We are grateful to Kaz Nagaosa and Akiko Shiratsuchi for their advice.

1. Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of fresh grape juice agar plates
	<ol>
		<li>Add 100 mL of water to 4.4 g of agar, and heat the mixture in a microwave oven to dissolve agar.</li>
		<li>Add 80 mL of fresh grape juice, 5 mL of acetic acid, and 5 mL of ethanol to agar solution.</li>
		<li>Pour approximately 1.5 mL of the solution with a pipette onto each glass slide, and allow it to solidify.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Preparation of 6 cm dish agarose plates
	<ol>
		<li>Add 50 mL water ...

<ol>
	<li>Danial, N. N., Korsmeyer, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+death:+critical+control+points.">Cell death: critical control points.</a> Cell. 116 (2), 205-219 (2004).</li><li>Vaux, D. L., Korsmeyer, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+death+in+development.">Cell death in development.</a> Cell. 96 (2), 245-254 (1999).</li><li>Savill, J., Fadok, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Corpse+clearance+defines+the+meaning+of+cell+death.">Corpse clearance defines the meaning of cell death.</a> Nature. 407 (6805), 784-788 (2000).</li><li>Lauber, K., Blumenthal, S. G., Waibel, M., Wesselborg, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clearance+of+apoptotic+cells:+getting+rid+of+the+corpses.">Clearance of apoptotic cells: getting rid of the corpses.</a> Mol Cell. 14 (3), 277-287 (2004).</li><li>Ravichandran, K. S., Lorenz, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engulfment+of+apoptotic+cells:+signals+for+a+good+meal.">Engulfment of apoptotic cells: signals for a good meal.</a> Nat Rev Immunol. 7 (12), 964-974 (2007).</li><li>Ravichandran, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beginnings+of+a+good+apoptotic+meal:+the+find-me+and+eat-me+signaling+pathways.">Beginnings of a good apoptotic meal: the find-me and eat-me signaling pathways.</a> Immunity. 35 (4), 445-455 (2011).</li><li>Nakanishi, Y., Nagaosa, K., Shiratsuchi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phagocytic+removal+of+cells+that+have+become+unwanted:+implications+for+animal+development+and+tissue+homeostasis.">Phagocytic removal of cells that have become unwanted: implications for animal development and tissue homeostasis.</a> Dev Growth Differ. 53 (2), 149-160 (2011).</li><li>Reddien, P. W., Horvitz, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+engulfment+process+of+programmed+cell+death+in+caenorhabditis+elegans.">The engulfment process of programmed cell death in caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 20, 193-221 (2004).</li><li>Hedgecock, E. M., Sulston, J. E., Thomson, J. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+affecting+programmed+cell+deaths+in+the+nematode+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Mutations affecting programmed cell deaths in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Science. 220 (4603), 1277-1279 (1983).</li><li>Ellis, R. E., Jacobson, D. M., Horvitz, H. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genes+required+for+the+engulfment+of+cell+corpses+during+programmed+cell+death+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Genes required for the engulfment of cell corpses during programmed cell death in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Genetics. 129 (1), 79-94 (1991).</li><li>Gumienny, T. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CED-12/ELMO,+a+novel+member+of+the+CrkII/Dock180/Rac+pathway,+is+required+for+phagocytosis+and+cell+migration.">CED-12/ELMO, a novel member of the CrkII/Dock180/Rac pathway, is required for phagocytosis and cell migration.</a> Cell. 107 (1), 27-41 (2001).</li><li>Hsu, T. Y., Wu, Y. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engulfment+of+apoptotic+cells+in+C.+elegans+is+mediated+by+integrin+alpha/SRC+signaling.">Engulfment of apoptotic cells in C. elegans is mediated by integrin alpha/SRC signaling.</a> Curr Biol. 20 (6), 477-486 (2010).</li><li>Hanayama, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+a+factor+that+links+apoptotic+cells+to+phagocytes.">Identification of a factor that links apoptotic cells to phagocytes.</a> Nature. 417 (6885), 182-187 (2002).</li><li>Tepass, U., Fessler, L. I., Aziz, A., Hartenstein, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embryonic+origin+of+hemocytes+and+their+relationship+to+cell+death+in+Drosophila.">Embryonic origin of hemocytes and their relationship to cell death in Drosophila.</a> Development. 120 (7), 1829-1837 (1994).