Name: click-chemistry based fluorometric assay for apolipoprotein n-acyltransferase from enzyme characterization to high-throughput screening
Uploaded: 2020-05-13T13:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Click-Chemistry Based Fluorometric Assay for Apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase from Enzyme Characterization to High-Throughput Screening at JoVE.com

We thank Fabrice Agou and Alix Boucharlat from the Chemogenomic and Biological Screening Platform, Center for Technological Resources and Research (C2RT) at Institut Pasteur Paris for helpful suggestions on the protocol, all members of the BGPB Unit for support and scientific discussions, and Simon Legood for critical reading of the manuscript. Work was funded by Global Care Initiatives of the Institute Carnot Infectious diseases and the Institute Carnot Microbes and Health (15 CARN 0017-01 and 16 CARN 0023-01).

1. Enzyme and substrate preparation
<ol>
	<li>Purification of enzyme
	<ol>
		<li>Produce and purify Lnt enzyme from detergent solubilized membranes as described previously4,8. Briefly, induce expression of the lnt-strep gene, encoding Lnt with a C-terminal Strep tag, at OD600 of 0.6 with anhydrous tetracycline (200 ng/mL) at 37 &#176;C for 16 h.</li>
		<li>Harvest cells by centrifugation at 4,000 x g for 10 min and ...

<ol>
	<li>Buddelmeijer, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+molecular+mechanism+of+bacterial+lipoprotein+modification--how,+when+and+why.">The molecular mechanism of bacterial lipoprotein modification--how, when and why.</a> FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 39 (2), 246-261 (2015).</li><li>Kovacs-Simon, A., Titball, R. W., Michell, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipoproteins+of+bacterial+pathogens.">Lipoproteins of bacterial pathogens.</a> Infections and Immunity. 79 (2), 548-561 (2010).</li><li>Jackowski, S., Rock, C. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transfer+of+fatty+acids+from+the+1-position+of+phosphatidylethanolamine+to+the+major+outer+membrane+lipoprotein+of+Escherichia+coli.">Transfer of fatty acids from the 1-position of phosphatidylethanolamine to the major outer membrane lipoprotein of Escherichia coli.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 261, 11328-11333 (1986).</li><li>Hillmann, F., Argentini, M., Buddelmeijer, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kinetics+and+phospholipid+specificity+of+apolipoprotein+N-acyltransferase.">Kinetics and phospholipid specificity of apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 286 (32), 27936-27946 (2011).</li><li>Rangan, K. J., Yang, Y. Y., Charron, G., Hang, H. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+Visualization+and+Large-Scale+Profiling+of+Bacterial+Lipoproteins+with+Chemical+Reporters.">Rapid Visualization and Large-Scale Profiling of Bacterial Lipoproteins with Chemical Reporters.</a> Journal of American Chemical Society. 132 (31), 10628-10629 (2010).</li><li>Thiele, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracing+fatty+acid+metabolism+by+click-chemistry.">Tracing fatty acid metabolism by click-chemistry.</a> ACS Chemical Biology. 7 (12), 2004-2011 (2012).</li><li>Ganesan, L., Shieh, P., Bertozzi, C. R., Levental, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Click-Chemistry+Based+High+Throughput+Screening+Platform+for+Modulators+of+Ras+Palmitoylation.">Click-Chemistry Based High Throughput Screening Platform for Modulators of Ras Palmitoylation.</a> Science Reports. 7, 41147 (2017).</li><li>Nozeret, K., Boucharlat, A., Agou, F., Buddelmeijer, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+sensitive+fluorescence-based+assay+to+monitor+enzymatic+activity+of+the+essential+integral+membrane+protein+Apolipoprotein+N-acyltransferase+(Lnt).">A sensitive fluorescence-based assay to monitor enzymatic activity of the essential integral membrane protein Apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase (Lnt).</a> Science Reports. 9 (1), 15978 (2019).</li><li>Zhang, J. H., Chung, T. D., Oldenburg, K. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Simple+Statistical+Parameter+for+Use+in+Evaluation+and+Validation+of+High+Throughput+Screening+Assays.">A Simple Statistical Parameter for Use in Evaluation and Validation of High Throughput Screening Assays.</a> Journal of Biomolecules Screening. 4 (2), 67-73 (1999).</li><li>Mao, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystal+structure+of+E.+coli+lipoprotein+diacylglyceryl+transferase.">Crystal structure of E. coli lipoprotein diacylglyceryl transferase.</a> Nature Communication. 7, 10198 (2016).</li><li>Vogeley, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+basis+of+lipoprotein+signal+peptidase+II+action+and+inhibition+by+the+antibiotic+globomycin.">Structural basis of lipoprotein signal peptidase II action and inhibition by the antibiotic globomycin.</a> Science. 351 (6275), 876-880 (2016).</li><li>Wiktor, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+insights+into+the+mechanism+of+the+membrane+integral+N-acyltransferase+step+in+bacterial+lipoprotein+synthesis.">Structural insights into the mechanism of the membrane integral N-acyltransferase step in bacterial lipoprotein synthesis.</a> Nature Communication. 8, 15952 (2017).</li><li>Noland, C. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+insights+into+lipoprotein+N-acylation+by+Escherichia+coli+apolipoprotein+N-acyltransferase.">Structural insights into lipoprotein N-acylation by Escherichia coli apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 114 (30), 6044-6053 (2017).</li><li>Lu, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crystal+structure+of+E.+coli+apolipoprotein+N-acyl+transferase.">Crystal structure of E. coli apolipoprotein N-acyl transferase.</a> Nature Communication. 8, 15948 (2017).</li></ol>

