This work was supported by Genome Canada, the Ontario Research Fund, and the Canadian Institutes for Health Research (MOP-142375, PJT-148802).

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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR-Cas9+Structures+and+Mechanisms.">CRISPR-Cas9 Structures and Mechanisms.</a> Annual Review of Biophysics. 46, 505-529 (2017).</li><li>Baliou, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR+therapeutic+tools+for+complex+genetic+disorders+and+cancer+(Review).">CRISPR therapeutic tools for complex genetic disorders and cancer (Review).</a> International Journal of Oncology. 53 (2), 443-468 (2018).</li><li>Hart, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-Resolution+CRISPR+Screens+Reveal+Fitness+Genes+and+Genotype-Specific+Cancer+Liabilities.">High-Resolution CRISPR Screens Reveal Fitness Genes and Genotype-Specific Cancer Liabilities.</a> Cell. 163 (6), 1515-1526 (2015).</li><li>Morgens, D. W., Deans, R. M., Li, A., Bassik, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+comparison+of+CRISPR/Cas9+and+RNAi+screens+for+essential+genes.">Systematic comparison of CRISPR/Cas9 and RNAi screens for essential genes.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 34 (6), 634-636 (2016).</li><li>Evers, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR+knock-out+screening+outperforms+shRNA+and+CRISPRi+in+identifying+essential+genes.">CRISPR knock-out screening outperforms shRNA and CRISPRi in identifying essential genes.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 34 (6), 631-633 (2016).</li><li>Miles, L. A., Garippa, R. J., Poirier, J. 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R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimized+libraries+for+CRISPR-Cas9+genetic+screens+with+multiple+modalities.">Optimized libraries for CRISPR-Cas9 genetic screens with multiple modalities.</a> Nature Communications. 9 (1), 5416 (2018).</li><li>Hart, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evaluation+and+Design+of+Genome-Wide+CRISPR/SpCas9+Knock-out+Screens.">Evaluation and Design of Genome-Wide CRISPR/SpCas9 Knock-out Screens.</a> G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics. 7 (8), 2719-2727 (2017).</li><li>Mair, B., Tomic, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Essential+gene+profiles+for+human+pluripotent+stem+cells+identify+uncharacterized+genes+and+substrate+dependencies.">Essential gene profiles for human pluripotent stem cells identify uncharacterized genes and substrate dependencies.</a> Cell Reports. 27 (2), 599-615 (2019).</li><li>Shalem, O., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-scale+CRISPR-Cas9+knock-out+screening+in+human+cells.">Genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 knock-out screening in human cells.</a> Science. 343 (6166), 84-87 (2014).</li><li>Sharma, S., Petsalaki, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+CRISPR-Cas9+Based+Genome-Wide+Screening+Approaches+to+Study+Cellular+Signalling+Mechanisms.">Application of CRISPR-Cas9 Based Genome-Wide Screening Approaches to Study Cellular Signalling Mechanisms.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19 (4), (2018).</li><li>Steinhart, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome-wide+CRISPR+screens+reveal+a+Wnt-FZD5+signaling+circuit+as+a+druggable+vulnerability+of+RNF43-mutant+pancreatic+tumors.">Genome-wide CRISPR screens reveal a Wnt-FZD5 signaling circuit as a druggable vulnerability of RNF43-mutant pancreatic tumors.</a> Nature Medicine. 23 (1), 60-68 (2017).</li><li>Wang, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+Essentiality+Profiling+Reveals+Gene+Networks+and+Synthetic+Lethal+Interactions+with+Oncogenic+Ras.">Gene Essentiality Profiling Reveals Gene Networks and Synthetic Lethal Interactions with Oncogenic Ras.</a> Cell. 168 (5), 890-903 (2017).</li><li>Zimmermann, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR+screens+identify+genomic+ribonucleotides+as+a+source+of+PARP-trapping+lesions.">CRISPR screens identify genomic ribonucleotides as a source of PARP-trapping lesions.</a> Nature. 559 (7713), 285-289 (2018).</li><li>Deans, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parallel+shRNA+and+CRISPR-Cas9+screens+enable+antiviral+drug+target+identification.">Parallel shRNA and CRISPR-Cas9 screens enable antiviral drug target identification.</a> Nature Chemical Biology. 12 (5), 361-366 (2016).</li><li>Trinh, T. J. J., Bloom, F., Hirsch, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=STBL2:+an+Escherichia+coli+strain+for+the+stable+propagation+of+retroviral+clones+and+direct+repeat+sequences.">STBL2: an Escherichia coli strain for the stable propagation of retroviral clones and direct repeat sequences.</a> Focus. 16, 78-80 (1994).</li><li>Hart, T., Moffat, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BAGEL:+a+computational+framework+for+identifying+essential+genes+from+pooled+library+screens.">BAGEL: a computational framework for identifying essential genes from pooled library screens.</a> BMC Bioinformatics. 17, 164 (2016).</li><li>Wang, G. Z. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identifying+drug-gene+interactions+from+CRISPR+knock-out+screens+with+drugZ.">Identifying drug-gene interactions from CRISPR knock-out screens with drugZ.</a> bioRxiv. , (2017).</li><li>Pedregosa, F. V., G, , et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scikit-learn:+Machine+Learning+in+Python.">Scikit-learn: Machine Learning in Python.</a> Journal of Machine Learning Research. 12, 2825-2830 (2011).</li><li>Ketela, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comprehensive+platform+for+highly+multiplexed+mammalian+functional+genetic+screens.">A comprehensive platform for highly multiplexed mammalian functional genetic screens.</a> BMC Genomics. 12, 213 (2011).</li><li>Doench, J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Am+I+ready+for+CRISPR?+A+user's+guide+to+genetic+screens.">Am I ready for CRISPR? A user's guide to genetic screens.</a> Nature Review Genetics. 19 (2), 67-80 (2018).</li><li>Hartenian, E., Doench, J. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+screens+and+functional+genomics+using+CRISPR/Cas9+technology.">Genetic screens and functional genomics using CRISPR/Cas9 technology.</a> FEBS Journal. 282 (8), 1383-1393 (2015).</li><li>Li, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MAGeCK+enables+robust+identification+of+essential+genes+from+genome-scale+CRISPR/Cas9+knock-out+screens.">MAGeCK enables robust identification of essential genes from genome-scale CRISPR/Cas9 knock-out screens.</a> Genome Biology. 15 (12), 554 (2014).</li><li>Sheel, A., Xue, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genomic+Amplifications+Cause+False+Positives+in+CRISPR+Screens.">Genomic Amplifications Cause False Positives in CRISPR Screens.</a> Cancer Discovery. 6 (8), 824-826 (2016).</li><li>Meyers, R. 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The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Due to its simplicity of use and high pliability, CRISPR technology has been widely adopted as the tool of choice for precise genome editing. Pooled CRISPR screening provides a method to interrogate thousands of genetic perturbations in a single experiment. In pooled screens, sgRNA libraries serve as molecular barcodes, as each sequence is unique and is mapped to the targeted gene. By isolating the genomic DNA from the cell population, genes causing the phenotype of interest can be determined by quantifying sgRNA abundan...

