light was filtered (460&plusmn;20 nm) and imaged using a CCD camera. Changes in the epicardial fNADH of biventricular working hearts during different pacing rates are presented. The combination of the heart model and fNADH imaging provides a new and valuable experimental tool for studying acute cardiac pathologies within the context of realistic physiological conditions.

The objective is to monitor the mitochondrial redox state of isolated hearts within the context of physiologic preload and afterload pressures. A biventricular working rabbit heart model is presented. High spatiotemporal resolution fluorescence imaging of NADH is used to monitor the mitochondrial redox state of epicardial tissue.

Since its inception by Langendorff1, the isolated perfused heart remains a prominent tool for studying cardiac physiology2. However, it is not well-suited ...

Reduction in Left Ventricular Wall Stress and Improvement in Function in Failing Hearts using Algisyl-LVR

Injection of Algisyl-LVR, a treatment under clinical development, is intended to treat patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. This treatment was recently used for the first time in patients who had symptomatic heart failure. In all patients, cardiac function of the left ventricle (LV) improved significantly, as manifested by consistent reduction of the LV volume and wall stress. Here we describe this novel treatment procedure and the methods used to quantify its effects on LV wall stress and function.
Algisyl-LVR is a biopolymer gel consisting of Na+-Alginate and Ca2+-Alginate. The treatment procedure was carried out by mixing these two components and then combining them into one syringe for intramyocardial injections. This mixture was injected at 10 to 19 locations mid-way between the base and apex of the LV free wall in patients.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), together with mathematical modeling, was used to quantify the effects of this treatment in patients before treatment and at various time points during recovery. The epicardial and endocardial surfaces were first digitized from the MR images to reconstruct the LV geometry at end-systole and at end-diastole. Left ventricular cavity volumes were then measured from these reconstructed surfaces.
Mathematical models of the LV were created from these MRI-reconstructed surfaces to calculate regional myofiber stress. Each LV model was constructed so that 1) it deforms according to a previously validated stress-strain relationship of the myocardium, and 2) the predicted LV cavity volume from these models matches the corresponding MRI-measured volume at end-diastole and end-systole. Diastolic filling was simulated by loading the LV endocardial surface with a prescribed end-diastolic pressure. Systolic contraction was simulated by concurrently loading the endocardial surface with a prescribed end-systolic pressure and adding active contraction in the myofiber direction. Regional myofiber stress at end-diastole and end-systole was computed from the deformed LV based on the stress-strain relationship.

This article describes procedures for implanting a novel hydrogel in failing hearts and quantifying its effect on left ventricular wall stress and function. These procedures have been successfully applied in dogs and humans.

Injection of  Algisyl-LVR, a treatment under clinical development, is intended to treat  patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. This treatment was recently ...

Method of Isolated Ex Vivo Lung Perfusion in a Rat Model: Lessons Learned from Developing a Rat EVLP Program

The number of acceptable donor lungs available for lung transplantation is severely limited due to poor quality. Ex-Vivo Lung Perfusion (EVLP) has allowed lung transplantation in humans to become more readily available by enabling the ability to assess organs and expand the donor pool. As this technology expands and improves, the ability to potentially evaluate and improve the quality of substandard lungs prior to transplant is a critical need. In order to more rigorously evaluate these approaches, a reproducible animal model needs to be established that would allow for testing of improved techniques and management of the donated lungs as well as to the lung-transplant recipient. In addition, an EVLP animal model of associated pathologies, e.g., ventilation induced lung injury (VILI), would provide a novel method to evaluate treatments for these pathologies. Here, we describe the development of a rat EVLP lung program and refinements to this method that allow for a reproducible model for future expansion. We also describe the application of this EVLP system to model VILI in rat lungs. The goal is to provide the research community with key information and &#8220;pearls of wisdom&#8221;/techniques that arose from trial and error and are critical to establishing an EVLP system that is robust and reproducible.

Method of Isolated Ex Vivo Lung Perfusion in a Rat Model: Lessons Learned from Developing a Rat EVLP Program

Ex-Vivo Lung Perfusion (EVLP) has allowed lung transplantation in humans to become more readily available by enabling the ability to assess organs and expand the donor pool. Here, we describe the development of a rat EVLP program and refinements that allow for a reproducible model for future expansion.

The number of acceptable donor lungs available for lung transplantation is severely limited due to poor quality. Ex-Vivo Lung Perfusion (EVLP) has allowed ...