The protocol for the Lnt assay described here, based on fluorescence detection of the triacylated product, is sensitive and reproducible. The specific and efficient binding of biotin to streptavidin is a key element in the assay. Alkyne-POPE substrate left after completion of the Lnt reaction is also fluorescently labeled with FAM but is efficiently removed after binding onto the streptavidin plates by multiple wash steps. Furthermore, addition of DMSO does not affect Lnt activity and has no impact on the assay. Both sub...

Bacterial lipoproteins are characterized by covalently bound fatty acids at their amino-termini through which they are anchored into membranes1,2. The mature part of the protein is highly diverse in structure and function, thereby explaining the role of lipoproteins in various biological processes in the bacterial cell envelope.
Lipoproteins are modified by phospholipid-derived fatty acids after insertion into the cytoplasmic membrane. The prolipoproteins contain a signature motif, the lipobox, which contains an invariant cysteine residue that becomes acylated and the first amino acid in the mature protein. The first step of this pathway is catalyzed by prolipoprotein phosphatidylglycerol::diacylglyceryl transferase (Lgt), which transfers the diacylglyceryl group from phosphatidylglycerol onto the prolipoprotein via a thioether link between diacylglyceryl and cysteine. Signal peptidase II (Lsp) cleaves the signal peptide from diacylglyceryl prolipoprotein, resulting in an apolipoprotein that is anchored into the membrane through its diacylglyceryl moiety. The third and last step is catalyzed by apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase (Lnt), which adds a fatty acid from the sn-1 position of phospholipid onto apolipoprotein, resulting in triacylated mature lipoprotein (Figure 1)3. The Lnt reaction is a two-step ping-pong reaction where a stable thioester acyl enzyme intermediate is formed. The lysophospholipid byproduct is released prior to the acylation of the apolipoprotein substrate in the second step of the reaction.
The phospholipid substrate specificity is determined in a Lnt assay based on the mobility shift of N-acyl diacylglyceryl peptide on a high percentage Tris-Tricine Urea SDS-PAGE4. Phospholipids with small polar headgroups, saturated [sn-1] and nonsaturated [sn-2], were preferred substrates4. The gel shift assay is not appropriate for extensive kinetic studies of apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase nor for HTS to identify inhibitory molecules. Click-chemistry using alkyne fatty acids has been successfully used to study lipoprotein modification in bacteria5 and fatty acid metabolism in eukaryotes6. Recently, an in vitro assay of Ras palmitoylation was reported to identify inhibitors7.
In the method described here, purified active Lnt in detergent is incubated with substrates in mixed micelles to form alkyne-triacylated peptide that is subsequently detected by fluorescence spectrometry.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#196;kta Purifier FPLC system</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Lnt purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>alkyne-POPE</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>900414P</td>
			<td>Purity: &#62;99% 
			Lnt substrate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Azido-FAM</td>
			<td>Lumiprobe</td>
			<td>A4130</td>
			<td>Purity: 100% (pure) 
			Click reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BioPhotometer Plus</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			OD 600 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BioTek ELX 405 Select plate washer</td>
			<td>BioTek</td>
			<td>N&#176; serie 115800, n&#176; materiel 405 Select</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Wash steps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>biotin-fluorescein</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>53608</td>
			<td>Purity: &#8805;90% 
			Fluorescence control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C3036</td>
			<td>Purity: &#8805;98% 
			Click reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DDM</td>
			<td>Anatrace</td>
			<td>D310A</td>
			<td>Purity: &#8805; 99% &#946;+&#945;; &#60; 15% &#945; 
			Detergent for Lnt purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>D12435</td>
			<td>Purity: anhydrous 
			Solbilization Click reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electronic pipet Voyager 8 channels 0.5-12.5 uL</td>
			<td>INTEGRA</td>
			<td>4721</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Handling reagents</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>French Pressure Cell</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Cell disruption</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FSL-1-biotin</td>
			<td>EMC microcollections</td>