CRISPR-Cas, short for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated nuclease, consists of a single nuclease protein (e.g., Cas9) in complex with a synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA). This ribonucleoprotein complex targets the Cas9 enzyme to induce double-stranded DNA breaks at a specific genomic locus1. Double-stranded breaks can be repaired via homology directed repair (HDR) or, more commonly, through non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), an error prone repair mechanism that results in insertion and/or deletions (INDELS) that frequently disrupt gene function1. The efficiency and simplicity of CRISPR enables a previously unattainable level of genomic targeting that far surpasses previous genome editing technologies [i.e., zinc finger nucleases (ZNF) or transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENS), both of which suffer from heightened design complexity, lower transfection efficiency, and limitations in multiplex gene editing2].
The basic research application of CRISPR single-guide RNA-based genome editing has allowed scientists to efficiently and inexpensively interrogate the functions of individual genes and topology of genetic interaction networks. The ability to perform functional genome-wide screens has been greatly enhanced by use of the CRISPR-Cas system, particularly when compared to earlier genetic perturbation technologies such as RNA interference (RNAi) and gene trap mutagenesis. In particular, RNAi suffers from high off-target effects and incomplete knockdown, resulting in lower sensitivity and specificity compared to CRISPR3,4,5, while gene trap methods are only feasible in haploid cells for loss-of-function screens, limiting the scope of cell models that can be interrogated6. The ability of CRISPR to generate complete gene knock-out provides a more biologically robust system to interrogate mutant phenotypes, with low noise, minimal off-target effects and consistent activity across reagents5. CRISPR-Cas9 sgRNA libraries that target the entire human genome are now widely available, allowing simultaneous generation of thousands of gene knock-outs in a single experiment3,7,8,9.
We have developed unique CRISPR-Cas9 genome-wide sgRNA lentiviral libraries called the Toronto Knock-out (TKO) libraries (available through Addgene) that are compact and sequence-optimized to facilitate high resolution functional genomics screens. The latest library, TKOv3, targets ~18,000 human protein-coding genes with 71,090 guides optimized for editing efficiency using empirical data10. Additionally, TKOv3 is available as a one-component library (LCV2::TKOv3, Addgene ID #90294) expressing Cas9 and sgRNAs on a single vector, alleviating the need to generate stable Cas9-expressing cells, enabling genome-wide knock-out across a broad range of mammalian cell types. TKOv3 is also available in a vector without Cas9 (pLCKO2::TKOv3, Addgene ID# 125517) and can be utilized in cells that express Cas911.
A genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 edited cell population can be exposed to different growth conditions, with the abundance of sgRNAs over time quantified by next-generation sequencing, providing a readout to assess drop-out or enrichment of cells with traceable genetic perturbations. CRISPR knock-out libraries can be harnessed to identify genes that, upon perturbation, cause cellular fitness defects, moderate drug sensitivity (e.g., sensitive or resistant genes), regulate protein expression (e.g., reporter), or are required for a certain pathway function and cellular state12,13,14. For example, differential fitness screens in a cancer cell line can identify both depletion or reduction of oncogenes and enrichment or an increase of tumor suppressors genes3,14,15. Similarly, using intermediate doses of therapeutic drugs can reveal both drug resistance and sensitization genes16,17.
Provided here is a detailed screening protocol for genome-scale CRISPR-Cas9 loss-of-function screening using the Toronto Knock-out libraries (TKOv1 or v3) in mammalian cells from library generation, screening performance to data analysis. Although this protocol has been optimized for screening using the Toronto Knock-out libraries, it can be applied and become scalable to all CRISPR sgRNA pooled libraries.

