Vaccinia Reporter Viruses for Quantifying Viral Function at All Stages of Gene Expression

Summary

We describe the usage of a fluorescent reporter vaccinia virus that enables real-time measurement of viral infectivity and gene expression through the stage-specific expression of spectrally distinct reporter fluorophores. We detail a plate-based method for accurately identifying the stage at which virus replication is affected in response to small molecule inhibition.

Abstract

Poxviruses are a family of double stranded DNA viruses that include active human pathogens such as monkeypox, molluscum contagiousum, and Contagalo virus. The family also includes the smallpox virus, Variola. Due to the complexity of poxvirus replication, many questions still remain regarding their gene expression strategy. In this article we describe the conceptualization and usage of recombinant vaccinia viruses that enable real-time measurement of single and multiple stages of viral gene expression in a high-throughput format. This is enabled through the use of spectrally distinct fluorescent proteins as reporters for each of three stages of viral replication. These viruses provide a high signal-to-noise ratio while retaining stage specific expression patterns, enabling plate-based assays and microscopic observations of virus propagation and replication. These tools have uses for antiviral discovery, studies of the virus-host interaction, and evolutionary biology.

Introduction

Traditionally, virus expression is studied using molecular biology techniques (e.g. northern blotting, western blotting, microarray hybridization, etc.) ¹. While these methods are capable of providing detailed information with respect to categorizing expression changes of individual mRNAs or proteins, they are typically not amenable to real-time and high-throughput processes. Alternative approaches using fluorescence-based reporters have been applied previously when working with poxviruses; however, their development and usage has been motivated by varied aims. Several such methods were designed for selection of recombinant viruses ^2,3. These techniques express EGFP upon proper incorporation and expression of exogenous DNA from recombinant vaccinia clones. Similarly, several vaccinia strains stably expressing soluble EGFP or GFP-tagged proteins expressed under a native vaccinia promoter have been widely used. These are typically used to quantify virus entry and replication during antibody-based neutralization assays, chemical inhibition, or comparison of antiviral effectiveness ^4–6. While these viruses have proven useful, they are limited in their ability to provide detailed information about the point of inhibition due to their usage of a single ambiguous early/late viral promoter. Previous methods have also made use of EGFP protein with suboptimal signal-to-noise characteristics.

Due to the complexity of poxvirus replication and the lack of existing tools available to assay real-time changes in viral gene expression, we have developed a suite of single and multi stage reporter viruses ^7,8. As described in previous publications, these viruses express one, two, or three spectrally distinct fluorescent proteins from native vaccinia promoters during early, intermediate, or late stages in infection. These viruses can be used as indicators of virus replication progress using a fluorescence microscope and they are equally well suited for high-throughput plate-and-reader based assays. These viruses are easy to use in place of wild type virus, growing with similar kinetics to reach equivalent titers ⁷. During the planning and creation of these viruses, much care was taken in selecting fluorophores that have high signal-to-background characteristics with superior folding efficiency to facilitate reliable quantification with rapid feedback to changes in expression (Venus, mCherry and TagBFP). Additionally, combinations of viral promoters were chosen which produce high fidelity, unambiguous stage-specific expression, providing information about the full range of early (C11R promoter), intermediate (G8R promoter) and late (F17R promoter) gene expression, in contrast to ambiguous early/late promoters.

These viruses can be used as a tool for investigating the life cycle of the prototypical poxvirus, vaccinia virus. Much is still not known about the host-virus interaction despite its long history of study. Vaccinia is complex, producing over 200 unique proteins, many of which are immunomodulatory and host antagonistic. Upon infection, vaccinia virus immediately begins early mRNA transcription. This is facilitated by an RNA polymerase and transcription factors that were loaded on the viral genome during virion packaging and held in a paused state until subsequent infection. This early expression mainly produces proteins required for suppression of the host immune system (mRNA decapping, dsRNA sequestration, and decoy receptor proteins as well as inhibitors of apoptosis, stress response, and Toll, IL, and NF-κB signaling) and genome replication. Early expression also produces transcription factors necessary for intermediate expression. Intermediate expression includes the expression of late stage transcription factors. This expression cascade leads to production of structural and enzymatic virus proteins during late stages of infection, which are necessary for complete assembly of the mature vaccinia virion.     

Our set of fluorescent reporter viruses allows for rapid progress to be made in the understanding of poxvirus biology. One of the most common and time-consuming methods in the field of virology is the growth assay. This typically involves infecting cells, enacting a series of treatments, harvesting virus by lysing infected cells, and quantifying the resulting viral titer by plaque assay. Using the reporter viruses described here allows real-time measurement of virus growth that can be easily assayed and compared between numerous treatments performed in parallel. We foresee this set of reagents will be used in various protocols for identifying alterations in viral gene expression in response to drug treatment, RNAi knockdown, or host range restriction.

