Name: investigating flagella-driven motility in escherichia coli by applying three established techniques in a series
Uploaded: 2020-05-10T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating Flagella-Driven Motility in Escherichia coli by Applying Three Established Techniques in a Series at JoVE.com

This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grant GM118085 and in part by the Robert Welch Foundation (grant F-1811 to R.M.H.).

1. Isolation of suppressor mutants in motility-deficient strains
NOTE: Use this method as a broad &#8216;catch-all&#8217; to identify the general nature of the motility defect.
<ol>
	<li>Soft-agar plate preparation 
	NOTE: Soft-agar, also referred to as motility- or swim-agar, is a low percentage agar (~0.2-0.35% w/v), long used to assay chemotaxis31,32.
	<ol>
		<li>Add 3 g of bacto-agar (0.3% w/v) and 20 g of L...

The isolation and characterization of suppressor mutations have successfully contributed to identifying key components of the chemotaxis system35,36,37, as well as the motor machinery itself38,39,40. While using Protocol 1, it is important to include multiple independent replicates to ensure the isolation of a large spectrum of possible...

Bacteria employ many appendages for movement and dispersal in their ecological niches1. Flagella-driven motility is the fastest of these, promoting the colonization of favorable locales in response to environmental signals, and contributing significantly to the pathogenic ability of some species2,3. Flagellated bacteria can swim individually in bulk liquid, or swarm as a collective over a semi-solid surface4. Extracellular flagella attach to and are driven by rotary motors embedded in the membrane, which harness the power of ion gradients to generate torque that causes rotation1,2,4,5,6,7,8. In E. coli, whose motors run at a constant torque9, the motor output can be categorized in terms of rotational speed and switching of the rotor between counter-clockwise (CCW) and clockwise (CW) directions. CCW rotation promotes formation of a coherent flagellar bundle that propels the cell forward (run), while a transient switch in rotational direction (CW) causes the bundle to disassemble either partially or fully10, and the cell to reorient its swimming direction (tumble). E. coli typically run for a second and tumble for a tenth of a second. Switching frequency of the rotor or &#8216;tumble bias&#8217; is controlled by the chemotaxis signaling system, wherein transmembrane chemoreceptors detect external chemical signals and transmit them via phosphorelay to the flagellar motor to extend runs in response to attractants, or suppress them in response to toxic chemicals11,12. Swimming motility is assayed in 0.3% soft agar.
During swarming, bacteria navigate on a semi-solid surface as a dense collective, where packs of bacteria stream in a continuous swirling motion2,13,14,15. E. coli swarms exhibit altered chemosensory physiology (lower tumble bias), higher speeds, and higher tolerance to antimicrobials over cells swimming in bulk liquid16,17. Swarmers vary in their deployment of a plethora of strategies that aid movement, including surfactant production, hyperflagellation, and cell elongation2. Swarming offers bacteria a competitive advantage in both ecological and clinical settings18,19,20. There are two categories of swarming bacteria: temperate swarmers, which can swarm only on media solidified with 0.5-0.8% agar, and robust swarmers, which can navigate across higher agar concentrations21.
A variety of assays exist to interrogate swimming motility and its regulation. When impaired by mutations or environmental conditions, motility itself offers a strong selection for identifying gain-of-function suppressor mutations. These suppressors can be genuine revertants of the original mutation, or pseudo-revertants, where a second mutation restores functionality. Such mutants can be identified by whole genome sequencing (WGS). An alternative to unbiased suppressor selection is a biased targeted mutagenesis strategy (e.g., PCR mutagenesis). These methodologies often shed light on the function or environmental regulation of the motility apparatus. If the goal is to study motor function, then the restoration of wild-type motility as measured in soft agar may not necessarily indicate restoration of wild-type motor output. The cell-tethering assay, in which cells are attached to a glass surface by a single flagellum and rotation of the cell body is subsequently monitored, can be the initial assay of choice for assessing motor behavior. Although more sophisticated methodologies are now available to monitor motor properties, the required high-speed camera set-up and application of software packages for motion analysis limit their widespread use22,23,24,25. The cell-tethering assay requires only that the flagella be sheared, allowing attachment of the short filaments to a glass slide, followed by videotaping the rotation of the cell body. Although the recorded motor speeds are low in this assay because of the high load the cell body exerts on the flagellum, this assay has nonetheless contributed to valuable insights into chemotactic responses26,27,28,29, and remains a valid investigative tool as discussed below.
Swarming motility poses a different set of challenges to researchers. Selection of gain-of-function suppressors only works in swarmers that produce copious surfactants and swarm readily13. Surfactant non-producers such as E. coli are fastidious with respect to the choice of agar, media composition and humidity of the environment2,13,14,21. Once swarming conditions are established, the border-crossing assay17 is a useful methodology to interrogate the ability of a swarm to navigate new/harsh conditions. Though the protocols presented below&#160;relate to E. coli, they can be readily adapted for application in other species.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagents</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacto Dehydrated Agar</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>DF0140-15-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA Disodium Salt, Dihydrate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>02-002-786</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eiken agar</td>
			<td>Eiken Chemical Co. Japan</td>
			<td>E-MJ00</td>
			<td>Essential for E. coli swarming</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose D (+)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>410955000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB (Lennox) Broth</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1427-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-L-lysine Solution (0.1%)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P8920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18-605-496</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Phosphate monobasic (KH2PO4)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP362-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Phosphate dibasic (K2HPO4)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP363-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S271-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Materials and Equipment</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CellSense microscope imaging software (V. 1.6)</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Or equivalent software for microscope used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences Scotch 666 Doube Sided Tape</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>50-285-28</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Frosted microscope slides 3x1x1mm</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>12-550-343</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Olympus BX53 microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX53</td>
			<td>Any upright or inverted phase microscope can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes (100 mm diameter)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB0875712</td>
			<td>For soft-agar assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene Nebulizer Capillary Tubing (0.58mm x 99mm 3.0m)</td>
			<td>Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td>9908265</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Round Petri Dish with 2 Compartments</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89200-944</td>
			<td>For border-crossing assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Safety Hypodermic Needles (23G)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>14-826A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile Syringe - 1 mL</td>
			<td>Fisher scientific</td>
			<td>14-955-450</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Task/Tissue wipes</td>
			<td>Fisher scientific</td>
			<td>06-666</td>
			<td>Or equivalent single use tissue wipes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VWR micro cover-glass 18x18mm</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48366205</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XM10 camera</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>XM10</td>
			<td>Or equivalent microscope camera</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