			<td>L7030</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Lnt substrate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Greiner Bio-One 384-well standard CELLSTAR polystyrene microplate</td>
			<td>Greiner</td>
			<td>781091</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Black with transparent bottom (up or bottom reading)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Greiner Bio-One 96-well sterile polystyrene plate, high binding</td>
			<td>Greiner</td>
			<td>655097</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Black with transparent bottom (up or bottom reading)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate reader Infinite M1000 pro</td>
			<td>Tecan</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Fluorescence detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MTSES (sodium (2-sulfonatoethyl)methanethiosulfonate)</td>
			<td>Anatrace</td>
			<td>S110MT</td>
			<td>Purity: ~100% 
			Thiol specific inhibitor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optically Clear Adhesive Seal Sheets</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>AB-1170</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Foil to seal multi-well plate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sephacryl S400 HR 16/60 gel filtration column</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>GE28-9356-04</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Lnt purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>StrepTactin Sepharose 50 %</td>
			<td>IBA Biotechnology</td>
			<td>2-1201-010</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Lnt purification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>streptavidin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S4762-1MG</td>
			<td>Purity: &#8805;13 units/mg protein 
			Biotin binding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TBTA (tris[(1-benzyl-1H-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)methyl]amine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>678937</td>
			<td>Purity: 97% 
			Click reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TCEP (tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>75259</td>
			<td>Purity: &#8805;98% 
			Click reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TECAN Infinite F500</td>
			<td>Tecan</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Fluorescence detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TECAN Infinite M1000 pro</td>
			<td>Tecan</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Fluorescence detection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer C</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5382000015</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Heated lid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>93443</td>
			<td>Purity: 10% in H2O 
			Lnt reaction buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultra centrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman LC</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Purity: NA 
			Cell fractionation</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

click-chemistry based fluorometric assay for apolipoprotein n-acyltransferase from enzyme characterization to high-throughput screening

Lipoproteins from proteobacteria are posttranslationally modified by fatty acids derived from membrane phospholipids by the action of three integral membrane enzymes, resulting in triacylated proteins. The first step in the lipoprotein modification pathway involves the transfer of a diacylglyceryl group from phosphatidylglycerol onto the prolipoprotein, resulting in diacylglyceryl prolipoprotein. In the second step, the signal peptide of prolipoprotein is cleaved, forming an apolipoprotein, which in turn is modified by a third fatty acid derived from a phospholipid. This last step is catalyzed by apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase (Lnt). The lipoprotein modification pathway is essential in most &#947;-proteobacteria, making it a potential target for the development of novel antibacterial agents. Described here is a sensitive assay for Lnt that is compatible with high-throughput screening of small inhibitory molecules. The enzyme and substrates are membrane-embedded molecules; therefore, the development of an in vitro test is not straightforward. This includes the purification of the active enzyme in the presence of detergent, the availability of alkyne-phospholipids and diacylglyceryl peptide substrates, and the reaction conditions in mixed micelles. Furthermore, in order to use the activity test in a high-throughput screening (HTS) setup, direct readout of the reaction product is preferred over coupled enzymatic reactions. In this fluorometric enzyme assay, the alkyne-triacylated peptide product is rendered fluorescent through a click-chemistry reaction and detected in a multiwell plate format. This method is applicable to other acyltransferases that use fatty acid-containing substrates, including phospholipids and acyl-CoA.