</li><li>Gold, K. S., Bruckner, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Macrophages+and+cellular+immunity+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Macrophages and cellular immunity in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> Semin Immunol. 27, 357-368 (2015).</li><li>Abrams, J. M., White, K., Fessler, L. I., Steller, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Programmed+cell+death+during+Drosophila+embryogenesis.">Programmed cell death during Drosophila embryogenesis.</a> Development. 117 (1), 29-43 (1993).</li><li>Franc, N. C., Heitzler, P., Ezekowitz, R. A., White, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Requirement+for+croquemort+in+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+cells+in+Drosophila.">Requirement for croquemort in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in Drosophila.</a> Science. 284 (5422), 1991-1994 (1999).</li><li>Mukae, N., Yokoyama, H., Yokokura, T., Sakoyama, Y., Nagata, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+the+innate+immunity+in+Drosophila+by+endogenous+chromosomal+DNA+that+escaped+apoptotic+degradation.">Activation of the innate immunity in Drosophila by endogenous chromosomal DNA that escaped apoptotic degradation.</a> Genes Dev. 16 (20), 2662-2671 (2002).</li><li>Manaka, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Draper-mediated+and+phosphatidylserine-independent+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+cells+by+Drosophila+hemocytes/macrophages.">Draper-mediated and phosphatidylserine-independent phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by Drosophila hemocytes/macrophages.</a> J Biol Chem. 279 (46), 48466-48476 (2004).</li><li>Roberts, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Drosophila: A Practical Approach. , 3868-3878 (1998).</li><li>Kuraishi, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pretaporter,+a+Drosophila+protein+serving+as+a+ligand+for+Draper+in+the+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+cells.">Pretaporter, a Drosophila protein serving as a ligand for Draper in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells.</a> Embo j. 28 (24), 3868-3878 (2009).</li><li>Franc, N. C., Dimarcq, J. L., Lagueux, M., Hoffmann, J., Ezekowitz, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Croquemort,+a+novel+Drosophila+hemocyte/macrophage+receptor+that+recognizes+apoptotic+cells.">Croquemort, a novel Drosophila hemocyte/macrophage receptor that recognizes apoptotic cells.</a> Immunity. 4 (5), 431-443 (1996).</li><li>Kuraishi, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+calreticulin+as+a+marker+for+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+cells+in+Drosophila.">Identification of calreticulin as a marker for phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in Drosophila.</a> Exp Cell Res. 313 (3), 500-510 (2007).</li><li>Nagaosa, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrin+betanu-mediated+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+cells+in+Drosophila+embryos.">Integrin betanu-mediated phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in Drosophila embryos.</a> J Biol Chem. 286 (29), 25770-25777 (2011).</li><li>Nonaka, S., Nagaosa, K., Mori, T., Shiratsuchi, A., Nakanishi, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrin+alphaPS3/betanu-mediated+phagocytosis+of+apoptotic+cells+and+bacteria+in+Drosophila.">Integrin alphaPS3/betanu-mediated phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and bacteria in Drosophila.</a> J Biol Chem. 288 (15), 10374-10380 (2013).</li><li>Fujita, Y., Nagaosa, K., Shiratsuchi, A., Nakanishi, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+NPxY+motif+in+Draper-mediated+apoptotic+cell+clearance+in+Drosophila.">Role of NPxY motif in Draper-mediated apoptotic cell clearance in Drosophila.</a> Drug Discov Ther. 6 (6), 291-297 (2012).</li><li>Bruckner, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+PDGF/VEGF+receptor+controls+blood+cell+survival+in+Drosophila.">The PDGF/VEGF receptor controls blood cell survival in Drosophila.</a> Dev Cell. 7 (1), 73-84 (2004).</li><li>Nonaka, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Signaling+Pathway+for+Phagocyte+Priming+upon+Encounter+with+Apoptotic+Cells.">Signaling Pathway for Phagocyte Priming upon Encounter with Apoptotic Cells.</a> J Biol Chem. 292 (19), 8059-8072 (2017).</li><li>Hanayama, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autoimmune+disease+and+impaired+uptake+of+apoptotic+cells+in+MFG-E8-deficient+mice.">Autoimmune disease and impaired uptake of apoptotic cells in MFG-E8-deficient mice.</a> Science. 304 (5674), 1147-1150 (2004).</li></ol>