investigating flagella-driven motility in escherichia coli by applying three established techniques in a series

Motility is crucial to the survival and success of many bacterial species. Many methodologies exist to exploit motility to understand signaling pathways, to elucidate the function and assembly of flagellar parts, and to examine and understand patterns of movement. Here we demonstrate a combination of three of these methodologies. Motility in soft agar is the oldest, offering a strong selection for isolating gain-of-function suppressor mutations in motility-impaired strains, where motility is restored through a second mutation. The cell-tethering technique, first employed to demonstrate the rotary nature of the flagellar motor, can be used to assess the impact of signaling effectors on the motor speed and its ability to switch rotational direction. The &#8220;border-crossing&#8221; assay is more recent, where swimming bacteria can be primed to transition into moving collectively as a swarm. In combination, these protocols represent a systematic and powerful approach to identifying components of the motility machinery, and to characterizing their role in different facets of swimming and swarming. They can be easily adapted to study motility in other bacterial species.

The isolation of pseudo-revertants in an E. coli strain whose motility is impaired by high levels of the signaling molecule c-di-GMP, was detailed in recent work from our lab34. This strain (JP1442) harbored two mutations: &#916;yhjH and &#916;ycgR. YhjH is the most active phosphodiesterase that degrades c-di-GMP in E. coli. Absence of YhjH leads to elevated c-di-GMP levels and inhibition of motility. YcgR is a c-di-GMP effector. In complex with c-di-GMP, YcgR b...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Investigating Flagella-Driven Motility in Escherichia coli by Applying Three Established Techniques in a Series at JoVE.com

Investigating Flagella-Driven Motility in Escherichia coli by Applying Three Established Techniques in a Series

Many bacteria use flagella-driven motility to navigate their environment and colonize favorable surroundings both individually and as a collective. Demonstrated here is the use of three established methods that exploit motility as a selection tool to identify components/pathways contributing to swimming and swarming motility.

Investigating Flagella-Driven Motility in Escherichia coli by Applying Three Established Techniques in a Series

Motility is crucial to the survival and success of many bacterial species. Many methodologies exist to exploit motility to understand signaling pathways, ...

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