In the Lnt reaction the sn-1 fatty acid from phospholipids is transferred onto a diacylglyceryl peptide, resulting in mature triacylated peptide8. The in vitro Lnt assay described here is designed to use phospholipids containing an alkyne fatty acid (alkyne-POPE) and FSL-1-biotin as substrates, resulting in the formation of alkyne-FSL-1-biotin. Upon a click-chemistry reaction with azido-FAM, this product should become fluorescently labeled and detected by fluorescence spectrometry (<stron...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Click-Chemistry Based Fluorometric Assay for Apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase from Enzyme Characterization to High-Throughput Screening at JoVE.com

Click-Chemistry Based Fluorometric Assay for Apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase from Enzyme Characterization to High-Throughput Screening

Presented here is a sensitive fluorescence assay to monitor apolipoprotein N-acyltransferase activity using diacylglyceryl peptide and alkyne-phospholipids as substrates with click-chemistry.

Lipoproteins from proteobacteria are posttranslationally modified by fatty acids derived from membrane phospholipids by the action of three integral ...

This protocol addresses two important aspects, characterization of an essential integral membrane, apolipoprotein acyltransferase of bacteria, and development of the assay in HDS format to screen for inhibitors of the enzyme. The method is very sensitive and suitable for screening purposes. It can contribute to the development of potential novel antibiotics.This video will help highlight critical steps of this protocol, such as mixing, vortexing, sonicating, while working with nonhomogeneous lipid and detergent containing suspensions. Demonstrating the procedure will be Karine Nozeret, Aurelia Pernin, both are fellows in my group. Begin by preparing the reagent mixture for the apolipoprotein and acyltransferase or LNT assay.Mix alkyne POPE and FSL-1-biotin with LNT reaction buffer in 1.5 milliliter tubes at a final volume of 18 microliters. Prepare triplicate reagent mixtures for all tested conditions. Sonicate the reagent mixtures for three minutes in an ultrasonic water bath, and incubate them at 37 degrees Celsius for five minutes.Then add active or inactive LNT to a final concentration of one nanogram per microliter, and pipette up and down to mix. Incubate the reaction at 37 degrees Celsius for 16 hours in a thermal mixer with a heated lid. Meanwhile, prepare a stock solution of two milligram per milliliter streptavidin.And dilute it to 10 micrograms per milliliter to create a working solution. Add 100 microliters of the solution to each well of a 96 well plate. Then air dry the wells overnight by incubating the plate at 37 degrees Celsius without a lid.On the next day, prepare stock solutions of five millimolar Azido-FAM, 50 millimolar TCEP, two millimolar TBTA, and 50 millimolar copper sulfate pentahydrate. Perform click chemistry by adding 0.2 microliters of stock Azido-FAM, 0.4 microliters of stock TCEP, and 0.2 microliters of stock TBTA to the 1.5 milliliter LNT reaction tubes. Vortex the solution for five seconds.Then add 0.4 microliters of stock copper sulfate. Vortex for another five seconds and incubate the reaction for one hour at room temperature in the dark. While the click chemistry mixture is incubating, wash the wells of the streptavidin coated plates three times with 200 microliters of PBST1.Transfer 18 microliters of the click chemistry mixture to a streptavidin coated well, and add 100 microliters of PBST1 to bind the N-acyl-FSL-1-biotin FAM product to the plate. Add biotin fluorescein to the plate as a positive control for streptavidin binding and fluorescence readout. Then incubate the plate at room temperature for one hour in the dark, while shaking at 300 RPM.After the incubation use a multi-channel electronic pipette to manually wash the plate six times with 200 microliters of PBST2. Flush it three times with the pipette. Wash it three times with 200 microliters of PBS and flush it three more times.Add 200 microliters of PBS to each well, and detect the fluorescence at 520 nanometers in a microplate reader. Save all results in a spreadsheet, then calculate the standard deviation for each reaction as well as the P-values for negative controls and positive samples with an unpaired T test. The in vitro LNT assay described here uses phospholipids containing an alkyne fatty acid and FSL-1-biotin as substrates to form alkyne FSL-1-biotin.Upon a click chemistry reaction with Azido-FAM, this product becomes fluorescently labeled and detectable by fluorescence spectrometry. The reaction conditions were optimized for maximum fluorescence readout at 520 nanometers. Negative controls included reactions without enzyme, with an inactive variant of the enzyme, or with thiol specific inhibitor, MTSES.Biotin fluorescein was used as an internal control for maximum fluorescence signal. In order to develop a high throughput screening assay, the reactions were performed directly in 384 well plates. Wash steps were automated and quantity of reagents was reduced.The reaction was sensitive and reproducible with a significant difference in fluorescent signal between the negative control and active enzyme. For high throughput screening the Z prime factor determines whether a response in an assay is large enough for screening purposes. The average Z prime factor was greater than 0.6 for the LNT assay performed in a 384 well format, suggesting that it was outstanding.The tube assay in this video has been developed in a multi plate format that is compatible with HDS. It can be used to study other acyltransferases from a variety of organisms.