A Rat Model of Ventricular Fibrillation and Resuscitation by Conventional Closed-chest Technique

A rat model of electrically-induced ventricular fibrillation followed by cardiac resuscitation using a closed chest technique that incorporates the basic components of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in humans is herein described. The model was developed in 1988 and has been used in approximately 70 peer-reviewed publications examining a myriad of resuscitation aspects including its physiology and pathophysiology, determinants of resuscitability, pharmacologic interventions, and even the effects of cell therapies. The model featured in this presentation includes: (1) vascular catheterization to measure aortic and right atrial pressures, to measure cardiac output by thermodilution, and to electrically induce ventricular fibrillation; and (2) tracheal intubation for positive pressure ventilation with oxygen enriched gas and assessment of the end-tidal CO2. A typical sequence of intervention entails: (1) electrical induction of ventricular fibrillation, (2) chest compression using a mechanical piston device concomitantly with positive pressure ventilation delivering oxygen-enriched gas, (3) electrical shocks to terminate ventricular fibrillation and reestablish cardiac activity, (4) assessment of post-resuscitation hemodynamic and metabolic function, and (5) assessment of survival and recovery of organ function. A robust inventory of measurements is available that includes &#8211; but is not limited to &#8211; hemodynamic, metabolic, and tissue measurements. The model has been highly effective in developing new resuscitation concepts and examining novel therapeutic interventions before their testing in larger and translationally more relevant animal models of cardiac arrest and resuscitation.

This article describes a rat model of electrically-induced ventricular fibrillation and resuscitation by chest compression, ventilation, and delivery of electrical shocks that simulates an episode of sudden cardiac arrest and conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The model enables gathering insights on the pathophysiology of cardiac arrest and exploration of new resuscitation strategies.

A rat model of electrically-induced ventricular fibrillation followed by cardiac resuscitation using a closed chest technique that incorporates the basic ...

Induction and Assessment of Ischemia-reperfusion Injury in Langendorff-perfused Rat Hearts

The biochemical events surrounding ischemia reperfusion injury in the acute setting are of great importance to furthering novel treatment options for myocardial infarction and cardiac complications of thoracic surgery. The ability of certain drugs to precondition the myocardium against ischemia reperfusion injury has led to multiple clinical trials, with little success. The isolated heart model allows acute observation of the functional effects of ischemia reperfusion injury in real time, including the effects of various pharmacological interventions administered at any time-point before or within the ischemia-reperfusion injury window. Since brief periods of ischemia can precondition the heart against ischemic injury, in situ aortic cannulation is performed to allow for functional assessment of non-preconditioned myocardium. A saline filled balloon is placed into the left ventricle to allow for real-time measurement of pressure generation. Ischemic injury is simulated by the cessation of perfusion buffer flow, followed by reperfusion. The duration of both ischemia and reperfusion can be modulated to examine biochemical events at any given time-point. Although the Langendorff isolated heart model does not allow for the consideration of systemic events affecting ischemia and reperfusion, it is an excellent model for the examination of acute functional and biochemical events within the window of ischemia reperfusion injury as well as the effect of pharmacological intervention on cardiac pre- and postconditioning. The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate how to perform in situ aortic cannulation and heart excision followed by ischemia/reperfusion injury in the Langendorff model.

The isolated rat heart is an enduring model for ischemia reperfusion injury. Here, we describe the process of harvesting the beating heart from a rat via in situ aortic cannulation, Langendorff perfusion of the heart, simulated ischemia-reperfusion injury, and infarct staining to confirm the extent of ischemic insult.

The biochemical events surrounding ischemia reperfusion injury in the acute setting are of great importance to furthering novel treatment options for ...

Surgical Placement of Catheters for Long-term Cardiovascular Exercise Testing in Swine

This protocol describes the surgical procedure to chronically instrument swine and the procedure to exercise swine on a motor-driven treadmill. Early cardiopulmonary dysfunction is difficult to diagnose, particularly in animal models, as cardiopulmonary function is often measured invasively, requiring anesthesia. As many anesthetic agents are cardiodepressive, subtle changes in cardiovascular function may be masked. In contrast, chronic instrumentation allows for measurement of cardiopulmonary function in the awake state, so that measurements can be obtained under quiet resting conditions, without the effects of anesthesia and acute surgical trauma. Furthermore, when animals are properly trained, measurements can also be obtained during graded treadmill exercise.
Flow probes are placed around the aorta or pulmonary artery for measurement of cardiac output and around the left anterior descending coronary artery for measurement of coronary blood flow. Fluid-filled catheters are implanted in the aorta, pulmonary artery, left atrium, left ventricle and right ventricle for pressure measurement and blood sampling. In addition, a 20 G&#160;catheter is positioned in the anterior interventricular vein to allow coronary venous blood sampling.
After a week of recovery, swine are placed on a motor-driven treadmill, the catheters are connected to pressure and flow meters, and swine are subjected to a five-stage progressive exercise protocol, with each stage lasting 3 min. Hemodynamic signals are continuously recorded and blood samples are taken during the last 30 sec of each exercise stage.
The major advantage of studying chronically instrumented animals is that it allows serial assessment of cardiopulmonary function, not only at rest but also during physical stress such as exercise. Moreover, cardiopulmonary function can be assessed repeatedly during disease development and during chronic treatment, thereby increasing statistical power and hence limiting the number of animals required for a study.