This method also enables high-content analysis on a larger scale than previously available, allowing for high-throughput anti-viral drug screens for specifically-defined target stages of interest. While numerous potential treatments to combat poxvirus infection have been identified, the only FDA approved therapies effective for treating poxvirus infection are the acyclic phosphonate nucleoside, Cidofovir, and treatment with vaccinia immune globulin ^9,10. Despite the eradication of smallpox in 1977 ¹¹, poxviruses remain a significant threat to human health ¹². Cessation of widespread vaccination against Variola virus has led to increased susceptibility to other poxviruses ¹³. For example, regions of Central Africa previously protected by vaccination are experiencing a surge in Monkeypox virus infections ¹⁴. Significant concern has also been raised regarding the latent susceptibility to intentional release of Variola virus. Due to the limited therapies currently available, there is an urgent need for development of novel treatments. These reporter viruses allow rapid and high-throughput small molecule inhibitor screening for inhibition of a specific stage of viral replication. Identification of inhibitors that target viral expression stages currently not the target of inhibition will facilitate development of combination therapies with increased potency.

Much can be gleaned about vaccinia cell biology by observing changes in each stage’s gene expression. Attenuation by chemical or genetic manipulation of an infected host cell is typically expressed in terms of reduced viral titers. However, by comparing changes in each stage of the viral expression cascade, one can obtain a more complete understanding of how virus fitness is impacted by a particular treatment. These data have been shown to correlate well with the traditional virus titer output, but provide more detailed mechanistic information as well as high throughput capabilities ⁷.

Protocol

1. Plate Cells

1. Dissociate HeLa cells from plate and dilute in growth media (DMEM, 2 mM L-glut, 10% FBS) to approximately 2.0 x 10⁵ cells/ml. Dispense 100 μl/well in a black-walled, clear flat-bottom 96-well plate (20,000 cells/well).
2. Incubate cells for 24 hr until confluent in a 37 °C incubator + 5% CO₂.

2. Infect Cells

1. Dilute virus and infect cells.
   1. Thaw TrpV (Triple virus; Early Venus, Intermediate mCherry, Late TagBFP) and PLV (Promoter-less Venus) fluorescent virus and disaggregate using sonication for 5 minutes. Alternatively, crude virus stocks can be mixed 1:1 with 0.25 mg/ml trypsin in infection media and incubated at 37 °C for 30 min.
   2. Dilute crude virus stocks in 37 °C infection media (DMEM, 2 mM L-glut, 2% FBS). For high MOI infections (10 PFU/cell), dilute virus stock to 1.0 x 10⁷ PFU/ml assuming 5 x 10⁴ cells/well and an inoculum volume of 50 μl. Plan on infecting 3 replicate wells for each treatment with TrpV and another 3 replicate wells for the same treatment with PLV to account for background fluorescence specific to each treatment.
   3. Infect wells by adding 50 μl/well diluted virus in infection media. This is defined as time = 0 hr post infection (0 hpi).
2. Dilute desired treatment compounds into infection media. For all treatments a single 2x master mix dilution should be made and applied to replicate wells (e.g. 350 μl total volume for six 96-wells with 50 μl each).
   1. Dilute experimental compounds into infection media.
   2. Dilute vehicle-control solvent (e.g. PBS, DMSO) into infection media. Note: Similar final concentrations of vehicle-control solvents should be used as applied for experimental compounds (e.g. if your IBT stock is made with DMSO and used at a final concentrations of 1 μl/ml, then use DMSO alone at 1 μl/ml as the vehicle control).
   3. Dilute control compounds into infection media. Recommended control compounds include: 3.6 μM (1 μg/ml) 1-β-D-Arabinofuranosylcytosine (AraC), 50 μM (11.7 μg/ml) isatin β -thiosemicarbazone (IBT), 60 μM (50 μg/ml) Rifampicin, or 5 μM (1.9 μg/ml) ST-246 ^8,15,16. See Representative Results for expected effects. Note: make this dilution at twice (2x) the desired final concentration since this is added at a 1:1 ratio to the volume already in the well.
3. Immediately after addition of virus, add 50 μl infection media containing desired treatments and controls as diluted in step 2.2. Note: To assay for inhibition before early stage expression, compound(s) can either be added directly to the diluted virus inoculum (step 2.1.2) or to host cells before infection (before step 2.1.3).
4. Incubate 6-24 hr in a 37 °C incubator + 5% CO₂.

