The authors acknowledge the support of the Australian Research Council through the Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science.

The protocol has been approved by the La Trobe University (09-28P) and RMIT University Animal Ethics committees (1315).
1. Electrode Preparation and Preliminary in vitro Testing
<ol>
	<li>Prepare electrode coating deposition solutions; for instance 10 mM 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) and 0.1 M sodium para-toluene sulfonate (Na2pTS) to form poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene-pTS (PEDOT-pTS).</li>
	<li>Connect the electrode array to a potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Carefully place the electrode array into the deposition solution and clamp into place.</li>
	<li>Place a platinum mesh counter electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode into the deposition solution and connect to a potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Using the potentiostat, deposit coatings onto the desired electrodes.&#160;Deposition conditions (potential, current and time) will vary depending on the desired coatings.&#160;For PEDOT-pTS coatings, an applied potential of 1 V for 15, 30, 45, or 60 sec has been used.&#160; Four electrodes on the array should be coated with the coating in a staggered configuration (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Remove the electrode array from the deposition solution and gently rinse with deionized water.</li>
	<li>Repeat the coating procedure with other materials as desired.</li>
	<li>Prepare in vitro testing solution (0.3 M di-sodium phosphate (Na2HPO4) in deionized water).</li>
	<li>Connect the electrode array to a potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Carefully place the electrode array into the testing solution and clamp into place.</li>
	<li>Place a platinum mesh counter electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode into the testing solution and connect to a potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Using the potentiostat, perform sequential electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) (potential offset 0 V, amplitude 10 mV, frequency range 10-100,000 Hz) and cyclic voltammetry (1 cycle, potential range 0.8 to -0.8 V, scan rate 100 mV/sec) on all electrodes.&#160;Untested electrodes are kept at open circuit potential and a quiet time of 1 sec is used between each test.&#160;All 32 electrodes are in contact with the solution for the full testing session of 1 hr.</li>
	<li>Remove the electrode array from the testing solution and gently rinse with deionized water.</li>
	<li>Perform any other desired analyses such as optical microscopy.</li>
	<li>Store probes in a dry protective container to prevent damage and degradation of the electrode surfaces.</li>
</ol>
2. Electrode Implantation
<ol>
	<li>Weigh the rat.</li>
	<li>Inject urethane (20% w/v in distilled water, 1.3 g/kg i.p.) for nonrecovery&#160;anesthesia.</li>
	<li>Ensure anesthesia onset by testing for a toe pinch withdrawal reflex. If anesthesia is not sufficient, supplementary doses of urethane should be administered (0.3 g/kg i.p.).</li>
	<li>Apply eye lubricant, and then shave the head of the animal.</li>
	<li>Place the animal in the prone position on a homeothermic plate and insert a rectal probe (37.5 &#176;C).</li>
	<li>Place one ear bar into the approximately expected final position within the stereotaxic frame, and then adjust the animal to position the ear bar in the external acoustic meatus.</li>
	<li>Align the second ear bar into the contralateral external acoustic meatus.&#160;Shift the animal in the ear bars to align with the tooth holder.</li>
	<li>Using rat-tooth forceps, open the animal&#39;s jaw, hook the upper incisors over the tooth holder and clamp the nose in place.</li>
	<li>Create an incision in the skin of the head, approximately 1 mm to the right of the midline and from 10 mm rostral to 10 mm caudal of lambda.</li>
	<li>Retract the skin and muscle laterally from the incision to expose the parietal and interparietal bones&#160;Using 20% hydrogen peroxide solution and a gauze pad, scrub the surface of the exposed bone.</li>
	<li>Drill a hole approximately 3 mm2 in the interparietal bone as close to lambda and the midline as possible and remove the bone plug.&#160;Using sterile saline, flush the hole to remove any bone dust or fragments which may damage the electrode.</li>
	<li>Using blunt-blunt scissors, dissect below the scruff of the neck and create a cavity.&#160;Wrap a Ag/AgCl wire in cotton wool, saturate it with saline and then insert the reference electrode into the cavity.</li>