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Research

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Biochemistry

High-throughput Screening of Carbohydrate-degrading Enzymes Using Novel Insoluble Chromogenic Substrate Assay Kits

Carbohydrates active enzymes (CAZymes) have multiple roles in vivo and are widely used for industrial processing in the biofuel, textile, detergent, paper and food industries. A deeper understanding of CAZymes is important from both fundamental biology and industrial standpoints. Vast numbers of CAZymes exist in nature (especially in microorganisms) and hundreds of thousands have been cataloged and described in the carbohydrate active enzyme database (CAZy). However, the rate of discovery of putative enzymes has outstripped our ability to biochemically characterize their activities. One reason for this is that advances in genome and transcriptome sequencing, together with associated bioinformatics tools allow for rapid identification of candidate CAZymes, but technology for determining an enzyme's biochemical characteristics has advanced more slowly. To address this technology gap, a novel high-throughput assay kit based on insoluble chromogenic substrates is described here. Two distinct substrate types were produced: Chromogenic Polymer Hydrogel (CPH) substrates (made from purified polysaccharides and proteins) and Insoluble Chromogenic Biomass (ICB) substrates (made from complex biomass materials). Both CPH and ICB substrates are provided in a 96-well high-throughput assay system. The CPH substrates can be made in four different colors, enabling them to be mixed together and thus increasing assay throughput. The protocol describes a 96-well plate assay and illustrates how this assay can be used for screening the activities of enzymes, enzyme cocktails, and broths.

A high-throughput assay for enzyme screening is described. This multiplexed ready-to-use assay kit comprises of pre-chosen Chromogenic Polymer Hydrogel (CPH) substrates and complex Insoluble Chromogenic Biomass (ICB) substrates. Target enzymes are polysaccharide degrading endo-enzymes and proteases.

Carbohydrates active enzymes (CAZymes) have multiple roles in vivo and are widely used for industrial processing in the biofuel, textile, detergent, paper ...

A Simple Method for High Throughput Chemical Screening in Caenorhabditis Elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful organism for testing chemical effects on physiology. Whole organism small molecule screens offer significant advantages for identifying biologically active chemical structures that can modify complex phenotypes such as lifespan. Described here is a simple protocol for producing hundreds of 96-well culture plates with fairly consistent numbers of C. elegans in each well. Next, we specified how to use these cultures to screen thousands of chemicals for effects on the lifespan of the nematode C. elegans. This protocol makes use of temperature sensitive sterile strains, agar plate conditions, and simple animal handling to facilitate the rapid and high throughput production of synchronized animal cultures for screening.

A Simple Method for High Throughput Chemical Screening in Caenorhabditis Elegans

Here we describe a simple protocol for rapidly producing hundreds of nematode growth media agar, 96-well culture plates with consistent numbers of Caenorhhabditis elegans per well. These cultures are useful for the phenotypic screening of whole organisms. We focus here on using these cultures to screen chemicals for pro-longevity effects.

Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful organism for testing chemical effects on physiology. Whole organism small molecule screens offer significant advantages ...