We herein described a phagocytosis assay using Drosophila embryos. By using dispersed embryonic cells to measure phagocytosis quantitatively, hemocytes, Drosophila professional phagocytes, are immunostained for the hemocyte marker Croquemort or srpHemo-driven GFP, and apoptotic cells are detected by TUNEL in this protocol. The level of phagocytosis is expressed as a phagocytic index by counting the total number of hemocytes and phagocytosing hemocytes. The use of dispersed embryonic cells enabl...

In metazoan animals, e.g. the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, and mice and humans, a large number of cells undergo apoptosis during development to shape their bodies and in adulthood to maintain homeostasis1,2. Apoptotic cells need to be rapidly removed because they induce inflammation in the surrounding tissues by releasing immunogenic intracellular materials if not completely removed3. In order to facilitate rapid removal, apoptotic cells present so-called eat-me signals that are recognized by the engulfment receptors of phagocytes, and are eliminated by phagocytosis3,4,5,6. Thus, phagocytosis plays a crucial role in the maintenance of host homeostasis, and hence, elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is of importance.
The mechanisms responsible for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells appear to be evolutionally conserved among species in the nematodes, flies, and mice7. Several phagocytosis assays are currently available to assess the engulfment of apoptotic cells in these model animals. In C. elegans, 131 somatic cells undergo programmed cell death during development, and cell corpses are phagocytosed by neighboring cells, which are non-professional phagocytes8. Thus, counting the number of remaining cell corpses in C. elegans indicates the level of phagocytosis in vivo. By searching for nematode mutants that show an increased number of dead cells, several genes required for phagocytosis have been identified and genetically characterized9,10,11,12.
Ex vivo phagocytosis assays with primary culture phagocytes, generally macrophages, are often utilized in mice. Apoptotic cells are prepared using cell lines such as Jurkat cells, and are mixed with primary phagocytes. After an incubation for several hours, the total numbers of phagocytes and engulfing phagocytes are counted in order to assess the level of phagocytosis. As a sophisticated modification of this method, Nagata&#39;s group developed an ex vivo phagocytosis assay with cells expressing a caspase-resistant ICAD (inhibitor of caspase-activated DNase), in which apoptotic cells do not undergo apoptotic DNA fragmentation, but DNA is still cleaved when cells are phagocytosed. When these cells are used as apoptotic targets in a phagocytosis assay, only the DNA of engulfed apoptotic cells is fragmented, and stained by TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL). Therefore, the level of apoptotic cell engulfment is measured by counting TUNEL signals in a mixture of phagocytes and apoptotic cells13.
In D. melanogaster, professional phagocytes named hemocytes, Drosophila macrophages, are responsible for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells14,15. In addition to in vitro phagocytosis assays with culture cell lines, in vivo phagocytosis assays with whole Drosophila embryos are available. Drosophila embryos are a powerful tool for examining the level of apoptotic cell engulfment because many cells undergo apoptosis and are phagocytosed by hemocytes during embryonic development14,15,16. An example of an in vivo phagocytosis assay is the method developed by Franc&#39;s group. In their method, hemocytes are detected by the immunostaining of peroxidasin, a hemocyte marker, apoptotic cells are stained using the nuclear dye, 7-amino actinomycin D in whole Drosophila embryos, and the number of double positive cells is counted as a signal of phagocytosis17. Another example of a phagocytosis assay on embryos is based on the concept of Nagata&#39;s method described above; however, in vivo phagocytosis is evaluated using the embryos of dCAD (Drosophila caspase-activated DNase) mutant flies18,19. These in vivo phagocytosis assays are useful for directly observing phagocytosis in situ. However, difficulties are associated with excluding any possible bias in the step of counting phagocytosing cells because it is hard to observe all phagocytes and apoptotic cells in whole embryos due to its thickness.
In order to overcome this limitation, we developed a new phagocytosis assay in Drosophila embryos. In our method, in order to easily count phagocytosing hemocytes, whole embryos are homogenized to prepare dispersed embryonic cells. Phagocytes are detected by the immunostaining of a phagocyte marker, and apoptotic cells are detected by TUNEL with these dispersed embryonic cells. The use of dispersed embryonic cells enables us to measure in vivo phagocytosis levels as if we performed an in vitro phagocytosis assay that precisely quantifies the level of phagocytosis. All genotypes of flies may be employed in this assay if they develop to stage 16 of embryos20, the developmental stage at which apoptotic cell clearance by phagocytosis is the most abundant. This method has the advantage of assessing the level of phagocytosis quantitatively, and, thus, may contribute to the identification of new molecules involved in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in vivo.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>whole swine serum</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>55993</td>