	<li>Make an incision in the dura mater on the sagittal plane using the tip of a needle.</li>
	<li>Attach the electrode array to the electrode manipulator and adjust its position over the opening with a 19&#176; rostro-caudal angle.&#160;Manually insert the electrode approximately 2 mm into the brain towards the inferior colliculus.</li>
	<li>Attach the speaker to the left hollow ear bar.</li>
	<li>Ensure the amplifier is turned on. Then verify animal anesthesia before sealing the recording chamber.</li>
</ol>
3. In vivo Testing
<ol>
	<li>Deliver white noise bursts, (Gaussian distributed noise, 1-44 kHz; 10 msec rise-fall time) and monitor the activity on each electrode. The maximum rate at which bursts should be delivered is one burst every 200 msec.</li>
	<li>Using the motorized microdrive, slowly insert the electrode array until acoustically driven activity is recorded on the 3 most distal electrodes on each shank (the number and position of electrodes recording activity may vary with electrode placement or electrode design).</li>
	<li>Perform the acoustic stimulation protocol using 300 repetitions of 50 msec white noise bursts (Gaussian distributed noise, 1-44 kHz; 10 msec rise-fall time) with a 1 sec repetition rate at 70 dB, and record the multiunit activity at each electrode (24.4 kHz sampling rate).</li>
	<li>Slowly insert the electrode array another 200 &#956;m into the IC to position each electrode in roughly the same position as the more distal electrode from the initial recording position.</li>
	<li>Repeat the acoustic stimulation and neural recording protocol.</li>
	<li>Continue inserting the electrode array in 200 &#956;m steps and performing the acoustic stimulation and neural recording protocol until all electrodes have recorded acoustically driven activity from at least 3 positions (typically 8-12 electrode positions overall).</li>
	<li>Retract the electrode array in 200 &#956;m steps and continue performing the acoustic stimulation and neural recording protocol until the initial electrode array position is achieved.</li>
	<li>Carefully retract the electrode array manually.</li>
	<li>Inject an overdose of sodium pentobarbitone (Lethobarb; 200 mg/kg i.p.) to euthanize the animal.</li>
	<li>Gently rinse the electrode array with distilled water.&#160; Then store probes in a dry protective container to prevent damage and degradation of the electrode surfaces.</li>
</ol>
4. Post-implantation in vitro Testing
<ol>
	<li>Gently rinse the electrode array with distilled water to remove any contamination.</li>
	<li>Connect the electrode array to a potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Carefully place the electrode array into the testing solution and clamp into place.</li>
	<li>Place a platinum mesh counter electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode into the testing solution and connect to the potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Using the potentiostat, perform sequential electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) (potential offset 0 V, amplitude 10 mV, frequency range 10-100,000 Hz) and cyclic voltammetry (1 cycle, potential range 0.8 to -0.8 V, scan rate 100 mV/sec) on all electrodes.&#160;Untested electrodes are kept at open circuit potential and a quiet time of 1 sec is used between each test.&#160; All 32 electrodes are in contact with the solution for the full testing session of 1 hr.</li>
	<li>Remove the electrode array from the testing solution and gently rinse with deionized water.</li>
	<li>Place the electrode array into an enzymatic cleaning solution for 24 hr.</li>
	<li>Remove the electrode array from the solution and rinse with distilled water.</li>
	<li>Connect the electrode array to a potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Carefully place the electrode array into the testing solution and clamp into place.</li>
	<li>Place a platinum mesh counter electrode and Ag/AgCl reference electrode into the testing solution and connect to the potentiostat.</li>
	<li>Using the potentiostat, perform sequential electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) (potential offset 0 V, amplitude 10 mV, frequency range 10-100,000 Hz) and cyclic voltammetry (1 cycle, potential range 0.8 to -0.8 V, scan rate 100 mV/sec) on all electrodes.&#160;Untested electrodes are kept at open circuit potential and a quiet time of 1 sec is used between each test.&#160; All 32 electrodes are in contact with the solution for the full testing session of 1 hr.</li>