A High-Throughput Luciferase Assay to Evaluate Proteolysis of the Single-Turnover Protease PCSK9

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a single-turnover protease which regulates serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels and, consequently, cardiovascular disease. Although PCSK9 proteolysis is required for its full hypercholesterolemic effect, the evaluation of its proteolytic function is challenging: PCSK9 is only known to cleave itself, undergoes only a single turnover, and after proteolysis, retains its substrate in its active site as an auto-inhibitor. The methods presented here describe an assay which overcomes these challenges. The assay focuses on intermolecular proteolysis in a cell-based context and links successful cleavage to the secreted luciferase activity, which can be easily read out in the conditioned medium. Via sequential steps of mutagenesis, transient transfection, and a luciferase readout, the assay can probe PCSK9 proteolysis under conditions of either genetic or molecular perturbation in a high-throughput manner. This system is well suited for both the biochemical evaluation of clinically discovered missense single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as well as for the screening of small-molecule inhibitors of PCSK9 proteolysis.

This protocol presents a method to evaluate the proteolytic activity of an intrinsically low-activity, single turnover protease in a cellular context. Specifically, this method is applied to evaluate the proteolytic activity of PCSK9, a key driver of lipid metabolism whose proteolytic activity is required for its ultimate hypercholesterolemic function.

Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is a single-turnover protease which regulates serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels and, ...

Capture and Identification of RNA-binding Proteins by Using Click Chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome Capture (CARIC) Strategy

A comprehensive identification of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) is key to understanding the posttranscriptional regulatory network in cells. A widely used strategy for RBP capture exploits the polyadenylation [poly(A)] of target RNAs, which mostly occurs on eukaryotic mature mRNAs, leaving most binding proteins of non-poly(A) RNAs unidentified. Here we describe the detailed procedures of a recently reported method termed click chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome capture (CARIC), which enables the transcriptome-wide capture of both poly(A) and non-poly(A) RBPs by combining the metabolic labeling of RNAs, in vivo UV cross-linking, and bioorthogonal tagging.

Capture and Identification of RNA-binding Proteins by Using Click Chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome Capture CARIC Strategy

A detailed protocol for applying the click chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome capture (CARIC) strategy to identify proteins binding to both coding and noncoding RNAs is presented.

A comprehensive identification of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) is key to understanding the posttranscriptional regulatory network in cells. A widely used ...

A Semi-High-Throughput Adaptation of the NADH-Coupled ATPase Assay for Screening Small Molecule Inhibitors

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would not occur spontaneously. These proteins are crucial for essentially all aspects of cellular life, including metabolism, cell division, responses to environmental changes and movement. The protocol presented here describes a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-coupled ATPase assay that has been adapted to semi-high throughput screening of small molecule ATPase inhibitors. The assay has been applied to cardiac and skeletal muscle myosin II's, two actin-based molecular motor ATPases, as a proof of principle. The hydrolysis of ATP is coupled to the oxidation of NADH by enzymatic reactions in the assay. First, the ADP generated by the ATPase is regenerated to ATP by pyruvate kinase (PK). PK catalyzes the transition of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate in parallel. Subsequently, pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), which catalyzes the oxidation of NADH in parallel. Thus, the decrease in ATP concentration is directly correlated to the decrease in NADH concentration, which is followed by change to the intrinsic fluorescence of NADH. As long as PEP is available in the reaction system, the ADP concentration remains very low, avoiding inhibition of the ATPase enzyme by its own product. Moreover, the ATP concentration remains nearly constant, yielding linear time courses. The fluorescence is monitored continuously, which allows for easy estimation of the quality of data and helps to filter out potential artifacts (e.g., arising from compound precipitation or thermal changes).

A nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-coupled ATPase assay has been adapted to semihigh throughput screening of small molecule myosin inhibitors. This kinetic assay is run in a 384-well microplate format with total reaction volumes of only 20 &#181;L per well. The platform should be applicable to virtually any ADP producing enzyme.

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would ...