Here we present a protocol to assess cardiopulmonary function in awake swine, at rest and during graded treadmill exercise. Chronic instrumentation allows for repeated hemodynamic measurements uninfluenced by cardiodepressive anesthetic agents.

This protocol describes the surgical procedure to chronically instrument swine and the procedure to exercise swine on a motor-driven treadmill. Early ...

Long-term Blood Pressure Measurement in Freely Moving Mice Using Telemetry

During the development of new vasoactive agents, arterial blood pressure monitoring is crucial for evaluating the efficacy of the new proposed drugs. Indeed, research focusing on the discovery of new potential therapeutic targets using genetically altered mice requires a reliable, long-term assessment of the systemic arterial pressure variation. Currently, the gold standard for obtaining long-term measurements of blood pressure in ambulatory mice uses implantable radio-transmitters, which require&#160;artery cannulation. This technique eliminates the need for tethering, restraining, or anesthetizing the animals which introduce stress and artifacts during data sampling. However, arterial blood pressure monitoring in mice via catheterization can be rather challenging due to the small size of the arteries. Here we present a step-by-step guide to illustrate the crucial key passages for a successful subcutaneous implantation of radio-transmitters and carotid artery cannulation in mice. We also include examples of long-term blood pressure activity taken from freely moving mice after a period of post-surgery recovery. Following this procedure will allow reliable direct blood pressure recordings from multiple animals simultaneously.

The goal of this protocol is to assess systemic blood pressure in conscious freely moving mice using implantable radio-telemetry devices.

During the development of new vasoactive agents, arterial blood pressure monitoring is crucial for evaluating the efficacy of the new proposed drugs. ...

The Inverted Heart Model for Interstitial Transudate Collection from the Isolated Rat Heart

The present protocol describes a unique approach that enables the collection of cardiac transudate (CT) from the isolated, saline-perfused rat heart. After isolation and retrograde perfusion of the heart according to the Langendorff technique, the heart is inverted into an upside-down position and is mechanically stabilized by a balloon catheter inserted into the left ventricle. Then, a thin latex cap &#8211; previously cast to match the average size of the rat heart &#8211; is placed over the epicardial surface. The outlet of the latex cap is connected to silicon tubing, with the distal opening 10 cm below the base level of the heart, creating slight suction. CT continuously produced on the epicardial surface is collected in ice-cooled vials for further analysis. The rate of CT formation ranged from 17 to 147 &#181;L/min (n = 14) in control and infarcted hearts, which represents 0.1-1% of the coronary venous effluent perfusate. Proteomic analysis and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) revealed that the collected CT contains a wide spectrum of proteins and purinergic metabolites.

This protocol describes a method to collect cardiac interstitial fluid from the isolated, perfused rat heart. To physically separate interstitial transudate from coronary venous effluent perfusate, the Langendorff perfused heart is inverted, and the transudate (interstitial fluid) formed on the cardiac surface is collected using a soft latex cap.

The present protocol describes a unique approach that enables the collection of cardiac transudate (CT) from the isolated, saline-perfused rat heart. ...

Standardized Model of Ventricular Fibrillation and Advanced Cardiac Life Support in Swine

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation after cardiac arrest, independent of its origin, is a regularly encountered medical emergency in hospitals as well as preclinical settings. Prospective randomized trials in human subjects are difficult to design and ethically ambiguous, which results in a lack of evidence-based therapies. The model presented in this report represents one of the most common causes of cardiac arrests, ventricular fibrillation, in a standardized setting in a large animal model. This allows for reproducible observations and various therapeutic interventions under clinically accurate conditions, hence facilitating the generation of better evidence and eventually the potential for improved medical treatment.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation and defibrillation are the only effective therapeutic options during cardiac arrest caused by ventricular fibrillation. This model presents a standardized regimen to induce, assess, and treat this physiological state in a porcine model, thus providing a clinical approach with various opportunities for data collection and analysis.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation after cardiac arrest, independent of its origin, is a regularly encountered medical emergency in hospitals as well as ...