	<li>Remove the electrode array from the testing solution and gently rinse with deionized water.</li>
	<li>Store probes in a dry protective container to prevent damage and degradation of the electrode surfaces.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Oluigbo, C. O., Rezai, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Addressing+Neurological+Disorders+With+Neuromodulation.">Addressing Neurological Disorders With Neuromodulation.</a> IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 58, 1907-1917 (2011).</li><li>Shivdasani, M. N., Mauger, S. J., Rathbone, G. D., Paolini, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inferior+Colliculus+Responses+to+Multichannel+Microstimulation+of+the+Ventral+Cochlear+Nucleus:+Implications+for+Auditory+Brain+Stem+Implants.">Inferior Colliculus Responses to Multichannel Microstimulation of the Ventral Cochlear Nucleus: Implications for Auditory Brain Stem Implants.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 99, 1-13 (2008).</li><li>Perlmutter, J. S., Mink, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deep+Brain+Stimulation.">Deep Brain Stimulation.</a> Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 29, 229 (2006).</li><li>Weaver, F. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bilateral+Deep+Brain+Stimulation+vs+Best+Medical+Therapy+for+Patients+With+Advanced+Parkinson+Disease.">Bilateral Deep Brain Stimulation vs Best Medical Therapy for Patients With Advanced Parkinson Disease.</a> J. Am. Med. Assoc. 301, 63-73 (2009).</li><li>Biran, R., Martin, D. C., Tresco, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuronal+cell+loss+accompanies+the+brain+tissue+response+to+chronically+implanted+silicon+microelectrode+arrays.">Neuronal cell loss accompanies the brain tissue response to chronically implanted silicon microelectrode arrays.</a> Exp. Neurol. 195, 115-126 (2005).</li><li>McConnell, G. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Implanted+neural+electrodes+cause+chronic,+local+inflammation+that+is+correlated+with+local+neurodegeneration.">Implanted neural electrodes cause chronic, local inflammation that is correlated with local neurodegeneration.</a> J. Neural Eng. 6, (2009).</li><li>Liu, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stability+of+the+interface+between+neural+tissue+and+chronically+implanted+intracortical+microelectrodes.">Stability of the interface between neural tissue and chronically implanted intracortical microelectrodes.</a> IEEE Trans. Rehab. Eng. 7, 315-326 (1999).</li><li>Rousche, P. J., Normann, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+recording+capability+of+the+Utah+Intracortical+Electrode+Array+in+cat+sensory+cortex.">Chronic recording capability of the Utah Intracortical Electrode Array in cat sensory cortex.</a> J. Neurosci. Methods. 82, 1-15 (1998).</li><li>Williams, J. C., Rennaker, R. L., Kipke, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-term+neural+recording+characteristics+of+wire+microelectrode+arrays+implanted+in+cerebral+cortex.">Long-term neural recording characteristics of wire microelectrode arrays implanted in cerebral cortex.</a> Brain Res. Protoc. 4, 303-313 (1999).</li><li>Harris, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Conducting+polymer+coated+neural+recording+electrodes.">Conducting polymer coated neural recording electrodes.</a> J. Neural Eng. 10, (2013).</li><li>Bard, A. J., Faulkner, L. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Electrochemical Methods. , (2001).</li><li>Ludwig, K. A., Uram, J. D., Yang, J., Martin, D. C., Kipke, D. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+neural+recordings+using+silicon+microelectrode+arrays+electrochemically+deposited+with+a+poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)+(PEDOT)+film.">Chronic neural recordings using silicon microelectrode arrays electrochemically deposited with a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) film.</a> J. Neural Eng. 3, 59 (2006).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This protocol provides a method for comparing neural recording electrode coatings within one animal.&#160;The electrode design used is ideal for implantation into a rat inferior colliculus (IC), with dimensions of a similar scale.&#160;Variations of this electrode such as more space between shanks would prevent all shanks being in the rat IC at the same time, while longer shanks and a larger pitch between electrodes increase the risk that the shank tips will come in contact with the base of the skull during insertion.&#1...