Screening for Phytoestrogens using a Cell-based Estrogen Receptor  &#946; Reporter Assay

Plants are a source of food for many animals, and&#160;they can produce thousands of chemicals. Some of these compounds affect physiological processes in the vertebrates that consume them, such as endocrine function. Phytoestrogens, the most well studied endocrine-active phytochemicals, directly interact with the hypothalamo-pituitary gonadal axis of the vertebrate endocrine system. Here we present the novel use of a cell-based assay to screen plant extracts for the presence of compounds that have estrogenic biological activity. This assay uses mammalian cells engineered to highly express estrogen receptor beta (ER&#946;) and that have been transfected with a luciferase gene. Exposure to compounds with estrogenic activity results in the cells producing light. This assay is a reliable and simple way to test for biological estrogenic activity. It has several improvements over transient transfection assays, most notably, ease of use, the stability of the cells, and the sensitivity of the assay.

Screening for Phytoestrogens using a Cell-based Estrogen Receptor  &amp;#946; Reporter Assay

We have optimized a commercially available estrogen receptor &#946; reporter assay for screening human and nonhuman primate foods for estrogenic activity. We validated this assay by showing that the known estrogenic human food soy registers high, while other foods show no activity.

Plants are a source of food for many animals, and&#160;they can produce thousands of chemicals. Some of these compounds affect physiological processes in ...

Optimized Incorporation of Alkynyl Fatty Acid Analogs for the Detection of Fatty Acylated Proteins using Click Chemistry

Fatty acylation, the covalent addition of saturated fatty acids to protein substrates, is important in regulating a myriad of cellular functions in addition to its implications in cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Recent developments in fatty acylation detection methods have enabled efficient and non-hazardous detection of fatty acylated proteins, particularly through the use of click chemistry with bio-orthogonal labeling. However, click chemistry detection can be limited by the poor solubility and potential toxic effects of adding long chain fatty acids to cell culture. Described here is a labeling approach with optimized delivery using saponified fatty acids in combination with fatty-acid free BSA, as well as delipidated media, which can improve detection of hard to detect fatty acylated proteins. This effect was most pronounced with the alkynyl-stearate analog, 17-ODYA, which has been the most commonly used fatty acid analog in click chemistry detection of acylated proteins. This modification will improve cellular incorporation and increase sensitivity to acylated protein detection. In addition, this approach can be applied in a variety of cell types and combined with other assays such as pulse-chase analysis, stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture, and mass spectrometry for quantitative profiling of fatty acylated proteins.

The study of fatty acylation has important implications in cellular protein interactions and diseases. Presented here is a modified protocol to improve click chemistry detection of fatty acylated proteins, which can be applied in various cell types and combined with other assays, including pulse-chase and mass spectrometry.

Fatty acylation, the covalent addition of saturated fatty acids to protein substrates, is important in regulating a myriad of cellular functions in ...

A High-Throughput Enzyme-Coupled Activity Assay to Probe Small Molecule Interaction with the dNTPase SAMHD1

Sterile alpha motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) is a pivotal regulator of intracellular deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pools, as this enzyme can hydrolyze dNTPs into their corresponding nucleosides and inorganic triphosphates. Due to its critical role in nucleotide metabolism, its association to several pathologies, and its role in therapy resistance, intense research is currently being carried out for a better understanding of both the regulation and cellular function of this enzyme. For this reason, development of simple and inexpensive high-throughput amenable methods to probe small molecule interaction with SAMHD1, such as allosteric regulators, substrates, or inhibitors, is vital. To this purpose, the enzyme-coupled malachite green assay is a simple and robust colorimetric assay that can be deployed in a 384-microwell plate format allowing the indirect measurement of SAMHD1 activity. As SAMHD1 releases the triphosphate group from nucleotide substrates, we can couple a pyrophosphatase activity to this reaction, thereby producing inorganic phosphate, which can be quantified by the malachite green reagent through the formation of a phosphomolybdate malachite green complex. Here, we show the application of this methodology to characterize known inhibitors of SAMHD1 and to decipher the mechanisms involved in SAMHD1 catalysis of non-canonical substrates and regulation by allosteric activators, exemplified by nucleoside-based anticancer drugs. Thus, the enzyme-coupled malachite green assay is a powerful tool to study SAMHD1, and furthermore, could also be utilized in the study of several enzymes which release phosphate species.