<table><tbody><tr><td>0.22 micron filter</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>30&amp;deg;C plate incubator</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>37&amp;deg;C shaking incubator</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>37&amp;deg;C, 5% CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubator</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>5 M NaCl</td><td>Promega</td><td>V4221</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>50X TAE buffer</td><td>BioShop</td><td>TAE222.4</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6 N Hydrochloric acid solution</td><td>BioShop</td><td>HCL666.500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>95% Ethanol</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alamar blue</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>DAL1025</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Blue-light transilluminator</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>G6600</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine Serum Albumin,Heat Shock Isolation, Fraction V. Min. 98%, Biotechnology grade</td><td>Bioshop</td><td>ALB001.250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dulbecco&#039;s Modification of Eagles Medium</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>11995-065</td><td>Cel culture media</td></tr><tr><td>Electroporation cuvettes</td><td>BTX</td><td>45-0134</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Electroporator</td><td>BTX</td><td>45-0651</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Endura electrocompetent cells</td><td>Lucigen</td><td>90293</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td><td>GIBCO</td><td>12483-020</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEK293T packaging cells</td><td>ATCC</td><td>CRL-3216</td><td>recommend passage number &amp;lt;15</td></tr><tr><td>Hexadimethrine Bromide (Polybrene)</td><td>Sigma</td><td>H9268</td><td>Cationic polymer to enhance transduction efficiency</td></tr><tr><td>Hexadimethrine Bromide (Polybrene)</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LB agar plates with carbenicillin</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LB medium with carbenicillin</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Low molecular weight DNA ladder</td><td>New England Biolabs</td><td>N3233S</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Nanodrop spectrophotometer</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>ND-ONE-W</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NEBNext Ultra II Q5 Master Mix</td><td>New England Biolabs</td><td>M0544L</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Opti-MEM</td><td>Life Technologies</td><td>31985-070</td><td>Reduced serum media</td></tr><tr><td>Plasmid maxi purification kit</td><td>Qiagen</td><td>12963</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>pMD2.G (envelope plasmid)</td><td>Addgene</td><td>Plasmid #12259</td><td>lentiviral system</td></tr><tr><td>psPAX2 (packaging plasmid)</td><td>Addgene</td><td>Plasmid #12260</td><td>lentiviral system</td></tr><tr><td>Puromycin</td><td>Wisent</td><td>400-160-UG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>QIAquick gel extraction kit</td><td>Qiagen</td><td>28704</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Qubit dsDNA BR assay</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>Q32853</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Qubit fluorometer</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>Q33226</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RNAse A</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>12091021</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>S.O.C recovery medium</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>15544034</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SYRB Safe DNA gel stain</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>S33102</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Toronto KnockOut CRIPSR library (TKOv3) - Cas9 included</td><td>Addgene</td><td>Addgene ID #90203</td><td>Genome-wide CRISPR library , includes Cas9, 71,090 sgRNA</td></tr><tr><td>Toronto KnockOut CRIPSR library (TKOv3) - non-cas9</td><td>Addgene</td><td>Addgene ID #125517</td><td>Genome-wide CRISPR library, non-Cas9, 71,090 sgRNA</td></tr><tr><td>Tris-EDTA (TE) solution, pH8.0</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>UltraPure agarose</td><td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td><td>16500500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Wizard genomic DNA purification kit</td><td>Promega</td><td>A1120</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>X-tremeGENE 9 DNA transfection reagent</td><td>Roche</td><td>06 365 809 001</td><td>Lipid based transfection reagent</td></tr></tbody></table>