Neural implants are being used increasingly for research, controlling prosthetics and treatment of disorders such as Parkinson&#39;s disease, epilepsy, and sensory loss1,2.&#160;Measuring and/or controlling both the chemical and electrical composition of the brain is the basis for all neural implants.&#160;However, it is important to administer a treatment only when the neural tissue is in the aberrant state to reduce side effects3.&#160;For instance, deep brain stimulators for epilepsy treatment should only apply an electrical pulse to the brain during a seizure.&#160;Some side effects may be dystonia, loss of memory, disorientation, impaired cognitive function, induced hallucinations, depression or anti-depression3,4.&#160;In many devices, a closed loop system is therefore necessary to record electrical activity and to trigger stimulation when an abnormal state is detected.&#160;Recording electrodes are also used to control prosthetic devices.&#160;It is critical to record the target neural activity with the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio to achieve the most accurate triggering and device control.&#160;A large signal-to-noise ratio is also highly desirable for research applications, as more reliable data can be obtained, resulting in fewer required test subjects.&#160;This will also allow a greater understanding of the mechanisms and pathways involved in neural stimulation and recording.
After a neural implant has been placed into the brain, an immune response is triggered5,6.&#160;The time course of the response is generally divided into acute and chronic phases, each consisting of different biological processes7.&#160;The immune response can have dramatic effects on the performance of the implant, such as isolation of the electrodes from the target neurons by encapsulation in a glial scar or chemical degradation of the implant materials8.&#160;This can reduce the signal-to-noise ratio of a recording electrode and the power output of a stimulating electrode, and lead to electrode failure9.&#160;Careful choice of implant design and materials are necessary to prevent failure over the implant lifetime.
Many different materials and implant designs have been developed recently to improve the signal-to-noise ratio and implant stability for neural recording.&#160;Electrode materials have included platinum, iridium, tungsten, iridium oxide, tantalum oxide, graphene, carbon nanotubes, doped conducting polymers, and more recently hydrogels.&#160;Substrate materials tested also includes silicon, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, silk, Teflon, polyimide, and silicone.&#160; Various electrode modifications have also been investigated, using coatings such as laminin, neurotrophins, or self-assembled monolayers and treatments using electrochemical, plasma and optical techniques.&#160;Implant designs could be 1-, 2- or 3-dimensional with the electrodes generally at the tip of an insulating probe or along the edge of a shank for penetrating electrodes or in a 2-dimensional array for cortex surface implants.&#160;Regardless of electrode design or material, previous literature has typically demonstrated the performance of the new implant without reference to other implant constructs.&#160;This prevents a systematic evaluation of their properties.
This protocol provides a method for comparing different electrode materials via a range of analytical and electrophysiological techniques.&#160;It is based on a recently published article which compared 4 different doped conducting polymer coatings (polypyrrole (Ppy) and poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT) doped with sulfate (SO4) or para-toluene sulfonate (pTS)) and 4 different coating thicknesses10.&#160;This article found one material, PEDOT-pTS with a 45 sec deposition time, had the highest signal-to-noise ratio and spike count with the smallest background noise and that these parameters were dependent on electrode impedance.&#160;PEDOT-pTS also displayed superior acute biostability compared to the other doped conducting polymers and bare iridium electrodes.&#160;The protocol allows the critical parameters controlling the signal-to-noise ratio and stability to be determined and used to further improve the performance of neural recording electrodes.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1217">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Programmable Attenuator</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TDT</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">PA5</td>
			<td style="width:600px;">Controls the amplitude of the acoustic signal across frequencies</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Electrostatic speaker driver</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TDT</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">ED1</td>
			<td>Drives the electrostatic speakers (EC1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Coupled electrostatic speaker</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TDT</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">EC1</td>
			<td>Delivers sound to the animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Processing base station</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TDT</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">RZ2</td>
			<td>Records neural activity from electrode array (using PZ2 preamplifier)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Preamplifier</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TDT</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">PZ2-256</td>
			<td>256-channel high impedance preamplifier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Multifunction Processor</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TDT</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">RX6</td>
			<td>Used to generate acoustic stimuli</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:244px;">Multichannel electrode</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">NeuroNexus Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">A4 &#215; 8&#8211;5mm-200-200-413</td>
			<td>4-shank 32-channel electrode array</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Potentiostat</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">CH Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">CHI660B</td>
			<td>Deposits electrode coatings and performs cyclic voltammetry and EIS (used with CHI684)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Multiplexer</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">CH Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">CHI684</td>
			<td>Switches between electrodes on the potentiostat</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">di-sodium phosphate</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Fluka</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">71644</td>
			<td>Used in the test solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:244px;">3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT)</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">483028</td>
			<td>An electrode coating material</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">para-toluene sulfonate (Na2pTS)</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">152536</td>
			<td>An electrode coating material</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Urethane</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">U2500</td>
			<td>Used to anaesthetise the animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Silver/Silver chloride electrode</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">CH Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">CHI111</td>
			<td>Used for testing the electrode in vitro</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Platinum electrode</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">CH Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">MW4130</td>
			<td>Used for testing the electrode in vitro</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Motorized microdrive</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">DR1000</td>
			<td>To control the electrode array position during surgery</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Enzymatic cleaner</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Advanced Medical Optics</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Ultrazyme</td>
			<td>Cleans the protein off the electrode array after implantation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Acoustic enclosure</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">TMC Ametek</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">83-501</td>
			<td>Isolates the animal from acoustic and electrical noise</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Stereotaxic frame</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">David Kopf Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">1430</td>
			<td>Secures and positions the animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Temperature controller</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">ATC1000</td>
			<td>Controls the animal temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Bone drill</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">KaVo Dental</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">K5Plus</td>
			<td>Used to perform the craniectomy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:244px;">Aspirator</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Flaem</td>
			<td style="width:179px;">Suction pro</td>
			<td>Used to perform the craniectomy</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a method for systematic electrochemical and electrophysiological evaluation of neural recording electrodes