SAMHD1 is a deoxynucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase with critical roles in human health and disease. Here we present a versatile enzyme-coupled SAMHD1 activity assay, deployed in a 384-well microplate format, that allows for the evaluation of small molecules and nucleotide analogues as SAMHD1 substrates, activators, and inhibitors.

Sterile alpha motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) is a pivotal regulator of intracellular deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) pools, as this ...

Optical Tweezers to Study RNA-Protein Interactions in Translation Regulation

RNA adopts diverse structural folds, which are essential for its functions and thereby can impact diverse processes in the cell. In addition, the structure and function of an RNA can be modulated by various trans-acting factors, such as proteins, metabolites or other RNAs. Frameshifting RNA molecules, for instance, are regulatory RNAs located in coding regions, which direct translating ribosomes into an alternative open reading frame, and thereby act as gene switches. They may also adopt different folds after binding to proteins or other trans-factors. To dissect the role of RNA-binding proteins in translation and how they modulate RNA structure and stability, it is crucial to study the interplay and mechanical features of these RNA-protein complexes simultaneously.&#160;This work illustrates how to employ single-molecule-fluorescence-coupled optical tweezers to explore the conformational and thermodynamic landscape of RNA-protein complexes at a high resolution. As an example, the interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 programmed ribosomal frameshifting element with the trans-acting factor short isoform of zinc-finger antiviral protein is elaborated. In addition, fluorescence-labeled ribosomes were monitored using the confocal unit, which would ultimately enable the study of translation elongation. The fluorescence coupled OT assay can be widely applied to explore diverse RNA-protein complexes or trans-acting factors regulating translation and could facilitate studies of RNA-based gene regulation.

This protocol presents a complete experimental workflow for studying RNA-protein interactions using optical tweezers. Several possible experimental setups are outlined including the combination of optical tweezers with confocal microscopy.

RNA adopts diverse structural folds, which are essential for its functions and thereby can impact diverse processes in the cell. In addition, the ...

A "Dual-Addition" Calcium Fluorescence Assay for the High-Throughput Screening of Recombinant G Protein-Coupled Receptors

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest superfamily of receptors and are the targets of numerous human drugs. High-throughput screening (HTS) of random small molecule libraries against GPCRs is used by the pharmaceutical industry for target-specific drug discovery. In this study, an HTS was employed to identify novel small-molecule ligands of invertebrate-specific neuropeptide GPCRs as probes for physiological studies of vectors of deadly human and veterinary pathogens.
The invertebrate-specific kinin receptor was chosen as a target because it regulates many important physiological processes in invertebrates, including diuresis, feeding, and digestion. Furthermore, the pharmacology of many invertebrate GPCRs is poorly characterized or not characterized at all; therefore, the differential pharmacology of these groups of receptors with respect to the related GPCRs in other metazoans, especially humans, adds knowledge to the structure-activity relationships of GPCRs as a superfamily. An HTS assay was developed for cells in 384-well plates for the discovery of ligands of the kinin receptor from the cattle fever tick, or southern cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus. The tick kinin receptor was stably expressed in CHO-K1 cells.
The kinin receptor, when activated by endogenous kinin neuropeptides or other small molecule agonists, triggers Ca2+ release from calcium stores into the cytoplasm. This calcium fluorescence assay combined with a &#34;dual-addition&#34; approach can detect functional agonist and antagonist &#34;hit&#34; molecules in the same assay plate. Each assay was conducted using drug plates carrying an array of 320 random small molecules. A reliable Z&#39; factor of 0.7 was obtained, and three agonist and two antagonist hit molecules were identified when the HTS was at a 2 &#181;M final concentration. The calcium fluorescence assay reported here can be adapted to screen other GPCRs that activate the Ca2+ signaling cascade.

A &quot;Dual-Addition&quot; Calcium Fluorescence Assay for the High-Throughput Screening of Recombinant G Protein-Coupled Receptors

In this work, a high-throughput, intracellular calcium fluorescence assay for 384-well plates to screen small molecule libraries on recombinant G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is described. The target, the kinin receptor from the cattle fever tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, is expressed in CHO-K1 cells. This assay identifies agonists and antagonists using the same cells in one "dual-addition" assay.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent the largest superfamily of receptors and are the targets of numerous human drugs. High-throughput screening ...