pooled crispr-based genetic screens in mammalian cells

Genome editing using the CRISPR-Cas system has vastly advanced the ability to precisely edit the genomes of various organisms. In the context of mammalian cells, this technology represents a novel means to perform genome-wide genetic screens for functional genomics studies. Libraries of guide RNAs (sgRNA) targeting all open reading frames permit the facile generation of thousands of genetic perturbations in a single pool of cells that can be screened for specific phenotypes to implicate gene function and cellular processes in an unbiased and systematic way. CRISPR-Cas screens provide researchers with a simple, efficient, and inexpensive method to uncover the genetic blueprints for cellular phenotypes. Furthermore, differential analysis of screens performed in various cell lines and from different cancer types can identify genes that are contextually essential in tumor cells, revealing potential targets for specific anticancer therapies. Performing genome-wide screens in human cells can be daunting, as this involves the handling of tens of millions of cells and requires analysis of large sets of data. The details of these screens, such as cell line characterization, CRISPR library considerations, and understanding the limitations and capabilities of CRISPR technology during analysis, are often overlooked. Provided here is a detailed protocol for the successful performance of pooled genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 based screens.

Overview of genome-scale CRISPR screening workflow
Figure 1 illustrates an overview of the pooled CRISPR screening work flow, starting with infection of target cells with CRISPR library lentivirus at a low MOI to ensure single integration events and adequate library representation (typically 200- to 1000-fold). Following infection, cells are treated with the antibiotic puromycin to ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Pooled CRISPR-Based Genetic Screens in Mammalian Cells at JoVE.com

Pooled CRISPR-Based Genetic Screens in Mammalian Cells

CRISPR-Cas9 technology provides an efficient method to precisely edit the mammalian genome in any cell type and represents a novel means to perform genome-wide genetic screens. A detailed protocol discussing the steps required for the successful performance of pooled genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screens is provided here.