New materials and designs for neural implants are typically tested separately, with a demonstration of performance but without reference to other implant characteristics.&#160;This precludes a rational selection of a particular implant as optimal for a particular application and the development of new materials based on the most critical performance parameters.&#160;This article develops a protocol for in vitro and in vivo testing of neural recording electrodes.&#160;Recommended parameters for electrochemical and electrophysiological testing are documented with the key steps and potential issues discussed.&#160;This method eliminates or reduces the impact of many systematic errors present in simpler in vivo testing paradigms, especially variations in electrode/neuron distance and between animal models.&#160;The result is a strong correlation between the critical in vitro and in vivo responses, such as impedance and signal-to-noise ratio.&#160;This protocol can easily be adapted to test other electrode materials and designs.&#160;The in vitro techniques can be expanded to any other nondestructive method to determine further important performance indicators.&#160;The principles used for the surgical approach in the auditory pathway can also be modified to other neural regions or tissue.

A typical electrode array used for this experimental protocol is shown in Figure 1.&#160;There are 32 iridium electrodes on 4 shanks with 413 &#956;m2 nominal geometric area and a 200 &#956;m pitch.&#160;Every second electrode on the array has been coated with one of four different electrode coatings, labeled 1-4.&#160;The coating materials have been carefully chosen for their chemical, mechanical and electrochemical properties.&#160;As mentioned previously10, incr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Method for Systematic Electrochemical and Electrophysiological Evaluation of Neural Recording Electrodes at JoVE.com

A Method for Systematic Electrochemical and Electrophysiological Evaluation of Neural Recording Electrodes

Different electrode coatings affect neural recording performance through changes to electrochemical, chemical and mechanical properties. Comparison of electrodes in vitro is relatively simple, however comparison of in vivo response is typically complicated by variations in electrode/neuron distance and between animals. This article provides a robust method to compare neural recording electrodes.

New materials and designs for neural implants are typically tested separately, with a demonstration of performance but without reference to other implant ...

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13.3K Views.  La Trobe University. Different electrode coatings affect neural recording performance through changes to electrochemical, chemical and mechanical properties. Comparison of electrodes in vitro is relatively simple, however comparison of in vivo response is typically complicated by variations in electrode/neuron distance and between animals. This article provides a robust method to compare neural recording electrodes.

Video: A Method for Systematic Electrochemical and Electrophysiological Evaluation of Neural Recording Electrodes

Surgical Implantation of Chronic Neural Electrodes for Recording Single Unit Activity and Electrocorticographic Signals

The success of long-term electrophysiological recordings often depends on the quality of the implantation surgery. Here we provide useful information for surgeons who are learning the process of implanting electrode systems. We demonstrate the implantation procedure of both a penetrating and a surface electrode. The surgical process is described from start to finish, including detailed descriptions of each step throughout the procedure. It should also be noted that this video guide is focused towards procedures conducted in rodent models and other small animal models. Modifications of the described procedures are feasible for other animal models.

We provide useful information for surgeons who are learning the process of implanting chronic neural recording electrodes. Techniques for both penetrating and surface electrode systems are described in a rodent animal model.

The success of long-term electrophysiological recordings often depends on the quality of the implantation surgery.  Here we provide useful information for ...

Reproducible Mouse Sciatic Nerve Crush and Subsequent Assessment of Regeneration by Whole Mount Muscle Analysis

Regeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is widely studied both for its relevance to human disease and to understand the robust regenerative response mounted by PNS neurons thereby possibly illuminating the failures of CNS regeneration1. Sciatic nerve crush (axonotmesis) is one of the most common models of peripheral nerve injury in rodents2. Crushing interrupts all axons but Schwann cell basal laminae are preserved so that regeneration is optimal3,4. This allows the investigator to study precisely the ability of a growing axon to interact with both the Schwann cell and basal laminae4. Rats have generally been the preferred animal models for experimental nerve crush. They are widely available and their lesioned sciatic nerve provides a reasonable approximation of human nerve lesions5,4. Though smaller in size than rat nerve, the mouse nerve has many similar qualities. Most importantly though, mouse models are increasingly valuable because of the wide availability of transgenic lines now allows for a detailed dissection of the individual molecules critical for nerve regeneration6, 7. Prior investigators have used multiple methods to produce a nerve crush or injury including simple angled forceps, chilled forceps, hemostatic forceps, vascular clamps, and investigator-designed clamps8,9,10,11,12. Investigators have also used various methods of marking the injury site including suture, carbon particles and fluorescent beads13,14,1. We describe our method to obtain a reproducibly complete sciatic nerve crush with accurate and persistent marking of the crush-site using a fine hemostatic forceps and subsequent carbon crush-site marking. As part of our description of the sciatic nerve crush procedure we have also included a relatively simple method of muscle whole mount we use to subsequently quantify regeneration.

In this report we describe a method to crush mouse sciatic nerve. This method uses readily available hemostatic forceps and easily and reproducibly produces complete sciatic nerve crush. In addition, we describe a method to prepare muscle whole mounts suitable for analysis of nerve regeneration after sciatic nerve crush.

Regeneration in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is widely studied both for its relevance to human disease and to understand the robust regenerative ...

Preparation of an Awake Mouse for Recording Neural Responses and Injecting Tracers

It is well known that anesthesia alters neural response properties in various regions of the brain.13. In the auditory system, fundamental response properties of brainstem neurons including threshold, frequency specificity, and inhibitory sidebands are altered in significant ways under anesthesia1-2. These observations prompted physiologists to seek ways to record from single neurons without the contaminating effects of anesthesia. One result was a decerebrate preparation, where the brainstem was completely transected at the level of the midbrain4. The drawbacks of this preparation are a formidable surgery, the elimination of descending projections from the forebrain, and an inability to use sensory stimulation to examine structures above the midbrain. A different strategy has been to implant electrode arrays chronically to record from single neurons and multiunit clusters while the animal is awake and/or behaving5,6. These techniques however are not compatible with injecting tracer dyes after first electrophysiologically characterizing a brain structure. To avoid altering neural response properties with anesthetics while recording electrophysiological response properties from single neurons, we have adapted a head restraint technique long used in bats7-9 to mouse10-12. Using this method, we are able to conduct electrophysiological recordings over several days in the unanesthetized mouse. At the end of the recording sessions, we can then inject a dye to reconstruct electrode positions and recording sites or inject a tracer so that pathways to and from the recording loci can be determined. This method allows for well isolated single neuron recordings over multiple days without the use anesthetics.