			<td>For bloking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Treff micro test tube(easy fit)&#160; Dnase, Rnase free tube, 1.5 mL</td>
			<td>TreffLab</td>
			<td>96. 4625. 9. 01</td>
			<td>For&#160; homogenization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pellet mixer&#160; 1.5 mL</td>
			<td>TreffLab</td>
			<td>96. 7339. 9. 03</td>
			<td>For&#160; homogenization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collagenase</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C-0130</td>
			<td>For preparation of embryonic cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher SCIENTIFIC</td>
			<td>27250-018</td>
			<td>For preparation of embryonic cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kpl Anti-Rat IgG (H+L) Ab MSA, AP</td>
			<td>KPL</td>
			<td>475-1612</td>
			<td>secondary antibody for 
			stainig hemocytes with an anti-Croquemort antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-bromo-4-chloro- 
			3-indolyl-phosphate</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11383221001</td>
			<td>BCIP, For staining of hemocytes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>nitro blue tetrazolium</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11383213001</td>
			<td>NBT, For staining of hemocytes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Croquemort antibody</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>described previously in Manaka et al, J. Biol. Chem., 279, 48466-48476</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Anti-GFP 
			from mouse IgG1&#954; (clones 7.1 and 13.1)&#160;</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>11814460001</td>
			<td>For staining of hemocytes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat Anti-Mouse IgG-AP Conjugate</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>170-6520</td>
			<td>secondary antibody for stainig hemocytes with an anti-Croquemort antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Apop Tag Peroxidase In Situ Apoptosis Detection Kit</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>S7100</td>
			<td>For staining of apoptoitc cells. This kit includes Equilibration buffer, Reaction buffer, STOP/Wash buffer, TdT enzyme, and Anti-Digoxigenin-Peroxidase.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3,3&#39;-diaminobenzidine 
			tetrahydrichloride</td>
			<td>nacalai tesque</td>
			<td>11009-41</td>
			<td>DAB, For staining of apoptoitc cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Table of Fly Strains</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>w1118</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Control flies, described in Freeman et al., Neuron, 38, 567-580</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>drpr&#916;5</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>drpr mutant, described in Freeman et al, Neuron, 38, 567-580</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Itgbn2</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Itgbn mutant, described in Devenport et al., Development, 131, 5405-5415</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>srpHemoGAL4 UAS-EGFP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>described in Br&#252;ckner et al., Dev. Cell., 7, 73-84</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UAS-drpr-IR</td>
			<td>VDRC</td>
			<td>4833</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UAS-Itgbn-IR</td>
			<td>NIG-fly</td>
			<td>1762R-1</td>
			<td>-</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

phagocytosis assay for apoptotic cells in drosophila embryos

The molecular mechanisms underlying the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells need to be elucidated in more detail because of its role in immune and inflammatory intractable diseases. We herein developed an experimental method to investigate phagocytosis quantitatively using the fruit fly Drosophila, in which the gene network controlling engulfment reactions is evolutionally conserved from mammals. In order to accurately detect and count engulfing and un-engulfing phagocytes using whole animals, Drosophila embryos were homogenized to obtain dispersed cells including phagocytes and apoptotic cells. The use of dispersed embryonic cells enables us to measure in vivo phagocytosis levels as if we performed an in vitro phagocytosis assay in which it is possible to observe all phagocytes and apoptotic cells in whole embryos and precisely quantify the level of phagocytosis. We confirmed that this method reproduces those of previous studies that identified the genes required for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. This method allows the engulfment of dead cells to be analyzed, and when combined with the powerful genetics of Drosophila, will reveal the complex phagocytic reactions comprised of the migration, recognition, engulfment, and degradation of apoptotic cells by phagocytes.