Genome editing using the CRISPR-Cas system has vastly advanced the ability to precisely edit the genomes of various organisms. In the context of mammalian ...

pooled-crispr-based-genetic-screens-in-mammalian-cells

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

21.6K Views.  University of Toronto. CRISPR-Cas9 technology provides an efficient method to precisely edit the mammalian genome in any cell type and represents a novel means to perform genome-wide genetic screens. A detailed protocol discussing the steps required for the successful performance of pooled genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screens is provided here.

Video: Pooled CRISPR-Based Genetic Screens in Mammalian Cells

Selection-dependent and Independent Generation of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Gene Knockouts in Mammalian Cells

The CRISPR/Cas9 genome engineering system has revolutionized biology by allowing for precise genome editing with little effort. Guided by a single guide RNA (sgRNA) that confers specificity, the Cas9 protein cleaves both DNA strands at the targeted locus. The DNA break can trigger either non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) or homology directed repair (HDR). NHEJ can introduce small deletions or insertions which lead to frame-shift mutations, while HDR allows for larger and more precise perturbations. Here, we present protocols for generating knockout cell lines by coupling established CRISPR/Cas9 methods with two options for downstream selection/screening. The NHEJ approach uses a single sgRNA cut site and selection-independent screening, where protein production is assessed by dot immunoblot in a high-throughput manner. The HDR approach uses two sgRNA cut sites that span the gene of interest. Together with a provided HDR template, this method can achieve deletion of tens of kb, aided by the inserted selectable resistance marker. The appropriate applications and advantages of each method are discussed.

Recent advances in the ability to genetically manipulate somatic cell lines hold great potential for basic and applied research. Here, we present two approaches for CRISPR/Cas9 generated knockout production and screening in mammalian cell lines, with and without the use of selectable markers.

The CRISPR/Cas9 genome engineering system has revolutionized biology by allowing for precise genome editing with little effort. Guided by a single guide ...

Pooled shRNA Screen for Reactivation of MeCP2 on the Inactive X Chromosome

Forward genetic screens using reporter genes inserted into the heterochromatin have been extensively used to investigate mechanisms of epigenetic control in model organisms. Technologies including short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) have enabled such screens in diploid mammalian cells. Here we describe a large-scale shRNA screen for regulators of X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), using a murine cell line with firefly luciferase and hygromycin resistance genes knocked in at the C-terminus of the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) gene on the inactive X-chromosome (Xi). Reactivation of the construct in the reporter cell line conferred survival advantage under hygromycin B selection, enabling us to screen a large shRNA library and identify hairpins that reactivated the reporter by measuring their post-selection enrichment using next-generation sequencing. The enriched hairpins were then individually validated by testing their ability to activate the luciferase reporter on Xi.

We report a small hairpin RNA (shRNA) and next generation sequencing-based protocol for identifying regulators of X-chromosome inactivation in a murine cell line with firefly luciferase and hygromycin resistance genes fused to the methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) gene on the inactive X chromosome.

Forward genetic screens using reporter genes inserted into the heterochromatin have been extensively used to investigate mechanisms of epigenetic control ...

Genome-wide RNAi Screening to Identify Host Factors That Modulate Oncolytic Virus Therapy