Electrophysiological characterization of neuronal responses is important for understanding brain function and for guiding the placement of dyes for pathway tracing. However, many studies are performed in anesthetized animals. To understand brain function without anesthetics, we developed a method to record neuronal response properties and inject dyes in awake mouse.

It is well known that anesthesia alters neural response properties in various regions of the brain.13.  In the auditory system, fundamental response ...

Isolation and Culture of Neural Crest Cells from Embryonic Murine Neural Tube

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migrates throughout the embryo, giving rise to diverse cell types 1-3. NC also has the unique ability to influence the differentiation and maturation of target organs4-6. When explanted in vitro, NC progenitors undergo self-renewal, migrate and differentiate into a variety of tissue types including neurons, glia, smooth muscle cells, cartilage and bone. 
NC multipotency was first described from explants of the avian neural tube7-9. In vitro isolation of NC cells facilitates the study of NC dynamics including proliferation, migration, and multipotency. Further work in the avian and rat systems demonstrated that explanted NC cells retain their NC potential when transplanted back into the embryo10-13. Because these inherent cellular properties are preserved in explanted NC progenitors, the neural tube explant assay provides an attractive option for studying the NC in vitro. 
To attain a better understanding of the mammalian NC, many methods have been employed to isolate NC populations. NC-derived progenitors can be cultured from post-migratory locations in both the embryo and adult to study the dynamics of post-migratory NC progenitors11,14-20, however isolation of NC progenitors as they emigrate from the neural tube provides optimal preservation of NC cell potential and migratory properties13,21,22. Some protocols employ fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) to isolate a NC population enriched for particular progenitors11,13,14,17. However, when starting with early stage embryos, cell numbers adequate for analyses are difficult to obtain with FACS, complicating the isolation of early NC populations from individual embryos. Here, we describe an approach that does not rely on FACS and results in an approximately 96% pure NC population based on a Wnt1-Cre activated lineage reporter23. 
The method presented here is adapted from protocols optimized for the culture of rat NC11,13. The advantages of this protocol compared to previous methods are that 1) the cells are not grown on a feeder layer, 2) FACS is not required to obtain a relatively pure NC population, 3) premigratory NC cells are isolated and 4) results are easily quantified. Furthermore, this protocol can be used for isolation of NC from any mutant mouse model, facilitating the study of NC characteristics with different genetic manipulations. The limitation of this approach is that the NC is removed from the context of the embryo, which is known to influence the survival, migration and differentiation of the NC2,24-28.

Isolation of embryonic neural crest from the neural tube facilitates the use of in vitro methods for studying migration, self-renewal, and multipotency of neural crest.

The embryonic neural crest (NC) is a multipotent progenitor population that originates at the dorsal aspect of the neural tube, undergoes an epithelial to ...

Manufacturing and Using Piggy-back Multibarrel Electrodes for In vivo Pharmacological Manipulations of Neural Responses

In vivo recordings from single neurons allow an investigator to examine the firing properties of neurons, for example in response to sensory stimuli. Neurons typically receive multiple excitatory and inhibitory afferent and/or efferent inputs that integrate with each other, and the ultimate measured response properties of the neuron are driven by the neural integrations of these inputs. To study information processing in neural systems, it is necessary to understand the various inputs to a neuron or neural system, and the specific properties of these inputs. A powerful and technically relatively simple method to assess the functional role of certain inputs that a given neuron is receiving is to dynamically and reversibly suppress or eliminate these inputs, and measure the changes in the neuron's output caused by this manipulation. This can be accomplished by pharmacologically altering the neuron's immediate environment with piggy-back multibarrel electrodes. These electrodes consist of a single barrel recording electrode and a multibarrel drug electrode that can carry up to 4 different synaptic agonists or antagonists. The pharmacological agents can be applied iontophoretically at desired times during the experiment, allowing for time-controlled delivery and reversible reconfiguration of synaptic inputs. As such, pharmacological manipulation of the microenvironment represents a powerful and unparalleled method to test specific hypotheses about neural circuit function.
Here we describe how piggy-back electrodes are manufactured, and how they are used during in vivo experiments. The piggy-back system allows an investigator to combine a single barrel recording electrode of any arbitrary property (resistance, tip size, shape etc) with a multibarrel drug electrode. This is a major advantage over standard multi-electrodes, where all barrels have more or less similar shapes and properties. Multibarrel electrodes were first introduced over 40 years ago 1-3, and have undergone a number of design improvements 2,3 until the piggy-back type was introduced in the 1980s 4,5. Here we present a set of important improvements in the laboratory production of piggy-back electrodes that allow for deep brain penetration in intact in vivo animal preparations due to a relatively thin electrode shaft that causes minimal damage. Furthermore these electrodes are characterized by low noise recordings, and have low resistance drug barrels for very effective iontophoresis of the desired pharmacological agents.