In order to examine the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, Drosophila embryos of developmental stage 16 were collected and prepared as dispersed cells. Hemocytes, Drosophila macrophages, were stained by immunocytochemistry for the hemocyte marker &#34;Croquemort&#34;17,22 using a specific antibody19,21, and apoptotic cells were stained by TUNEL in dispersed...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Phagocytosis Assay for Apoptotic Cells in Drosophila Embryos at JoVE.com

Phagocytosis Assay for Apoptotic Cells in Drosophila Embryos

We herein describe a phagocytosis assay using the dispersed embryonic cells of Drosophila. It enables us to easily and precisely quantify in vivo phagocytosis levels, and to identify new molecules required for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells.

Phagocytosis Assay for Apoptotic Cells in Drosophila Embryos

The molecular mechanisms underlying the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells need to be elucidated in more detail because of its role in immune and ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to measure in vivo phagocytosis in Drosophila to assess the involvement of specific genes of interest in apoptotic cell engulfment. This method can help answer key questions in the immunology and developmental biology fields about the mechanisms involved in apoptotic cell engulfment. The main advantage of this technique is that the cells can be used easily and precisely measured in vivo phagocytosis levels.The implication of this technique extend toward therapy of inflammatory disorders and autoimmune disease as apoptotic cell by phagocytosis is necessary for removing dangerous cells that cause inflammation. Begin by adding 200 adult female and 200 adult male fruit flies and a plate of fresh grape juice agar on yeast into a 50 milliliter conical tube. Close the tube with a sponge cap and incubate the flies in the light at 16 degrees Celsius for two to three days.At the end of the incubation, move the flies to 25 degrees Celsius in the dark for one hour and replace the old plate with a new plate without yeast. Allow the flies to lay eggs for two hours. Then incubate the plate at 16 degrees Celsius for 26 hours.The next day, use a paint brush to transfer the embryos into one milliliter of PBS supplemented with 0.2%Triton X-100. After two washes, add 1.2 milliliters of sodium hypochlorite solution to the embryos to remove the chorion. After three minutes, wash the embryos four times in fresh PBS plus Triton X-100.Transfer the washed embryos onto a six centimeter agarose plate and place the plate under a dissecting microscope. Identify stage 16 embryos using a micro tip. Use a micro pipette to transfer approximately 50 of the stage 16 embryos into a 1.5 milliliter micro test tube.To isolate the embryonic cells, first wash the embryos two times with 150 microliters of PBS. Transfer the embryos into a new 1.5 milliliter micro test tube. Then add 200 microliters of collagenase and homogenize the embryos 30 times with a pellet mixer.At the end of the homogenization, triturate the embryonic cells 10 times and transfer the cell suspension into a new 1.5 milliliter tube. Incubate the cells at 37 degrees Celsius for one minute. Then triturate the cells 10 more times and return them to the 37 degrees Celsius incubator for another minute.At the end of the second incubation, add 800 microliters of PBS to the cells and collect the cells by centrifugation. Resuspend the pellet in 200 microliters of Trypsin before filtering the cell suspension through a 70 micron cell strainer. Stop the enzymatic activity with 40 microliters of heat inactivated fetal bovine serum in 800 microliters of PBS and collect the cells by centrifugation.Resuspend the precipitated cells in 200 microliters of fresh PBS and collect the cells with another centrifugation. Resuspend the pellet in 30 microliters of PBS and mount the cells onto an aminopropyltriethoxysilane-coated glass slide. When the cells have attached, use a pipette to remove the excess PBS from the slide and fix the cells with 60 to 70 microliters of 4%paraformaldehyde.After 10 to 15 minutes, remove the fixative and wash the cells in PBS for one minute. To immunostain the cells with anti-Croquemort antibody, first serially soak the slide in methanol then PBS supplemented with 0.2%Triton X-100 followed by PBS alone. Next, block the nonspecific binding