High-throughput genome-wide RNAi (RNA interference) screening technology has been widely used for discovering host factors that impact&#160;virus replication. Here we present the application of this technology to uncovering host targets that specifically modulate the replication of Maraba virus, an oncolytic rhabdovirus, and vaccinia virus with the goal of enhancing therapy. While the protocol has been tested for use with oncolytic Maraba virus and oncolytic vaccinia virus, this approach is applicable to other oncolytic viruses and can also be utilized for identifying host targets that modulate virus replication in mammalian cells in general. This protocol describes the development and validation of an assay for high-throughput RNAi screening in mammalian cells, the key considerations and preparation steps important for conducting a primary high-throughput RNAi screen, and a step-by-step guide for conducting a primary high-throughput RNAi screen; in addition, it broadly outlines the methods for conducting secondary screen validation and tertiary validation studies. The benefit of high-throughput RNAi screening is that it allows one to catalogue, in an extensive and unbiased fashion, host factors that modulate any aspect of virus replication for which one can develop an in vitro assay such as infectivity, burst size, and cytotoxicity. It has the power to uncover biotherapeutic targets unforeseen based on current knowledge.

Here we describe a protocol for employing high-throughput RNAi screening to uncover host targets that can be manipulated to enhance oncolytic virus therapy, specifically rhabodvirus and vaccinia virus therapy, but it can be readily adapted to other oncolytic virus platforms or for discovering host genes that modulate virus replication generally.

High-throughput genome-wide RNAi (RNA interference) screening technology has been widely used for discovering host factors that impact&#160;virus ...

Cancer Research

Investigation of Genetic Dependencies Using CRISPR-Cas9-based Competition Assays

Gene perturbation studies have been extensively used to investigate the role of individual genes in AML pathogenesis. For achieving complete gene disruption, many of these studies have made use of complex gene knockout models. While these studies with knockout mice offer an elegant and time-tested system for investigating genotype-to-phenotype relationships, a rapid and scalable method for assessing candidate genes that play a role in AML cell proliferation or survival in AML models will help accelerate the parallel interrogation of multiple candidate genes. Recent advances in genome-editing technologies have dramatically enhanced our ability to perform genetic perturbations at an unprecedented scale. One such system of genome editing is the CRISPR-Cas9-based method that can be used to make rapid and efficacious alterations in the target cell genome. The ease and scalability of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene-deletion makes it one of the most attractive techniques for the interrogation of a large number of genes in phenotypic assays. Here, we present a simple assay using CRISPR/Cas9 mediated gene-disruption combined with high-throughput flow-cytometry-based competition assays to investigate the role of genes that may play an important role in the proliferation or survival of human and murine AML cell lines.

This manuscript describes a Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) CRISPR-Cas9-based method for simple and expeditious investigation of the role of multiple candidate genes in Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) cell proliferation in parallel. This technique is scalable and can be applied in other cancer cell lines as well.

Gene perturbation studies have been extensively used to investigate the role of individual genes in AML pathogenesis. For achieving complete gene ...

Cell Surface Receptor Identification Using Genome-Scale CRISPR/Cas9 Genetic Screens

Intercellular communication mediated by direct interactions between membrane-embedded cell surface receptors is crucial for the normal development and functioning of multicellular organisms. Detecting these interactions remains technically challenging, however. This manuscript describes a systematic genome-scale CRISPR/Cas9 knockout genetic screening approach that reveals cellular pathways required for specific cell surface recognition events. This assay utilizes recombinant proteins produced in a mammalian protein expression system as avid binding probes to identify interaction partners in a cell-based genetic screen. This method can be used to identify the genes necessary for cell surface interactions detected by recombinant binding probes corresponding to the ectodomains of membrane-embedded receptors. Importantly, given the genome-scale nature of this approach, it also has the advantage of not only identifying the direct receptor but also the cellular components that are required for the presentation of the receptor at the cell surface, thereby providing valuable insights into the biology of the receptor.

This manuscript describes a genome-scale cell-based screening approach to identify extracellular receptor-ligand interactions.

Intercellular communication mediated by direct interactions between membrane-embedded cell surface receptors is crucial for the normal development and ...