3. Fix Cells

1. Fix cells by adding 100 μl 8% paraformaldehyde to infection media already in each well. Incubate at room temperature for 15 min protected from light. Note: It is recommended to add 2x PFA (8%) directly to infection media to prevent aerosolization of infectious vaccinia which can occur if high-titer media is inverted directly into waste dish prior to fixation.
2. Remove fixative by inverting plate into the waste dish.
3. Add 100 μl of room temperature PBS.
4. Seal plate with optically clear adhesive film. Note: Plates can be stored at 4 °C if not read immediately. Be sure to return sealed plates to room temperature before reading to prevent condensation from distorting spectrophotometer measurements.

4. Quantify Virus Growth

1. Measure endpoint fluorescence at 515:530 for Venus, 587:610 for mCherry, and 415:457 for TagBFP (Excitation:Emission wavelength in nm). Four measurements should be averaged per well using optimized gain settings for each channel. Note: The appropriate emission wavelength may be different depending on the specific model and filter characteristics of your plate reader. This can be determined empirically by performing an emission wavelength scan to determine the point where there is the greatest difference between TrpV and PLV for each channel.
2. Normalize the raw data to facilitate comparison between experiments.
   1. For each channel, determine the mean of replicate TrpV and PLV wells.
   2. Subtract the mean PLV-infected background measurements from the mean TrpV-infected experimental measurements for each treatment.
   3. Normalize the data by dividing each background subtracted value by the vehicle-only value well.
   4. Once an experiment has been repeated multiple times, a one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) test and multiple comparison post-test can be performed to determine if any of the treatments reflects a statistically significant difference from the vehicle-only treatment for each channel.

5. Alternative Protocol: Kinetic Plate Assays

1. Perform all steps through addition of treatments (step 2.3).
2. Seal plate with adhesive film and place in plate reader chamber equilibrated to 37 °C. Note: Special care must be taken to keep plates consistently at 37 °C to prevent undue cell stress and condensation. For kinetic assays, it is particularly important to use a buffered medium (sodium bicarbonate and HEPES) to maintain proper pH without addition of 5% CO₂.
3. Set plate reader gain manually to prevent saturation of later time points. Note: Accurate gain optimization can be obtained by performing an endpoint assays under similar conditions.
4. Acquire hourly readings for 8-24 hpi and normalize using similar procedure as in endpoint assay (step 4.2).
5. Individual time points can be analyzed for statistical significance using similar methods as the previously described endpoint assay.

Results

As an example of the typical usage of these viruses, the triple fluorescence-reporter virus was used to compare the point of inhibition of several well-defined poxvirus inhibitors.

HeLa cells were plated in tissue culture treated black-walled clear flat-bottom 96-well plates and incubated overnight. Confluent monolayers were infected at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 10 using either triple reporter virus (TrpV; Table 1) or promoter-less Venus (PLV) as detailed on the pla...

Discussion

 Here, we have described the practical usage of a multi-stage vaccinia reporter virus (TrpV), which provides reproducible, real-time feedback measures of virus replication. By using well-defined poxvirus inhibitors, we were able to show that TrpV responds in a manner consistent with the understood mechanism of action for each inhibitor. While the TrpV virus provides the most comprehensive information about virus stage progression, two-stage (IREV, LREV) and single-stage (EV, IV, LV) viruses can also be used similarl...

Materials

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM)	Gibco	11995-065
Fetal Bovine Serum - Optima, Heat Inactivated (FBS)	Atlanta Biologicals	S12450H
200 mM L-Glutamine, (L-glut)	Gibco	25030-081
96 Well Flat Clear Bottom Black Polystyrene TC-Treated Microplates	Corning	3603
384 Well Flat Clear Bottom Black Polystyrene TC-Treated Microplates	Corning	3712
Trypsin, 2X, Sterile, Irradiated	Worthington Biochemical Corp.	TRLVMF
Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS)	Gibco	10010-023
Dimethyl Sulfoxide, Cell Culture (DMSO)	American Bioanalytical	AB03091
1-β-D-Arabinofuranosylcytosine  (AraC), MW= 280 g/mol	SigmaAldrich Co	C6645
isatin β -thiosemicarbazone (IBT), MW= 234 g/mol	Fisher Scientific	NC9075202
Rifampicin, MW= 823 g/mol	SigmaAldrich Co	R3501
ST-246, MW= 376 g/mol	SIGA Labs, Corvallis, OR
8% Paraformaldehyde (formaldehyde) aqueous solution	Electron Microscopy Sciences	157-8
TempPlate RT optically clear film	USA Scientific	2978-2700
Opti-MEM Reduced Serum Medium	Gibco	31985-070