Manufacturing and Using Piggy-back Multibarrel Electrodes for In vivo Pharmacological Manipulations of Neural Responses

Iontophoresis of neural agonists and antagonists during extracellular in vivo recordings is a powerful way to manipulate a neuron&#x2019;s microenvironment. These manipulations can most easily be done via piggy-back multibarrel electrodes. Here we describe how to manufacture them and use them during auditory recordings.

In vivo recordings from single neurons allow an investigator to examine the firing properties of neurons, for example in response to sensory stimuli. ...

Forebrain Electrophysiological Recording in Larval Zebrafish

Epilepsy affects nearly 3 million people in the United States and up to 50 million people worldwide. Defined as the occurrence of spontaneous unprovoked seizures, epilepsy can be acquired as a result of an insult to the brain or a genetic mutation. Efforts to model seizures in animals have primarily utilized acquired insults (convulsant drugs, stimulation or brain injury) and genetic manipulations (antisense knockdown, homologous recombination or transgenesis) in rodents. Zebrafish are a vertebrate model system1-3 that could provide a valuable alternative to rodent-based epilepsy research. Zebrafish are used extensively in the study of vertebrate genetics or development, exhibit a high degree of genetic similarity to mammals and express homologs for ~85% of known human single-gene epilepsy mutations. Because of their small size (4-6 mm in length), zebrafish larvae can be maintained in fluid volumes as low as 100 &mu;l during early development and arrayed in multi-well plates. Reagents can be added directly to the solution in which embryos develop, simplifying drug administration and enabling rapid in vivo screening of test compounds4. Synthetic oligonucleotides (morpholinos), mutagenesis, zinc finger nuclease and transgenic approaches can be used to rapidly generate gene knockdown or mutation in zebrafish5-7. These properties afford zebrafish studies an unprecedented statistical power analysis advantage over rodents in the study of neurological disorders such as epilepsy. Because the "gold standard" for epilepsy research is to monitor and analyze the abnormal electrical discharges that originate in a central brain structure (i.e., seizures), a method to efficiently record brain activity in larval zebrafish is described here. This method is an adaptation of conventional extracellular recording techniques and allows for stable long-term monitoring of brain activity in intact zebrafish larvae. Sample recordings are shown for acute seizures induced by bath application of convulsant drugs and spontaneous seizures recorded in a genetically modified fish.

A simple method to record extracellular field potentials in the larval zebrafish forebrain is described. The method provides a robust in vivo read-out of seizure-like activity. This technique can be used with genetically modified zebrafish larvae carrying epilepsy-related genes or seizures evoked by administration of convulsant drugs.

Epilepsy affects nearly 3 million people in the United States and up to 50 million people worldwide. Defined as the occurrence of spontaneous unprovoked ...

Simultaneous Electrophysiological Recording and Calcium Imaging of Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons

Simultaneous electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging recording methods were used to study the role of changes of membrane potential or current in regulating the intracellular calcium concentration. Changing environmental conditions, such as the light-dark cycle, can modify neuronal and neural network activity and the expression of a family of circadian clock genes within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the location of the master circadian clock in the mammalian brain. Excitatory synaptic transmission leads to an increase in the postsynaptic Ca2+ concentration that is believed to activate the signaling pathways that shifts the rhythmic expression of circadian clock genes. Hypothalamic slices containing the SCN were patch clamped using microelectrodes filled with an internal solution containing the calcium indicator bis-fura-2. After a seal was formed between the microelectrode and the SCN neuronal membrane, the membrane was ruptured using gentle suction and the calcium probe diffused into the neuron filling both the soma and dendrites. Quantitative ratiometric measurements of the intracellular calcium concentration were recorded simultaneously with membrane potential or current. Using these methods it is possible to study the role of changes of the intracellular calcium concentration produced by synaptic activity and action potential firing of individual neurons. In this presentation we demonstrate the methods to simultaneously record electrophysiological activity along with intracellular calcium from individual SCN neurons maintained in brain slices.

Procedures are described to perform simultaneous recordings of membrane potential or current and changes of intracellular calcium concentration. Suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons are filled with the calcium indicator bis-fura-2 using a patch clamp electrode in the whole cell patch clamp configuration.

Simultaneous electrophysiological and fluorescent imaging recording methods were used to study the role of changes of membrane potential or current in ...