In Vivo CRISPR/Cas9 Screening to Simultaneously Evaluate Gene Function in Mouse Skin and Oral Cavity

Genetically modified mouse models (GEMM) have been instrumental in assessing gene function, modeling human diseases, and serving as preclinical model to assess therapeutic avenues. However, their time-, labor- and cost-intensive nature limits their utility for systematic analysis of gene function. Recent advances in genome-editing technologies overcome those limitations and allow for the rapid generation of specific gene perturbations directly within specific mouse organs in a multiplexed and rapid manner. Here, we describe a CRISPR/Cas9-based method (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) to generate thousands of gene knock-out clones within the epithelium of the skin and oral cavity of mice, and provide a protocol detailing the steps necessary to perform a direct&#160;in vivo&#160;CRISPR&#160;screen for tumor suppressor genes. This approach can be applied to other organs or other CRISPR/Cas9 technologies such as CRISPR-activation or CRISPR-inactivation to study the biological function of genes during tissue homeostasis or in various disease settings.

Here we describe a rapid and direct in vivo CRISPR/Cas9 screening methodology using ultrasound-guided in utero embryonic lentiviral injections to simultaneously assess functions of several genes in the skin and oral cavity of immunocompetent mice.

Genetically modified mouse models (GEMM) have been instrumental in assessing gene function, modeling human diseases, and serving as preclinical model to ...

Pooled shRNA Library Screening to Identify Factors that Modulate a Drug Resistance Phenotype

Understanding clinically relevant driver mechanisms of acquired chemo-resistance is crucial for elucidating ways to circumvent resistance and improve survival in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML). A small fraction of leukemic cells that survive chemotherapy have a poised epigenetic state to tolerate chemotherapeutic insult. Further exposure to chemotherapy allows these drug persister cells to attain a fixed epigenetic state, which leads to altered gene expression, resulting in the proliferation of these drug-resistant populations and eventually relapse or refractory disease. Therefore, identifying epigenetic modulations that necessitate the survival of drug-resistant leukemic cells is critical. We detail a protocol to identify epigenetic modulators that mediate resistance to the nucleoside analog cytarabine (AraC) using pooled shRNA library screening in an acquired cytarabine-resistant AML cell line. The library consists of 5,485 shRNA constructs targeting 407 human epigenetic factors, which allows high-throughput epigenetic factor screening.

High-throughput RNA interference (RNAi) screening using a pool of lentiviral shRNAs can be a tool to detect therapeutically relevant synthetic lethal targets in malignancies. We provide a pooled shRNA screening approach to investigate the epigenetic effectors in acute myeloid leukemia (AML).

Understanding clinically relevant driver mechanisms of acquired chemo-resistance is crucial for elucidating ways to circumvent resistance and improve ...

Genome-Scale Screening to Identify and Compare Therapeutic Targets in Tumors

Genetic Profiling and Genome-Scale Dropout Screening to Identify Therapeutic Targets in Mouse Models of Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor

Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors (MPNSTs) are derived from Schwann cells or their precursors. In patients with the tumor susceptibility syndrome neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), MPNSTs are the most common malignancy and the leading cause of death. These rare and aggressive soft-tissue sarcomas offer a stark future, with 5-year disease-free survival rates of 34-60%. Treatment options for individuals with MPNSTs are disappointingly limited, with disfiguring surgery being the foremost treatment option. Many once-promising therapies such as tipifarnib, an inhibitor of Ras signaling, have failed clinically. Likewise, phase II clinical trials with erlotinib, which targets the epidermal growth factor (EFGR), and sorafenib, which targets the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGF), platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGF), and Raf, in combination with standard chemotherapy, have also failed to produce a response in patients. 
In recent years, functional genomic screening methods combined with genetic profiling of cancer cell lines have proven useful for identifying essential cytoplasmic signaling pathways and the development of target-specific therapies. In the case of rare tumor types, a variation of this approach known as cross-species comparative oncogenomics is increasingly being used to identify novel therapeutic targets. In cross-species comparative oncogenomics, genetic profiling and functional genomics are performed in genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models and the results are then validated in the rare human specimens and cell lines that are available. 
This paper describes how to identify candidate driver gene mutations in human and mouse MPNST cells using whole exome sequencing (WES). We then describe how to perform genome-scale shRNA screens to identify and compare critical signaling pathways in mouse and human MPNST cells and identify druggable targets in these pathways. These methodologies provide an effective approach to identifying new therapeutic targets in a variety of human cancer types.