with 20 microliters of 5%whole swine serum in PBS plus 0.2%Triton X-100 for 20 minutes at room temperature.Remove the excess blocking solution and label the cells with 20 microliters of anti-Croquemort antiserum at four degrees Celsius overnight. The next morning, wash the slide in PBS plus Triton X-100 for five 10-minute incubations. After the last wash, rinse the slide in PBS for 10 minutes.Then label the cells with 20 microliters of alkaline phosphatase-labeled Anti-Rat IgG at room temperature for one hour. At the end of the incubation, wash the slide five times in PBS plus Triton X-100 as demonstrated followed by a 10-minute soak in buffer solution. Then label the cells with phosphatase substrate solution and observe the cells under a light microscope.When strong purple signals appear in the hemocyte granules, remove the excess substrate and soak the slide in buffer supplemented with EDTA for five to 10 minutes. At the end of the incubation, rinse the cells with two five-minute PBS washes and treat them with equilibration buffer for 10 minutes. After removing the solution, label the cells with 20 microliters of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase solution at 37 degrees Celsius for one hour.Then remove the solution from the slide and soak the cells in 0.5 milliliters stop wash buffer in 17 milliliters of water for 10 minutes. Next, rinse the cells with three five-minute PBS washes and label them with 20 microliters of anti-digoxigenin peroxidase for 30 minutes at room temperature. At the end of the incubation, wash the cells four times in PBS as demonstrated and soak the slide in peroxidase substrate for 30-second increments until the apoptotic cells turn brown.When an optimal staining has been achieved, soak the slide in water to stop the peroxidase reaction. In these images, Drosophila macrophages called hemocytes were stained for the hemocyte marker Croquemort and for the presence of phagocytosed apoptotic cells by TUNEL in dispersed embryonic cells as just demonstrated. Croquemort positive cells exhibit purple signals in the small granules of their cells while TUNEL positive cells demonstrated brown signal in their whole corpuses.Alternatively, hemocytes can be stained with an anti-GFP antibody which stains the entire hemocyte instead of just the granules. In this experiment, the ratio of phagocytosing hemocytes to total hemocytes in wild type or single mutant embryos was analyzed, demonstrating that the phagocytic index was lower in both single mutant strains than in wild type flies while the total numbers of hemocytes and apoptotic cells were similar indicating the requirement of the mutated genes for apoptotic cell engulfment. RNAi knockdown of single genes also reduces the phagocytic index while the total numbers of hemocytes and apoptotic cells remained comparable, further underscoring the involvement of the investigated phagocytosis receptors in apoptotic cell mediated phagocytosis.Once mastered, this technique can be completed in about 15 hours if it is performed properly. While attempting this procedure, it's important to remember to avoid excess hemocyte marker and TUNEL staining for optimal evaluation of the phagocytotic ability of the cells. Following this procedure, in situ phagocytosis assay of all Drosophila embryos can be performed to answer additional questions about the site of engulfment or the distribution of the hemocytes.After its development, this technique paved the way for researchers in the immunology field to explore the mechanisms of apoptotic cell engulfment in Drosophila. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to measure in vivo phagocytosis in Drosophila embryos.

phagocytosis-assay-for-apoptotic-cells-in-drosophila-embryos

Research

Education

JoVE Journal

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Immunology and Infection

Unit 1

Cell Death

SCIENTISTS IN ACTION

9.7K visualizações.  Kanazawa University. The overall goal of this procedure is to measure in vivo phagocytosis in Drosophila to assess the involvement of specific genes of interest in apoptotic cell engulfment. This method can help answer key questions in the immunology and developmental biology fields about the mechanisms involved in apoptotic cell engulfment. The main advantage of this technique is that the cells can be used easily and precisely measured in vivo phagocytosis levels.The implication of this technique extend t...