Electrophysiological Recording in the Brain of Intact Adult Zebrafish

Previously, electrophysiological studies in adult zebrafish have been limited to slice preparations or to eye cup preparations and electrorentinogram recordings. This paper describes how an adult zebrafish can be immobilized, intubated, and used for in vivo electrophysiological experiments, allowing recording of neural activity. Immobilization of the adult requires a mechanism to deliver dissolved oxygen to the gills in lieu of buccal and opercular movement. With our technique, animals are immobilized and perfused with habitat water to fulfill this requirement. A craniotomy is performed under tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222; tricaine) anesthesia to provide access to the brain. The primary electrode is then positioned within the craniotomy window to record extracellular brain activity. Through the use of a multitube perfusion system, a variety of pharmacological compounds can be administered to the adult fish and any alterations in the neural activity can be observed. The methodology not only allows for observations to be made regarding changes in neurological activity, but it also allows for comparisons to be made between larval and adult zebrafish. This gives researchers the ability to identify the alterations in neurological activity due to the introduction of various compounds at different life stages.

This paper describes how an adult zebrafish can be immobilized, intubated, and used for in vivo electrophysiological experiments to allow recordings and manipulation of neural activity in an intact animal.

Previously, electrophysiological studies in adult zebrafish have been limited to slice preparations or to eye cup preparations and electrorentinogram ...

Extracellular Recording of Neuronal Activity Combined with Microiontophoretic Application of Neuroactive Substances in Awake Mice

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and awake animals. Therefore, methods allowing the manipulation of synaptic systems in awake animals are required in order to determine the contribution of synaptic inputs to neuronal processing unaffected by anesthetics. Here, we present methodology for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. By combining these procedures, we performed microiontophoretic injections of gabazine to selectively block GABAA receptors in neurons of the inferior colliculus of head-restrained mice. Gabazine successfully modified neural response properties such as the frequency response area and stimulus-specific adaptation. Thus, we demonstrate that our methods are suitable for recording single-unit activity and for dissecting the role of specific neurotransmitter receptors in auditory processing.
The main limitation of the described procedure is the relatively short recording time (~3 hr), which is determined by the level of habituation of the animal to the recording sessions. On the other hand, multiple recording sessions can be performed in the same animal. The advantage of this technique over other experimental procedures used to manipulate the level of neurotransmission or neuromodulation (such as systemic injections or the use of optogenetic models), is that the drug effect is confined to the local synaptic inputs to the target neuron. In addition, the custom-manufacture of electrodes allows adjustment of specific parameters according to the neural structure and type of neuron of interest (such as the tip resistance for improving the signal-to-noise ratio of the recordings).

We present methods for the construction of electrodes to simultaneously record extracellular neural activity and release multiple neuroactive substances at the vicinity of the recording sites in awake mice. This technique allows the detailed analysis of putative local synaptic inputs to the neuron of interest.

Differences in the activity of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, and consequently different neural responses, can be found between anesthetized and ...

Electrophysiological Method for Recording Intracellular Voltage Responses of Drosophila Photoreceptors and Interneurons to Light Stimuli In Vivo

Voltage responses of insect photoreceptors and visual interneurons can be accurately recorded with conventional sharp microelectrodes. The method described here enables the investigator to measure long-lasting (from minutes to hours) high-quality intracellular responses from single Drosophila R1-R6 photoreceptors and Large Monopolar Cells (LMCs) to light stimuli. Because the recording system has low noise, it can be used to study variability among individual cells in the fly eye, and how their outputs reflect the physical properties of the visual environment. We outline all key steps in performing this technique. The basic steps in constructing an appropriate electrophysiology set-up for recording, such as design and selection of the experimental equipment are described. We also explain how to prepare for recording by making appropriate (sharp) recording and (blunt) reference electrodes. Details are given on how to fix an intact fly in a bespoke fly-holder, prepare a small window in its eye and insert a recording electrode through this hole with minimal damage. We explain how to localize the center of a cell's receptive field, dark- or light-adapt the studied cell, and to record its voltage responses to dynamic light stimuli. Finally, we describe the criteria for stable normal recordings, show characteristic high-quality voltage responses of individual cells to different light stimuli, and briefly define how to quantify their signaling performance. Many aspects of the method are technically challenging and require practice and patience to master. But once learned and optimized for the investigator's experimental objectives, it grants outstanding in vivo neurophysiological data.

Electrophysiological Method for Recording Intracellular Voltage Responses of Drosophila Photoreceptors and Interneurons to Light Stimuli In Vivo

Sharp microelectrodes enable accurate electrophysiological characterization of photoreceptor and visual interneuron output in living Drosophila. Here we show how to use this method to record high-quality voltage responses of individual cells to controlled light stimulation. This method is ideal for studying neural information processing in insect compound eyes.