Author Spotlight: Finding New Therapeutic Targets for Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumor Through Genome-Scale shRNA Screens 

We have developed a cross-species comparative oncogenomics approach utilizing genomic analyses and functional genomic screens to identify and compare therapeutic targets in tumors arising in genetically engineered mouse models and the corresponding human tumor type.

Malignant Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumors (MPNSTs) are derived from Schwann cells or their precursors. In patients with the tumor susceptibility syndrome ...

Evaluation of Abnormal Growth-related Genes of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells by Combining CRISPR/Cas9 Technology with Cell Counting

Hematopoietic stem cells possess the ability for long-term self-renewal and the potential to differentiate into various types of mature blood cells. However, the accumulation of cancerous mutations in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) can block normal differentiation, induce aberrant proliferation, and ultimately lead to leukemogenesis. To identify and/or evaluate the cancerous mutations, we integrated CRISPR/Cas9 technology with the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay to investigate a model gene Trp53, that is essential for abnormal proliferative ability of HSPCs. Specifically, bone marrow cells enriched for HSPCs from Cas9 mice were harvested and then subjected to viral transfection with single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) targeting one or several candidate genes to introduce genetic alterations in HSPCs. Then, a CCK-8 assay was performed to investigate the proliferative capacity of transfected HSPCs. The sgRNA targeting efficiency was confirmed by a Tracking of Indels by Decomposition assay. These identified genes may play crucial roles in leukemogenesis and could serve as potential therapeutic targets.

Here, we present a protocol that integrates CRISPR/Cas9 technology with the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay to identify candidate genes that are crucial for the abnormal proliferative capacity of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.

Hematopoietic stem cells possess the ability for long-term self-renewal and the potential to differentiate into various types of mature blood cells. ...

MISSION LentiPlex Pooled shRNA Library Screening in Mammalian Cells

RNA interference (RNAi) is an intrinsic cellular mechanism for the regulation of gene expression. Harnessing the innate power of this system enables us to knockdown gene expression levels in loss of gene function studies.
There are two main methods for performing RNAi. The first is the use of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) that are chemically synthesized, and the second utilizes short-hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) encoded within plasmids 1. The latter can be transfected into cells directly or packaged into replication incompetent lentiviral particles. The main advantages of using lentiviral shRNAs is the ease of introduction into a wide variety of cell types, their ability to stably integrate into the genome for long term gene knockdown and selection, and their efficacy in conducting high-throughput loss of function screens. To facilitate this we have created the LentiPlex pooled shRNA library.
The MISSION LentiPlex Human shRNA Pooled Library is a genome-wide lentiviral pool produced using a proprietary process. The library consists of over 75,000 shRNA constructs from the TRC collection targeting 15,000+ human genes 2. Each library is tested for shRNA representation before product release to ensure robust library coverage. The library is provided in a ready-to-use lentiviral format at titers of at least 5 x 108 TU/ml via p24 assay and is pre-divided into ten subpools of approximately 8,000 shRNA constructs each. Amplification and sequencing primers are also provided for downstream target identification.
Previous studies established a synergistic antitumor activity of TRAIL when combined with Paclitaxel in A549 cells, a human lung carcinoma cell line 3, 4. In this study we demonstrate the application of a pooled LentiPlex shRNA library to rapidly conduct a positive selection screen for genes involved in the cytotoxicity of A549 cells when exposed to TRAIL and Paclitaxel. One barrier often encountered with high-throughput screens is the cost and difficulty in deconvolution; we also detail a cost-effective polyclonal approach utilizing traditional sequencing.

Here we use a human LentiPlex pooled library and traditional sequencing methods to identify gene targets promoting cell survival. We demonstrate how to set up and deconvolute a LentiPlex screen and validate the results.

RNA interference (RNAi) is an intrinsic cellular mechanism for the regulation of gene expression. Harnessing the innate power of this system enables us to ...